Unit 6: Nervous System

Nervous System
 This is a regulatory system of the body functions – maintains homeostasis
 It signals to the body via electrical impulses – which are rapid and specific
Nervous System
Central and Peripheral Nervous System
Central Nervous System
 Structural Classification
 Divisions of Central Nervous System
 Central nervous system (CNS). The
CNS consists of the brain and spinal
cord, which occupy the dorsal body
cavity and act as the integrating and
command centres of the nervous
system
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS). The
PNS, the part of the nervous system
outside the CNS, consists mainly of
the nerves that extend from the brain
and spinal cord
 Functions of Nervous System
 Monitoring changes
 Interpretation of sensory input
 Effect responses
 Mental process: consciousness, thinking and memory
 Homeostasis:the nervous system detects, interprets and responds to
changes in both environments hence inhibits or stimulates activity to
maintain a constant internal environment
 Nervous Tissue: Structure and Function
 Made up of two principal types of cells:
 Supporting cells
 Neurons
 Supporting Cells
 Supporting cells are clamped together as neuroglia: each type of cell is
called a glial cell and has specific functions
 Neuroglia are either found in the CNS or the PNS
Types of Neuroglia
 Neuroglia of the Central Nervous System
i.Astrocytes
 Star shaped cells that account for nearly half of the neural tissue
 Maintain the blood brain barrier by forming a living barrier between the
capillaries and neurons
ii. Oligodendrocytes
 wrap their extensions around nerve fibres producing fatty insulating
coverings called myelin sheaths
iii. Ependymal cells: line the central cavities of the brain and spine
 Beating of their cilia helps circulate the cerebrospinal fluid that fills those
cavities and forms a protective cushion around the CNS
iv. Microglia: remove cell debris, waste and pathogens via phagocytosis
 Neuroglia in the Peripheral Nervous System
 Schwann cells :form the myelin sheath around nervous system
 Satellite cells: protective, cushioning cells
 Myelin sheath
 This is a protective membrane that wraps around the axon
 Made up of lipids and proteins
 It also affects how fast signals travel through the cells
 Functions: protective insulation, allows for impulses to travel and maintains the
strength of the impulse message
 Neurons
 Neurons
 Highly specialized nerve cells that are specialized to transmit nerve impulses
 Parts and Functions
 Cell Body: called the soma or perikaryon and contains a single nucleolus surrounded by
cytoplasma
 Inside the cell body are:
 Nucleus: this is spherical and clear and contains a dark nucleolus in the center….it
resembles an owl’s eye
 Dendrites: looks like limbs on a tree. They are receptive sites that conduct electrical
signals toward the cell body
 Axon: conducts nerve impulses AWAY from the cell body and store neurotransmitters
 Synaptic cleft: gap separating two neurons
 Schwann cells: form myelin sheaths around axons
 Parts of a Neuron
 Chromatophilic Nissl Bodies: found in the cytoplasm and continually renew the membrane
of the cell and the protein part of the cytosol
 Lysosome: digest free radicals
 Mitochondria: power-house of the cell body
 Neurofibril: bundle of intermediate filament that runs in a network between the
chromatophilic bodies and they keep the cell from being pulled apart
 Initial Segment: the axon arises from this area in the axon hillock
 Axon hillock: where the axon arises to the cell body…means “little hill” on the diagram
the axon hillock go up in a hill formation in the cell body
 Axon collaterals: extends from the axon at right angles
 Terminal branches: this is where the axon branches and there can be ten of thousands of
these branches per neuron
 Axon terminal: this is where the terminal branches end into these knob formations…they
contact other neurons to form synapses
Structural Classification of Neurons
Types of Neuron
 Functional Classification of Neuron
1. Sensory neurons – also known as afferent neurons
- carry impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS
2. Motor neurons – also known as efferent neurons
- carry impulses from the CNS to the viscera and muscles
3. Interneurons – association neurons
 Synapse
 Synapse is defined as the neuronal junction
 It can be either chemical or electric
 This is the site for transmission of electric or chemical impulses between
two nerve cell or between a neuron and an effector
The Synapse
 Synapse
 Electrical impulse
 Impulse moves from the presynaptic cleft to the postsynaptic cleft
 Electrically charged ions flow through the channels into or out of the
neuron
 Electric synapses allow direct communication between neurons and this is
dependent on ion movement
 Membrane Potential
1. Resting potential
 Imbalance of electrical charge that exists between the interior of the nerve
cells and their surrounding
 The membrane of a inactive neuron is polarized-the inside of the neuron is
more negative than the outside – the neuron remains inactive
 The chief extracellular ion is Sodium and the chief intracellular ion is
Potassium
 If the potential is made greater than the resting potential – it is called
hyperpolarization
 If the inside is less than the resting potential, the process is called
depolarization
 Membrane Potential Cont.
