09/06/2022

CHAPTER 2. SAMPLING

CONTENT

1. Introduction
2. Selection of sampling procedure
3. Types of sampling plans
4. Sampling procedure
5. Preparation of samples

1
 09/06/2022

INTRODUCTION

• Sample: the small portion taken for analysis

• Population: the entire lot or the entire production for a certain period
of time
• Sampling: the process of taking samples from a population
• Laboratory sample: the sample actually analyzed in the laboratory
• Variance: an estimate of the uncertainty
• Precision: a measure of the reproducibility of the data
• Accuracy: a measure how close the data are to the true value

2
 09/06/2022

QUESTION

A sample known to contain 20 g/L glucose is analyzed by two methods. Ten

determinations were made for each method and the following results were
obtained:
Method A Method B
Mean=19.6 Mean=20.2
Std. Dev.=0.055 Std. Dev.=0.134
(a) Precision and accuracy:
(i) Which method is more precise? Why do you say this?
(ii) Which method is more accurate? Why do you say this?

3
 09/06/2022

SELECTION OF SAMPLING PROCEDURES

SAMPLING PLAN: “A PREDETERMINED PROCEDURE FOR
THE SELECTION, W ITHDRAW AL, PRESERVATION,
TRANSPORTATION, AND PREPARATION OF THE PORTIONS
TO BE REMOVED FROM A LOT AS SAMPLES” (IN TERNA T I ON AL
UN ION OF PURE AND APPL IED CH EMIS TR Y (IU PAC)

W ELL-ORGANIZED DOCUMENT:

• goals of the sampling plan, • frequency,

• the factors to be measured, • size,
• sampling point, • personnel,
• sampling procedure, • preservation of the samples,

SAMPLING PLAN

• A sampling plan should be selected on the basis of the sampling objective, the
study population, the statistical unit, the sample selection criteria, and the
analysis procedures.

4
 09/06/2022

FACTORS AFFECTING
THE CHOICE
OF SAMPLING PLANS
(1) purpose of inspection,
(2) nature of population,
(3) nature of product, and
(4) nature of test method

PURPOSE OF INSPECTION

1. Nutritional labeling
2. Detection of contaminants and foreign matter
3. Acceptance of raw materials, ingredients, or products (acceptance sampling)
4. Process control samples
5. Release of lots of finished product
6. Detection of adulterations
7. Microbiological safety
8. Authenticity of food ingredients.

10

5
 09/06/2022

NATURE OF POPULATION
AND PRODUCT

• Homogeneous: uniform throughout and

identical at all locations
• Heterogeneous:
• Discrete/compartmentalized: cans in pallet of
canned food, bottle of juice on a conveyor belt
• Continuous: potato chips on a conveyer belt

11

NATURE OF TEST METHOD

• cost, speed, accuracy, precision, and destructive vs. nondestructive.

• Low-cost, rapid, nondestructive tests that are accurate and precise make it
more feasible to analyze many samples.
• limitations on any of these characteristics will make the nature of the test
method a more important determinant of the sampling plan.

12

6
 09/06/2022

TYPES OF SAMPLING PLANS

• Sampling by Attributes and Sampling by Variables

• In attribute sampling, sampling is performed to decide on the acceptability
of a population based on whether the sample possesses a certain characteristic
or not
• In variable sampling, sampling is performed to estimate quantitatively the
amount of a substance (e.g., protein content, moisture content, etc.) or a
characteristic (e.g., color) on a continuous scale.

13

ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING

• Acceptance sampling is a procedure that serves a very specific role: to

determine if a shipment of products or ingredients has enough quality to be
accepted.
• Acceptance sampling can be performed by the food processor before receiving
a lot of materials from a supplier or by a buyer who is evaluating the
processor’s output

14

7
 09/06/2022

15

15

16

16

8
 09/06/2022

PROBLEMS IN SAMPLING AND

SAMPLING STORAGE

• Sampling bias
• Population distribution
• Sampling storage
• Mislabeling of sample
• Legal sample: protect again tampering and the seal mark easily identified:
date, signature of sampling agent

17

PREPARATION OF SAMPLES

• General Size Reduction Considerations

• Grinding
• Enzymatic Inactivation
• Lipid Oxidation Protection
• Microbial Growth and Contamination

18

9
 09/06/2022

SAMPLE SIZE REDUCTION

19

DETERMINATION OF PARTICLE SIZE

20

10
 09/06/2022

SUMMARY

• Food quality is monitored at various processing stages but 100% inspection is

rarely possible or even desirable.
• To ensure a representative sample of the population is obtained for analysis,
sampling and sample reduction methods must be developed and imple- mented.
• The selection of the sampling procedure is determined by the purpose of the
inspection, the nature of the population and product, and the test method.
• Increasing the sample size will generally increase the reliability of the analytical
results, and using t-test techniques will optimize the sample size necessary to
obtain reliable data.
• Multiple sampling techniques also can be used to minimize the number of samples
to be analyzed. Sampling is a vital process, as it is often the most variable step in
the entire analytical procedure.

21

• Sampling may be for attributes or variables.

• Attributes are monitored for their presence or absence, whereas variables are
quantified on a continuous scale.
• Sampling plans are developed for either attributes or variables and may be single,
double, or multiple.
• Multiple sampling plans reduce costs by rejecting low-quality lots or accepting high-
quality lots quickly, while intermediate-quality lots require further sampling.
• There is no sampling plan that is risk-free. The consumer risk is the probability of
accepting a poor quality product, while the vendor risk is the probability of rejecting
an acceptable product.
• An acceptable probability of risk depends on the seriousness of a negative
consequence.

22

11
 09/06/2022

• Sampling plans are determined by whether the population is homogeneous or heterogeneous.

• Although sampling from a homogeneous population is simple, it rarely is found in practical
industrial situations.
• Sampling from heterogeneous populations is most common, and suitable sampling plans must be
used to obtain a representative sample. Sampling methods may be manual or continuous.
• Ideally, the sampling method should be statistically sound.
• However, nonprobability sampling is sometimes unavoidable, even though there is not an equal
probability that each member of the population will be selected due to the bias of the person
sampling.
• Probability sampling is preferred because it ensures random sampling and is a statistically sound
method that allows calculation of sampling error and the probability of any item of the
population being included in the sample.

23

• Each sample must be clearly marked for identification and preserved during storage
until completion of the analysis.
• Official and legal samples must be sealed and a chain of custody maintained and
identified.
• Often, only a portion of the sample is used for analysis and sample size reduction must
ensure that the portion analyzed is representative of both the sample and population.
• Sample preparation and storage should account for factors that may cause sample
changes.
• Samples can be preserved by limiting enzyme activity, preventing lipid oxidation, and
inhibiting microbial growth/contamination.

24

12