BASICS OF PHYSIOLOGY

The Lymphatic System and Immunity

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
SLIDE 8.1 – COOPERATION BETWEEN INNATE AND ADAPTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSES

• The innate immune response

is rapid itconsists of a variety
of specialized cells and
soluble factors.
• The adaptive immune
response is slower but more
specific and effective, it
involves many cell types and
soluble factors, but is
primarily controlled by white
blood cells (leukocytes)
known as lymphocytes,
which help control immune
responses.
• The innate immune system
enhances adaptive immune
responses so they can be
more effective.

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
 SLIDE 8.2 – SUMMARY OF BARRIER DEFENSES

The different modes of barrier defenses are associated with the external surfaces of the body,
where pathogens may try to enter.

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
SLIDE 8.3 – CLASSICAL PATHWAY OF THE COMPLEMENT SYSTEM ACTIVATION

• The complement system is a series

of proteins constitutively found in
the blood plasma.
• Classical pathway, occurs when C1
reacts with antibodies that have
bound an antigen.
• The alternate pathway does not
require an antibody to become
activated.
• The splitting of the C3 protein is the
common step to both pathways.
• In the alternate pathway, C3 is
activated spontaneously.

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
SLIDE 8.4 – INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE ON EXAMPLE OF SKIN INJURY

• The five characteristics of

inflammation are:
• heat,
• redness,
• pain,
• swelling,
• loss of function.
• The inflammatory reaction
brings in phagocytic cells to the
damaged area to clear cellular
debris and to set the stage for
wound repair.
• This reaction also brings in the
cells of the innate immune
system, allowing them to get rid
of the sources of a possible
infection.
• The increase in vascular
permeability encourages the
entry of clotting factors, the first
step on the way to repair the
damaged tissue.

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
SLIDE 8.5 – ALPHA-BETA T CELL RECEPTOR
• T lymphocytes recognize antigens
based on a two-chain protein
receptor. The most common and
important of these are the alpha-beta
T cell receptors.
• There are two chains in the T cell
receptor, and each chain consists of
two domains.
• The variable region domain is
furthest away from the T cell
membrane and is so named
because its amino acid
sequence varies between
receptors.
• The constant region domain
has less variation.
• The differences in the amino acid
sequences of the variable domains
are the molecular basis of the
diversity of antigens the receptor can
recognize.

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
SLIDE 8.6 – ANTIGENIC DETERMINANTS

A typical protein antigen has multiple antigenic determinants, shown by the ability of T cells with three different
specificities to bind to different parts of the same antigen.

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
SLIDE 8.7 - ANTIGEN PROCESSING AND PRESENTATION

• T cells only recognize antigen on

the surface of specialized cells
called antigen-presenting cells.
• Antigens are internalized by
these cells. Antigen processing is
a mechanism that enzymatically
cleaves the antigen into smaller
pieces.
• The antigen fragments are then
brought to the cell’s surface and
associated with a complex (MHC)
molecule.
• The association of the antigen
fragments with an MHC molecule
on the surface of a cell is known
as antigen presentation and
results in the recognition of
antigen by a T cell.

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
 SLIDE 8.8 - PROFESSIONAL ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS

• Many cell types express class I molecules for the presentation of intracellular antigens. These MHC
molecules may then stimulate a cytotoxic T cell immune response, eventually destroying the cell and the
pathogen within. This is especially important when it comes to the most common class of intracellular
pathogens, the virus. Viruses infect nearly every tissue of the body, so all these tissues must necessarily
be able to express class I MHC or no T cell response can be made.

• On the other hand, class II MHC molecules are expressed only on the cells of the immune system,
specifically cells that affect other arms of the immune response.

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
SLIDE 8.9 - DIFFERENTIATION OF T CELLS WITHIN THE THYMUS
Positive selection

Apoptosis

• The process of eliminating T cells that might attack the cells of one’s own body is referred to as T cell tolerance.
• Thymocytes enter the thymus and go through a series of developmental stages that ensures both function and tolerance
before they leave and become functional components of the adaptive immune response.