 Hyperpolarization is an inhibitory postsynaptic polarization(PSP) and
depolarization is an excitatory PSP
 If the neuron reaches the critical threshold potential, it generates a nerve
impulse – ACTION POTENTIAL
 Multiple PSPS at multiple synapses is a property called summation
 Spatial from many synapses and temporal are many synapses from the same
synapse
 2. Action Potential
 Brief reversal of electric polarization of the membrane of a neuron
 In the neuron, it produces the nerve impulse
 Basically, a rapid sequence of changes in the voltage across a membrane –
inflow of Sodium ions and Potassium flows out
 Therefore the cell has positive potential inside and negative potential
intracellular
 It is initiated by the opening of sodium ion channels within the plasma
membrane – depolarization
 The subsequent return to resting potential is mediated by the opening of
potassium ion channels – repolarization
 Absolute refractory or relative refractory period
 Nerve Impulse
 Neurons have two major functional properties;
 Irritability – ability to respond
 Conductivity – ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons
 In summary
 Resting membrane potential – action potential initiation and generation –
depolarization – graded potential – nerve impulse(action potential – All or
None) – Repolarization – Saltatory conduction (axons with a myelin
sheath)/
 Communication at the Synapse
 Arrival – action potential arrives at the axon terminal
 Fusion – vesicle fuses with plasma membrane
 Release – neurotransmitters released into synaptic cleft
 Binding – neurotransmitters binds to receptor on receiving neuron end
 Opening – ion channel opens
 Closing – ion channel closes
 Central Nervous System
 Embryology
 The notochord appears in the mesoderm and secretes growth factors that
stimulate the differentiation of the overlying ectoderm
 The CNS appears at the beginning of the third week as a slipper shaped
plate of thickened ectoderm
 It is referred to as the neural plate – neurulation
 The lateral edges soon elevate to form neural folds
 During the folding, some cells migrate to form the neural crest – this gives
rise to diverse cells including the peripheral and enteric neurons and glia
 The neural plate further develops into a neural tube
 Central Nervous System
 Embryology
 Final closure of the cranial neuropore occurs on the 25th day and the
caudal portion on the 27th day
 The cephalic end of the neural tube develops into the primary brain
vesicles:
 Forebrain or the prosencephalon
 Midbrain or the mesencephalon
 Hindbrain or the rhombecephalon
 It also forms the junction between the hindbrain and the spinal cord and
the cephalic flexure of the mid brain
 The rhombecephalon also forms the pons and cerebellum
 Spina Cord
 Formed by the caudal end of the neural tube
 They divide rapidly forming more neuroepithelial cells forming the
neuroepithelial layer
 This layer in turn produces neuroblasts which form the mantle layer
 The mantle layer later forms the gray matter of the spinal cord
 And the outermost layer becomes the white matter due to myelination
 Brain
 The CNS is the most highly organized system of the body
 It consists of the brain and the spinal cord
 The brain is largest nervous tissue in the body and is enclosed within the
skull
 It constitutes one fifth of the total body weight and lies within the cranial
cavity
 Made up of 60% and contains blood vessels and nerves
 It is divided into three major parts:
 Cerebrum
 The brain stem
 cerebellum
 Brain
 The brain contains two types of tissue:
 Grey matter – dendrites
 White matter – contains axons
 Parts of the Brain
 1. Cerebrum
 This is the largest part of the brain
 It contains the gray and white matter
 The grey matter is also known as the cerebral cortex
 The cerebral cortex is divided into two hemispheres and it is covered with
gyri and sulci
 The two halves join to form the medial longitudinal fissure – fissure of
Rolando and a lateral sulcus which forms the boundary between the
temporal and the frontal and parietal lobe – fissure of Sylvius
 Brain
 The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body and vice versa
 The two communicate via a c shaped structure of white matter called the corpus
callosum
 Each hemisphere has three basic regions – superficial gray matter, internal white matter
and the basal nuclei
 The cortex is then divided into four lobes:
 Frontal
 Parietal
 Temporal
 Occipital
 Each lobe is responsible for processing specific type of information
 The cortex is responsible for high level process’ – language, memory, reasoning, thought,
learning, decision-making, emotions, intelligence and personality
Functional Parts of The Cerebrum
 Brain
 Frontal Lobe
 Largest of the cerebral lobes
 Contains the precentral gyrus – the primary motor region of the brain
 Inferior frontal lobe contains the Broca area – speech area
 Also involved with reasoning, planning, movement, emotions and problem
solving
 Brain
 Parietal Lobe
 Posterior to the central sulcus
 Divided into three parts:
Post central gyrus – receives sensory input from the collateral part of
the body
Superior parietal lobule – association cortex
Inferior parietal lobule – integration of multiple sensory signals
• Additionally involved in recognition, orientation and perception of stimuli
 Brain
 Temporal Lobe
 Located in the middle fossa of the skull
 The outer surface of the temporal lobe is an association area while the
lateral margin is the primary auditory area
 Also contains the secondary auditory area and the ventral surface contains
a part of the primary olfactory area
 Brain
 Occipital Lobe
 This contains the primary visual area
 Contains both central and peripheral vision
 Can only be visualized if parietal and frontal lobe are separated from the
temporal lobe
 Also involved in taste perception, sensory and motor visceral functions
 Brain
 Limbic Lobe
 This is a synthetic lobe
located medially
 Composed of adjacent
portions of all the other
lobes except the occipital
lobe
 Involved in autonomic
and somatic behavioural
activities
 Ventricular System
 Inside the white matter, there are cavities
filled with Cerebrospinal fluid that form the
ventricular system
 Constitute of the lateral ventricles which are
anterior, inferior and posterior horns
 This system is responsible for production of
most of the CSF with 70% of it being
secreted by the choroid plexus – collection
of blood vessels on the lateral ventricle
 Brain
 Basal Ganglia
 Gray matter inside white
matter that regulates voluntary
motor activities via the primary
motor cortex
 Has four parts: caudate nucleus,
the putamen, globus pallidus
and amygdala
 Brain
 Brain Stem
 Made up of all the unpaired structures that connect the cerebrum with the
spinal cord
 Most of structures are referred to as the diencephalon – these structures
include the thalamus, hypothalamus, the subthalamus and Epithalamus
 Below this, is the mid brain aka mesencephalon and below this are the pons
and medulla oblongata which is the hindbrain
Anatomy of the Brain Stem
 Functions
 Epithalamus – represented by the Pineal gland that synthesizes melatonin. It
is the biological clock as it responds to the daylight
 Thalamus – involved in the relay and distribution of most sensory and
motor regions
 Hypothalamus – controls endocrine functions i.e. secretion of oxytocin and
vasopressin that induce smooth muscle contractions in the reproductive,
digestive and excretory systems. Also involved in temperature regulation,
food intake, reproductive cycle and emotion and behaviour
 Subthalamus – represented by a subthalamic nucleus
 Brain
 Mid-brain
 Contains oculomotor nerve
 Also contains the substantia nigra which has two parts – pars reticulate and
pars compacta which contains neuromelanin that synthesizes dopamine
 Also has sensory functions for ascending impulses
 Pons – involved in control of breathing
 Medulla Oblangata – inferior part, regulate visceral activities i.e. heart rate,
blood pressure, breathing, swallowing and reflexes like vomiting, sneezing,
coughing and swallowing
 Reticular formation – motor control an reticular activating system(RAS)
plays a role in consciousness and circadian cycle
 Brain
 3. Cerebellum
 Occupies the posterior aspect of the pons and medulla oblongata and fills
most of the posterior fossa of the skull
 Contains two paired lateral lobes and a midline portion called the vermis
 Connected to the midbrain, pons and medulla through paired fibre bundles
i.e. the superior, medial and inferior peduncles
 It has three layers: an outer synaptic later, the Purkinje layer and the inner
receptive layer
 Presence of GABAergic fibres therefore sensory input results in inhibitory
impulses
 Influences equilibrium, muscle tone and coordination of voluntary motor
function
 Protection of CNS
 Meninges
 Meninges
 Has three layers:
1. Dura mater: outermost layer and double layered. Attached to the inner
surface of the skull forming the periosteal layer and the meningeal layer,
continues to the spinal cord
 Extends also as falx cerebri which attach the brain to the cranial cavity and
the tentorium cerebri which separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum
2. Arachnoid mater: middle layer that is weblike and it spans the subarachnoid
space to attach to the inner membrane and highly perfused
3. Pia mater: delicate and innermost, clings to the brain and spinal cord
 Cerebral Spinal Fluid
 This is an ultra filtrate of plasma contained within the ventricles of the brain
and subarachnoid spaces of the cranium and spine
 It has the following functions:
Nourishment
Waste removal: glycosylated proteins, debris from ventricular lining, bacteria,
virus etc.
Protection of the brain: hydro-mechanical protection
 Adult CSF volume 150ml: distribution of 125ml with subarachnoid spaces and
25ml in the ventricles
 It is renewed five times per 24-hour period and therefore constantly secreted
 Cerebral Spinal Fluid Cont.
 The cells of the choroid plexus form tight junctions forming a blood-CSF
barrier that helps control the composition
 Larger substances like cells, proteins and glucose are not allowed passage
while ions and smaller molecules are allowed
 Does water pass the blood-CSF barrier?
 The composition of the CSF is kept constant maintaining a stable
intraventricular environment for maintaining normal neuronal function
 Nutrient supply is needed is supplied via the CP-CSF-ECSB nexus(Choroid
plexus-CSF- extracellular space of the brain)
 Flow of CSF is unidirectional – rostral to caudal (anterior to posterior)
manner until it reaches the subarachnoid space and becomes multidirectional
 It leaves the subarachnoid space via the arachnoid villi where a concentration
gradient pulls it into the lymphatic system or the venous return system
 Blood Brain Barrier
Astrocytes are a subtype of glial cells that
make up the majority of cells in the human
central nervous system (CNS). They perform
metabolic, structural, homeostatic, and
neuroprotective tasks such as clearing excess
neurotransmitters, stabilizing and regulating
the blood-brain barrier, and promoting
synapse formation.
Pericytes are cells present at intervals along
the walls of capillaries (and post-capillary
venules). In the CNS, they are important for
blood vessel formation, maintenance of the
blood–brain barrier, regulation of immune cell
entry to the central nervous system (CNS)
and control of brain blood flow
 Blood Brain Barrier
 This is a highly selective semi-permeable membrane located between the
blood and brain interstitium
 This allows the cerebral blood vessels to regulate the movement of
molecules and ions between the blood and the brain
 It is composed of cerebral capillary wall endothelial cells held together via
tight junctions
 The tight junctions are further surrounded by pericytes, astrocytes and
basal lamina which increases the selectively
 It is the central element of the neurovascular unit
 Exception is the circumventricular organs – specialized neuroepithelial
structures
 Blood Brain Barrier
 BBB maintains the brain homeostasis
 Gases and lipid soluble molecules can freely diffuse across the BBB
 Modes of transport across the BBB include:
i. Diffusion
ii. Transport proteins
iii. Efflux pumps
iv. Receptor mediated transcytosis
Blood Supply to the Brain
 Blood Supply To The Brain
 The brain is highly vascularized and has a high blood flow – 15% of the
cardiac output
 Interruptions to this leads to loss of consciousness (LOC) and irreversible
neural damage after 4 minutes
 The blood needs consistent blood supply and this is maintained by
autoregulation of the blood vessels
 Blood supply is divided into the anterior and the posterior segments
 Anterior portion is supplied by the internal carotid arteries while the
posterior portion is supplied by vertebral arteries
 They are interconnected via the bilateral posterior communicating arteries
 Blood Supply To The Brain Cont.