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
SLIDE 8.9 - DIFFERENTIATION OF T CELLS WITHIN THE THYMUS
Negative selection

Apoptosis

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
SLIDE 8.9 - DIFFERENTIATION OF T CELLS WITHIN THE THYMUS

Helper T cells Cytotoxic T cells

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
SLIDE 8.10 - CLONAL SELECTION AND EXPANSION OF T LYMPHOCYTES

• Mature T cells become

activated by recognizing
processed foreign
antigen in association
with a self-MHC molecule
and begin dividing rapidly
by mitosis.
• Clonal selection is the
process of antigen
binding only to those T
cells that have receptors
specific to that antigen.
• Clonal expansion is
process of proliferation of
that selected T cells and
is necessary to make the
immune response strong
enough to effectively
control a pathogen

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
SLIDE 8.11 - PATHOGEN PRESENTATION

• CD4 is associated with

helper and regulatory T
cells. An extracellular
pathogen is processed and
presented in the binding
cleft of a class II MHC
molecule, and this
interaction is strengthened
by the CD4 molecule.

• CD8 is associated with

cytotoxic T cells. An
intracellular pathogen is
presented by a class I MHC
molecule, and CD8
interacts with it.

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
SLIDE 8.12 – ANTIBODIES

• Antibodies are glycoproteins consisting of two types of polypeptide chains with attached carbohydrates, two heavy
chains and two light chains.
• The main differences between the classes of antibodies are in the differences between their heavy chains, but the
light chains have an important role, forming part of the antigen-binding site on the antibody molecules.
• The Fc region of the antibody is formed by the two heavy chains coming together, usually linked by disulfide
bonds.

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
SLIDE 8.13
FIVE
IMMUNOGLOBULIN
CLASSES

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
SLIDE 8.14 – CLONAL SELECTION OF B CELLS
• Clonal selection and expansion
work much the same way in B
cells as in T cells. Only B cells
with appropriate antigen
specificity are selected for and
expanded.
• During a primary B cell immune
response, both antibody-
secreting plasma cells and
memory B cells are produced.
• These memory cells lead to the
differentiation of more plasma
cells and memory B cells during
secondary responses.

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
SLIDE 8.15 – PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ANTIBODY RESPONSES

• This graph shows correlation between level of produced antibodies and elapsed time, in case of primary
and secondary exposition to the same antigen.
• Antigen A is given once to generate a primary response and later to generate a secondary response. When
a different antigen is given for the first time, a new primary response is made.

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
SLIDE 8.16 – T AND B CELL BINDING

• To elicit a response to a T cell-dependent antigen, the B and T cells must come close together.
• To become fully activated, the B cell must receive two signals from the native antigen and the T cell’s cytokines.

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
SLIDE 8.17 - THE MUCOSAL IMMUNE RESPONSE
• Mucosal tissues are major
barriers to the entry of
pathogens into the body.
• The IgA (and sometimes IgM)
antibodies in mucus and other
secretions can bind to the
pathogen, and in the cases of
many viruses and bacteria,
neutralize them.
• The nasal-associated lymphoid
tissue and Peyer’s patches of
the small intestine generate
IgA immunity. Both use M cells
to transport antigen inside the
body so that immune
responses can be mounted.

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.
SLIDE 8.18 - FEATURES OF THE ADAPTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSE

1. This type of immune response has ability to specifically recognize and make a targeted response
against a wide variety of certain pathogens.
2. The adaptive immune response has a unique way to develop as many as 100 trillion, different
receptors to recognize nearly every conceivable pathogen.
3. The adaptive immune response needs time to fully develop, while the innate immune response is
always there, fully ready for action.
4. The immunological memory:
a) Symptoms of a first infection, called primary disease, are always relatively severe because it
takes time for an initial adaptive immune response to a pathogen to become effective. Upon
re-exposure to the same pathogen, a secondary adaptive immune response is generated,
which is stronger and faster that the primary response. The secondary adaptive response
often eliminates a pathogen before it can cause significant tissue damage or any symptoms.
This is the essence of immunological memory.
5. Very important feature of the adaptive immune response is its ability to distinguish between self-
antigens, those that are normally present in the body, and foreign antigens, those that might be on
a potential pathogen. As T and B cells mature, there are mechanisms in place that prevent them
from recognizing self-antigen, preventing a damaging immune response against the body.
SLIDE 8.19 - ACTIVE VS. PASSIVE IMMUNITY

• Active immunity
• resistance to pathogens acquired during an adaptive immune response within an individual
• development of immunological memory
• can be aquired naturally through exposure to the pathogen or by vaccination (killed or weakened
pathogen or its components)
• Passive immunity
• arises from the transfer of antibodies to an individual
• natural passive immunity example is seen during fetal development when IgG is transferred from the
maternal circulation to the fetus via the placenta
• artificially acquired passive immunity usually involves injections of immunoglobulins, taken from
animals previously exposed to a specific pathogen

Source: Anatomy & Physiology, OpenStax College, © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; adapted by MJJ.