 The connection of the anterior and posterior vessels forms the Circle of
Willis – anastomoses on the ventral aspect of the midbrain
 It provides interconnections that maintain blood supply to the tissue even
when there is occlusion therefore preventing ischemia
 Venous Drainage
 Can be superficial or deep
 Superficial via the Dural venous sinuses on the surface of the cerebrum and
deep form the vein of Galen posterior to the mid-brain
 The deep and superficial venous system anastomoses with the deep system
at the confluence of sinuses
Circle of Willis
 Blood Supply To The Brain Cont.
 Cerebral blood flow is the blood supply to the brain at any given period
 It is 750mm per minute
 Determined by: CPP, blood viscosity and blood vessel dilation
 ICP – 15mmHG
 The cerebral blood vessels are able to alter their diameters thus change the
flow of blood – cerebral autoregulation
 Arterioles also react to different chemical concentrations
Spinal Cord
• The cauda equina is a group of nerves
and nerve roots stemming from the distal
end of the spinal cord, typically levels L1-
L5 and contains axons of nerves that give
both motor and sensory innervation to
the legs, bladder, anus, and perineum
• Conus medullaris is the terminal end of
the spinal cord, which typically occurs at
the L1 vertebral level in the average adult
• The filum terminale (FT) is a fibrous band
that extends from the conus medullaris
to the periosteum of the coccyx, and its
functions are to fixate, stabilize, and buffer
the distal spinal cord from normal and
abnormal cephalic and caudal traction.
 External Vertebral Structures
 Tightly packed column of nerve tissue that extends downwards from the
brainstem through the central column of the spine i.e. from the foramen
magnum to the lower border of the L vertebra
 It relays motor and sensory signals between the brain and periphery
 It also provides the neural circuits for reflex activity
 It is protected by 33 vertebrae which are found between the semi-rigid
intervertebral disc – flexibility
 It enlarges at two sites – cervical due to the brachial plexus and lumbar due
to the lumbosacral plexus
 It is also protected by three layers of meninges
 External Vertebral Structures Cont.
 It is divided into two symmetrical halves – right and left – by the anterior
and posterior fissure and sulcus respectively
 Covered by three meninges – with space between the dura and vertebral
canal wall called the epidural space
 Space between the dura and the arachnoid matter is the subdural space
 Between the pia matter and subarachnoid, the subarachnoid space which
has CSF
 Internal Vertebral Structures
 Grey matter – has horns which have motor neurons anteriorly and sensory
neurons posteriorly
 White matter – surrounds the grey matter
 Anatomy of Meninges
 The lowermost part tapers into a cone and is referred to as Conus
Medullaris
 There is Pia mater extension from this part – filum terminale which
attaches to the posterior surface of the coccyx
 Pia matter is adherent to the spinal cord up to the lower border of L1
 Dura and arachnoid extend to S2
 Between these two vertebral levels, the subarachnoid space has spinal
nerve roots forming the cauda equine
 Spinal canal is formed by the vertebral foramina of the vertebral and
reinforced by anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments
 Spinal Nerves
 Spinal nerves refer to a mixed spinal nerve that relays motor, sensory and
autonomic signals – 31 pairs corresponding to the vertebrae
 There are two types based on the origin – cranial and spinal nerves
 Those that begin in the cerebrum or brain stem are cranial while those
originating from the spine are spinal nerves
 Classified according to the vertebrae – 8C. 12T, 5L, 5S and 1 Coccygeal
nerves
 They arise from the spinal cord as nerve roots and merge to form a web
(plexus) and once again branch to form nerve fibres
 Formation of a nerve plexus rather than a direct continuation of the nerve
root is protective
Spinal Nerves
.
 Spinal Tracts
 Classified into ascending and descending
tracts
 The spinal cord contains ascending and
descending tracts
 The primary ascending tracts use three
neurons to relay peripheral sensory
information to the brain
 In contrast, the descending tracts
transmit motor impulses from the
cerebral cortex throughout the body
 Descending are mainly motor and
ascending are sensory
 Found in the white matter
Blood Supply to Spinal Cord
 Blood Supply to the Spinal Cord
 Receives blood supply from one anterior spinal artery and two posterior
spinal arteries
 Vertebral arteries only supply the cord’s cervical segments
 The lower parts are supplied by the radicular arteries
 All radicular and spinal arteries anastomose to form the pial plexus called
the vasocorona
 Venous drainage is formed by a network of 6 channels – anteromedian vein,
posteromedian vein and a pair of anterolateral and posterolateral veins
 They anastomose to form the venous vasocorona which drains into the
radicular veins then the segmental veins
Pyramidal and Extrapyramidal Tracts
 There are laminar distribution of neurons in the
gray matter called the Lamina
 Lamina I to X – all have different functions
 Functions of the Spinal Cord
 Conduit for motor and sensory signals
 Coordinates reflexes via the reflex arc – allows
the body to respond to sensory info without
input from the brain
 Control rhythmic movements – central pattern
generators
 Flexibility of motion – six degrees of freedom
 Structural support and balance for upright
Peripheral Nervous System
Overview of Peripheral Nervous System
Sensory Vs Motor Neurons
 Peripheral Nervous System
 PNS has both motor and sensory divisions
 It contains nerves – bundles of neuron fibre's found outside the CNS.
 The motor division includes autonomic and somatic divisions
 ANS has the enteric, parasympathetic and sympathetic branches while the
somatic division includes the cranial and spinal nerve
 Sensory division (afferent)
 Contains two sets of sensory neurons
 One set brings info about external sense organs and the other set from the
internal info. Both sets provide info on pain
 Have a unique structure – the dendrites are located out in the periphery
 Cell bodies are clustered around the dorsal root in the dorsal root ganglion
 Motor Division(Efferent)
 Carry the CNS response messages to muscle and gland cells
 This is further divided into the somatic and autonomic nervous system
 Somatic have motor neurons that carry signals to the skeletal muscles i.e.
voluntary actions while the autonomic nervous system relays actions that
are involuntary
 Autonomic is further divided into sympathetic, parasympathetic and enteric
 Somatic motor neurons leave the spinal cord via the ventral root and
synapse onto skeletal muscle where they release acetylcholine
 Motor Division(Efferent)
 Autonomic division provides innervation to all other tissues that receive
neural control
 Information must flow via two neurons – preganglionic and postganglionic
neuron
 Parasympathetic preganglionic neurons are located in the brainstem and the
sacral spinal cord
 Innervations
 Sensory Nerves
 Peripheral nerves and their associated receptors rapidly relay information
 The somatosensory system involves the spinal nerves which transmit
information from the external environment
 The ANS has visceral sensory neurons which are responsible for
monitoring internal environment and eliciting appropriate changes in
effector organs to maintain homeostasis
 Basic structure consists of nerve fibre's, supporting connective tissue and
blood supply
 Are the afferent limb of the somatosensory neural pathway
 It comprises of unipolar cell bodies
 Sensory Nerves
 All have a receptive field and an individual’s neuron’s receptive field is the
space in which a stimulus can modify electrical activity of the neuron
 Example thermoreceptor will react by generating electrical activity along
the associated first order neuron as an action potential
 Sensory nerves have a different type of nerve fibre depending on their
associated receptors. e.g. nociceptors can either be transmitted via A-delta
fibres or C fibre's
 Visceral sensory nerves transmit pain, stretch, temperature and chemical
change in visceral organs
 They get interpreted sensations like nausea, hunger, bloating, cramping
 Also associated with referred pain and brain freeze
Cranial Nerves
 Cranial Nerves
 Cranial nerves are a set of 12 paired nerves that arise from brain
 Their names relate to the cranial nerve function and are identified numerically
according to their location on the brain stem – anterior to posterior
 The first two originate from the cerebrum – olfactory and optic and the rest
arise from the brain stem
 Example the medulla oblongata gives rise to the glossopharyngeal
 Accessory and the hypoglossal nerves
 Each cranial nerve can be sensory, motor or both
 They transmit 7 types of information with 3 being unique to the cranial nerves
 Unique information being the Special Somatic Sensory-sight, sound, balance,
Special Visceral Motor – pharyngeal movement and Special visceral sensory –
taste, smell
 Cranial Nerves
 Are functionally organized into distinct nuclei within the brainstem
 Most posterior nuclei tends to be sensory while the more anterior ones
are motor
 Cranial Nerve
 The Vagus is the longest nerve and the shortest with the least number of
axons is the trochlear nerve.The trigeminal is the largest
 Cranial Nerves
1. Olfactory nerve
2. Optic nerve – both converge at optic chiasm and from here, signals are
sent to the opposite sides of the brain via two separate optic tracts
3. Oculomotor nerve
4. Trochlear nerve
5. Trigeminal nerve – divides into the ophthalmic - sensory, maxillary -
sensory and mandibular branches – sensory and motor
6. Abducens nerve – lateral rectus muscle
7. Facial nerve
8. Vestibulocochlear nerve – has two divisions: cochlear – sound and hearing
and vestibular – balance and orientation
9. Glossopharyngeal nerve
 Cranial Nerves
10.Vagus nerve – has sensory, motor and autonomic fibre's
11. Spinal accessory nerve
12. Hypoglossal
 Can easily be damaged as they run on the surface of the skull
 Symptoms of damage depend on the nerves which are damaged
 Motor Division
 Divided into:
 Somatic – skeletal muscle
 Autonomic nervous system – autonomic control of smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle and glands
1. Somatic Nervous System
 Motor neurons carry signals from CNS to skeletal muscles
 Actions controlled are mostly voluntary muscle
 Involuntary reflexes are due to the reflex arc
 It is responsible for the actions we are aware of and can consciously influence
 Receives sensory input from all special senses except sight
 Motor Division
 In the head and neck, it works via the cranial nerves and in the spine, via 31
spinal nerves
 Electrical impulses is relayed to and from the CNS to the NMJ which then
converts the signal into chemical signals for muscle contraction.
 The basic motor pathway is: Precentral Gyrus – Corticospinal tract – lower
motor neurons via the ventral horn
 It is made of a single neuron system
 The fastest conducting fibre's are the most heavily myelinated – and this is
true for motor fibre's
 Diseases affecting nerve fibres in SNS are called peripheral neuropathies
 ii) Autonomic Nervous System
 This is the component that regulates involuntary physiologic processes
including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration digestion and sexual arousal
 It contains three divisions: sympathetic, parasympathetic and enteric
 The SNS AND PNS contain both afferent and efferent fibers giving sensory
and motor output
 The enteric nervous system is a web-like structure that functions
autonomously and is responsible for regulation of digestive process’
 SNS innervates most living tissue while the PNS innervates only the head,
viscera and external genitalia
 ENS is composed of reflex pathways that control digestive functions of
muscle contraction/relaxation, secretion, absorption and blood flow
 ii) Autonomic Nervous System
 Basically innervates smooth and cardiac muscles
 The axons are lightly or non-myelinated and has a two neuron chain to
effector organs
 (Ganglion is a group of neuron cell bodies in the PNS)
 Sympathetic Nervous System
 Develops during the 5th week from neural crest cells
 Governs the fight or flight response
 The overall end effect is to prepare the body for physical activity
 Has both pre and post-ganglionic neurons
 Clinical Significance
1. Pheochromocytomas: tumors of the chromaffin cells that secrete
catecholamines: norepinephrine and norepinephrine therefore have
symptoms of sympathetic activation
2. Priapism: in sympathetic activation, the penis remains flaccid and damage to
sympathetic fibres to the penis may result in a sustained erection for over
4 hours due to unopposed PNS tone
3. Diabetic autonomic neuropathy: sympathetic denervation leads to
impaired myocardial coronary blood flow and contractility
4. Orthostatic hypotension: failure of noradrenergic neurotransmission –
drop in SBP by 20mmHg or DBP by 10mmHg
 Parasympathetic Nervous System
 Predominates the rest and digest conditions
 Basically conserves energy to be used later and to regulate bodily functions
like digestion and urination
 The preganglionic fibres originate from brainstem nuclei leave via Cranial
nerves
 (WHICH CRANIAL NERVES ARE PARASYMPATHETIC?)
 Uses Acetylcholine for both pre and post ganglionic neurons which activate
the muscarinic receptors (M1 – M5)
 After muscarinic action, ACH is inactivated and removed from the
neuroeffector junction and this is done by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase
 Clinical Significance
 Sexual dysfunction – due to trauma to splanchnic nerves.
 Dysmotility and decreased secretions
 Horner’s syndrome: – predominant PNS due to SNS disruption in the head
causing ipsilateral ptosis, miosis and anhidrosis
 Urinary retention – due to splanchnic nerve damage
 Cholinergic toxicity – SLUDGE due to excessive cholinergic receptor
 stimulation i.e. salivation, lacrimation, urinary frequency,
 diaphoresis/diarrhoea, GI pain and emesis
 Enteric Nervous System
 Web like neurons that govern the functions of the GI tract – intrinsic
nervous system
 Acts independently but relies on innervation from the vagus nerve and
prevertebral ganglia
 Made up of two different plexus’ – Meissner’s – chemical monitoring and
glandular secretion found in the submucosa and the Auer Bach's– controls
musculature, found within the muscularis externa.
 Neurons in the gut wall project sensory neurons that monitor mechanical
and chemical conditions in the gut
 Local circuit neurons that intergrate info and motor neurons that influence
the activity of the smooth muscles inc. glandular secretions
 Enteric Nervous System
 Preganglionic parasympathetic neurons are found in the dorsal motor
nucleus of the vagus nerve and intermediate gray zone in the sacral spinal
cord segments
 Preganglionic sympathetic innervation that influence the gut plexus’ is
derived from the thoraco-lumbar cord via celiac, superior and inferior
mesenteric ganglia
 Parasympathetic stimuli stimulates digestive activities and sympathetic
stimulation causes inhibition of GI secretion and motor activity, contraction
of GI sphincters and blood vessels
 It also has reflexes that control GI functions e.g.
 Gastrocolic reflex – distension of the stomach stimulates evacuation of the
colon
 Enterogastric reflex – distension and irritation of the small intestine results
in suppression of secretion and motor activity in the stomach
Special Senses
 Special Senses
Reception and sensation, somatic senses – tactile, olfactory, gustatory, auditory, balance and visual
 The functions of the five special senses include:
 Vision: ability of the eyes to focus and detect images of visible light on
photoreceptors in the retina that generates electrical nerve impulses for
varying colors, hues and brightness
 Audition: sound perception
 Taste: ability to detect the taste of substances
 Olfaction :odor molecules possess a variety of features and excite specific
receptors
 Touch (somatosensory): also called mechanoreception. Activation of neural
receptors in the hair follicles, tongue, throat and mucosa
 1.Vision
 70% of all the sensory receptors are in the eyes
 How you see is dependent on the transfer of light
 The Eye
 This is a slightly asymmetrical globe that is about an inch in diameter.
 It is two separate segments fused together.
 It is enclosed in a bony orbit called orbits in the skull and surrounded by a
fatty cushion
 Anatomically, it is divided into external and internal structure
 The sphere can be divided into anterior and posterior chambers
 The wall of the eye contains three layers – fibrous tunic, choroid tunic and
neural or sensory tunic
 Layers of the Eye Ball
 Layers of the eye ball include:
1. Fibrous layer
 Outermost layer, consists of the sclera and the cornea
2.Vascular or choroid layer – prevents light from scattering (light tight)
 Middle layer, has three regions: choroid, the ciliary body and the iris + pupil
(Uvea)
3. Sensory layer
 Innermost layer, made up of the two-layered retina
 Two layers are the pigmented later and the neural layer that contains rods
and cones which are photoreceptors
 Cavities of the Eye
 The eye is also divided into cavities by the lens
1.Anterior cavity – cornea, iris and lens
 The aqueous segment and can be further divided into the anterior and
posterior cavity by the iris
 The anterior cavity contains aqueous humor: clear, watery fluid that is
nutritive
 Similar to plasma and secreted by the choroid
 Reabsorbed into the venous blood via the canal of Schlemm: obstruction
leads to glaucoma due to increase in pressure
 Cavities of the Eye
2. Posterior chamber
 Vitreous segment
 Contains vitreous humor – gel-like substance
 Maintains the shape of the eye and prevent it from collapsing
 Accessory Structures
1. Eyelids – anterior, protect the eye and meet at the medial and lateral
commissure or canthus
2. Tarsal glands – modified sebaceous glands on the eyelid edges that produce
an oily secretion that lubricates the eye.
3. Eyelashes
4. Lacrimal apparatus – consists of the lacrimal gland and ducts that drain the
lacrimal secretions into the nasal cavity
-Lacrimal glands are on the lateral end of each eye – they continually release
a salt solution onto the anterior aspect of the eyeball
-Lacrimal secretion contains lysozyme and antibodies
5. Extrinsic eye muscle – six muscles attached to the outer surface of the eye and
they produce gross eye movement – lateral rectus, medial rectus, superior rectus,
inferior rectus, inferior and superior oblique
 Functions
1. Conjuctiva – protection and lubrication
2. Sclera – white outer coating of the eye made of tough, fibrous tissue
3. Cornea – refracts light and protects the eye from trauma and fb.
4. Iris – Determines the color of the eye (pigment) and controls the amount of light
entering via the pupil by controlling the size of the pupil.
5. Has two muscles – sphincter muscles that constrict (PNS) and SNS for dilator muscles
for dilatation
6. Pupil – at the center of the iris, light enters through into the eye.
7. Lens – Converging lens, thicker in the middle and thinner at the edges –convex lens.
Can change
8. Cilliary muscles – change the shape of the eye lens (focus) i.e. closer objects needs
more optic power hence more curvature, contraction (accommodation)
 Function
 Primary refractive structures are the lens and cornea
 8. Uvea – made of the sclera, choroid and ciliary body (origin of the suspensory ligament) –
vascular layer
 Choroid – thin, pigmented vascular connective tissue layer and has five layers. For perfusion
and nourishment.
 Ciliary body – aqueous humor production and contains the ciliary muscles
 9. Retina – contains photoreceptors
-Photoreceptors include rods and cones
- Cones – sharp detailed central vision and color vision- blue, green or red
- Rods – night and peripheral vision
- The most sensitive part is called the macula fovea and contains cones
- Has three layers – outer layer that contains rods and cones, middle layer that contained
bipolar neurons and the inner layer that has ganglion cells
Light Pathway and Refraction
Visual Pathway
 Visual Pathway
Optic chiasma – where nerve fibers partially cross over to the opposite
side of the brain
Optic tract – fiber tracts and contain fibers from the lateral side of the
same eye and medial side of the opposite side.
- Left and right tracts that travel to corresponding cerebral hemisphere to
reach the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
Optic radiation – pathway through which visual information is carried via
-Upper and lower optic radiation – all end up n the visual processing center
referred to as the visual cortex
Visual input – message received by the brain from the optic tract.
Accommodation – ability to focus as a result of change in shape of the lens..
 Visual System
 Has two primary parallel pathways
 Optic pathway
 Begins in the retina which has the photoreceptor layers which generate the
action potential
 Light receptor molecule is called Rhodopsin and is found in the rods.
 The ganglion cell layer contains two types of fibers – temporal and
 nasal parts of the visual fields.
 The fibers join at the optic disc posteriorly to form the orbital part of the optic
nerve
 They join to form the optic chiasm where they cross over then continue as two
distinct tracts each carrying temporal fibers from the other eye
 Pupillary Light Reflex Pathway
 PNS constricts the pupil
 Afferent limb is directed by the optic nerve while the efferent is
 controlled by the oculomotor nerve.
 The Edinger-Westphal nucleus is preganglionic
 The ciliary ganglion is postganglionic.
 This in turn directs the sphincter muscle to complete the miotic reflex arc
of the pupil
 SNS causes mydriasis and elevation of eyelids..
 2. Auditory and Equilibrium
 This is achieved by the human ear
 It detects and analyzes sound by the mechanisms of transduction –
conversion of sound waves into electrochemical impulses
 The ear is a rudimentary, shell- like structure that lies on the lateral aspect
of the head
 It is made up of cartilage
 It is divided into the outer, middle and inner ear
 The ear has two functions: hearing and postural equilibrium and
coordination of head and eye movement
 1. External Ear
 To collect sound waves and guide them to the tympanic membrane
 Pinna or auricle – shell shaped structure surrounding the auditory canal
 External auditory canal or external acoustic meatus is a short, narrow
chamber in the temporal bone and is lined with ceruminous glands that
secrete yellow cerumen
 Two thirds are cartilaginous, last 3rd is bone
 Tympanic membrane - vibrates when hit by sound waves. Separates the
external from the middle ear
 2.Middle Ear
 Tympanic cavity divided into an upper (attic) and lower (atrium) chamber.
 Narrow air-filled cavity in the temporal bone
 It is spanned by a chain of three tiny bones – malleus, incus and stapes
 collectively called the auditory ossicles
 Ossicles transmit vibratory motion of the eardrum to the fluid of the inner
ear
 Ossicles are suspended by ligaments making them suitable for vibrations.
 Contains two muscles – Stapedius muscle that modulates transfer of
sounds waves from external environment and the tensor tympani which
modulates sound at the tympanic membrane
 Communicates to inner ear via oval window
 3. Inner Ear
 Bony chamber referred to as the osseous labyrinth
 Divided into the cochlea, vestibule and the semicircular canals
 It is filled with plasma like fluid called perilymph
 Within the perilymph are a system of membrane sacs which in turn contain
a thick fluid called endolymph
 Contains the equilibrium receptors called the vestibular apparatus – divided
into two for static and dynamic equilibrium
 Bony labyrinth contains semicircular canals that sense equilibrium 0 this is
the vestibular part
 Cochlea is the organ of hearing
 Cranial nerve VIII forms here
 Hearing
 Cochlea
 Spiral shaped fluid filled organ located within the cochlear duct of the inner
ear
 Contains 3 compartments – scals vestibule, scala media and the scala
tympani
 Scale media and tympani contains endolymph which originates from the
CSF. For scala tympani come from blood plasma.
 Endolymph is rich in potassium and perilymph is rich in Sodium which
allows for a positive endocochlear potential
 This allows for proper transduction of current along with the hair cells – in
the organ of corti, the receptor organ for hearing.
 Mechanism Hearing
 Mechanical conduction of sound (conductive apparatus)
 Transduction of mechanical energy to electrical impulses (sensory)
 Conduction of electrical impulses to the brain (neural)
 Conduction
 Sound waves enter the outer ear to the tympanic membrane
 Tympanic membrane vibrates and send the vibration to the bones in the
middle ear
 Ossicles amplify the sound vibrations then send them to the cochlea
 The fluids in the inner ear ripple, travel along the basilar membrane
 Mechanism Hearing
 This is detected by hair cells which are sensory cells on top of the basilar
membrane
 Hair cells on the wide end detect high pitched sounds and those at the
center detect lower pitched sounds
 The hair cells have stereocilia on top of them that bump as the wave passes
causing bending which cause pore like channels to open up
 Chemicals rush into the cells creating an electrical signal (depolarization)–
conversion of mechanical to electrical impulses is done by the Organ of
Corti
 This is carried to the brain by the auditory nerve to the cochlear nuclei in
the brain stem
Organ of Corti
 Balance and Equilibrium
 Function of the vestibular apparatus
 Include the semicircular canals - angular acceleration, head rotation, utricle
and saccule – linear acceleration
i) Semicircular canals (dynamic stability)
 Three – anterior, posterior and lateral
 All connect to the utricle
 Within the ampulla, there are sensory hair cells and above them, the
gelatinous cupula
 As the head rotates, the endolymph displaces the gc, causing excitation of
the cells
 Balance and Equilibrium
 ii) Utricle and saccule (otolith organs)
 Static equilibrium
 Contain macula that detects linear acceleration.
 Contains tiny calcium stones that respond to gravity so brain knows if you
are standing or lying down
 Linear acceleration causes displacement of hair bundles leading to
generation of a potential depending on the direction of movement
 This is sent to the vestibular nerve
 3. Gustotary Sense
 This is commonly referred to as taste
 It is a sense that develops through interaction of dissolved molecules with
taste buds
 Five sub – modalities of taste include:
i. Sweet – sugars, saccharin, alcohol and amino acids
ii. Salty – metal ions
iii. Bitter - alkaloids
iv. Sour – hydrogen ions
v. Umami – savoury – glutamate (amino acid)
 Provides the ability to discern the characteristics of substances
 3. Gustotary Sense Cont.
 It is primarily relayed via receptors located on the tongue but is considered
multisensory
 3. Gustotary Sense Cont.
 The surface of the tongue and the oral cavity is lined by stratified squamous
epithelium
 On the surface, there are bumps called papilla which contain the taste buds
 There are three types based on their appearance:
i. Vallate – form an inverted V, circumvallate along the terminal sulcus
ii. Foliate – lateral surface
iii. Fungiform – anterior surface
 Taste buds contain columnar cells that are arranged to form a taste pore
 The columnar cells have microvilli extended from them which contain the
actual taste receptors
 3. Gustotary Sense Cont.
 Each taste bud consists of 50 – 100 epithelial cells:
1. Gustatory epithelial cells – receptor cells for taste, taste cells
2. Basal epithelial cells – subjected to friction and burned by hot food
 Replaced every 7 – 10 days
 The entire surface has filiform papillae – pointed and threadlike, contain
tactile receptors but no taste buds
 3. Gustotary Sense Cont.
 Each taste bud consists of 50 – 100 epithelial cells:
1. Gustatory epithelial cells – receptor cells for taste, taste cells
2. Basal epithelial cells – subjected to friction and burned by hot food
 Replaced every 7 – 10 days
 The entire surface has filiform papillae – pointed and threadlike, contain
tactile receptors but no taste buds
Structure of the Taste Bud
 The tongue divides itself into two regions – anterior two-thirds and the
posterior one third which occupies the oropharynx
 The anterior two thirds – in front of the terminal sulcus – innervated by
mandibular division of trigeminal nerve for somatosensation and chorda
tympani for taste sensation
 The posterior one third is innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve
 The root of the tongue is innervated by the vagus nerve
 It Is supplied by the lingual artery and drained by the lingual vein
 The tongue has extensive musculature
 Intrinsic muscles
 Superior longitudinal muscle – shortens the tongue
 Inferior longitudinal muscle – shortens the tongue, convex
 Transverse – narrows and elongates the tongue
 Vertical muscle – broadens and flattens the tongue
 Extrinsic muscles
 Genioglossus
 Hypoglossus
 Styloglossus
 Palatoglossus
 Physiology of Taste
 Chemicals that stimulate gustatory receptor cells are known as tastants
 Taste transduction
 There are three mechanisms:
1. Salty – due to influx of Na+ via Na+ channels
2. Sour – mediated via H+
3. Bitter, sweet, umami – G protein coupled and activation leads to Ca2+
from intracellular stores
 As molecules enter the oral cavity, they reach the taste pores on the apical
surface – taste hairs, binding specific receptors and resulting in
depolarization or activation of second messengers, depending on the type
of taste sensation
 The movement of ions and activation of second messengers results in
creation of electric impulses
 All these signals, from various innervations, travel to a single brainstem
nucleus,The nucleus of the tractus solitaries
 Then they continue to the ventral post medial nucleus of the thalamus and
relayed by 3rd order neurons to the cortical taste centre's – insular cortex
 Some info is also relayed to the hypothalamus for regulation of eating
behaviour's
 The nuclei also sends projections to the amygdalae for autonomic reflexes
like gagging and salivation