Comprehensive (Plus) 2024

Lecture 0: Graph sketching (Lines), Sets

Lecture 1: Welcome, Quadratics

Ana Hinic Galic

Trinity College
The University of Melbourne

2024

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 WELCOME TO TRINITY
and
Comprehensive (Plus) Lectures

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Introduction to the course

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Introduction

1 What are we going to do in lectures?

2 Where do I find things on LMS?
3 Videos for this week
Sets (related to the work in tutorials this week)
Graph Sketching, Lines (related to the work in tutorials this
week)
Quadratics (this week LECTURE topic)

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About lectures
1 Read the relevant Course Note (found on LMS - Course Notes
box)
2 Download the slides that will be used in lectures (found on LMS
- Lectures box)
3 Attend the lecture class as scheduled in your timetable, fill in the
slides
4 DURING the lecture, complete the attendance quiz(zes) (found
on LMS - Lectures box)
Your attendance will be based on successful completion of this
quiz.

5 After the lecture, if you want to revise what was discussed, watch
the lecture video recording (found on ECHO360 via LMS)
6 Attempt the Pre-tutorial exercises from the relevant Practice
Booklet (found in the Practice booklets section on LMS)
7 Ask your tutor for help during the tutorials, or send me a Teams
message
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LECTURE 0: Sets, Graph sketching, Lines

Sets, including interval

notation
Graph sketching, Lines
Watch the relevant recordings on Echo360.

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Quadratics

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LECTURE 1: QUADRATICS

Aim for this part of the lecture:

1 To learn how to distinguish the following three actions and apply
corresponding methods:

(LANGUAGE !!!)
factorising a quadratic expression,
completing the square for a quadratic expression, and
solving a quadratic equation.
2 To learn how to sketch a parabola.

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Quadratics

square (in English)

quadratus (in Latin)

The most general quadratic expression in the variable x is

ax2 +bx+c, in which a ̸= 0.

x is called the variable
ax2 , bx, c are called the terms
a, b, c are called the coefficients
a is the leading coefficient
c is the constant (term)
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Quadratic Equations

An equation which can be written in the form

ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a ̸= 0
is a quadratic equation.

To SOLVE an equation for its unknown means to find ALL

values of the unknown for which the equation is true.
A root of an equation is a value of the variable for which the
equation is true.
We solve an equation FOR its unknown. LANGUAGE

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 Is x2 + 3x − 4 an equation?

Answer: NO, it is an expression.

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FACTORISATION
When we factorise an algebraic expression we express it as a
product of factors.
The factorised form / factorisation of an algebraic expression
is a product of factors for which
the product is equivalent to the original quadratic, and
none of the factors can be decomposed any further.

Thus, a factorised form of a quadratic ax2 + bx + c will be

a(x − x1 )(x − x2 ) when b2 − 4ac ≥ 0

(a product of two linear factors; x1 and x2 are solutions of a
relevant quadratic equation);
Or, a special case
b c
a(x2 + x + ), when b2 − 4ac < 0
a a
when the quadratic CANNOT be factorised into the product of
two linear factors (i.e. irreducible quadratic) . 12 / 39
Factorisation

Which of the following are factorised forms (in R):

(x − 1)(x − 3) (x − 4)x + 3
2
x −1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
x(x − 2) + 2 x2 − 2x + 2
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 = 0

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Factorisation (techniques)
The following techniques could be used to factorise quadratic
expression (not all techiques will work on a given quadratic)
Perfect squares
x2 + 2ax + a2 = (x + a)2
x2 − 2ax + a2 = (x − a)2

Difference of perfect squares:

x2 − a2 = (x − a)(x + a)

Cross method
Completing the square and using the difference of
perfect squares
From completing the square method, we can obtain the
quadratic formula which, together with the null law is the most
powerful way to deal with the factorisation of quadratics.
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Example (1a)
Factorise the quadratic expression x2 + 8x + 16.

Example (1b)
Factorise the quadratic expression 9x2 − 24x + 16.

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Example (2a)
Factorise the quadratic expression x2 − 9.

Example (2b)
Factorise the quadratic expression 9x2 − 11.

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Factorasing using the cross method
The cross method is based on
(x + m)(x + n) = x2 + (m + n)x + mn,
that is, more general

(ax + m)(bx + n) = abx2 + (bm + an)x + mn.

Example (3)
Factorise the quadratic 6x2 − 17x + 7.

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Completing the square for a quadratic expression

Completing the square for a quadratic expression:

Re-present
x2 + bx + c
as  2
b
x+ + q.
2

If
ax2 + bx + c, with a ̸= 1,
we
ax2 + bx + c as a x2 + ab x + c,


rewrite
complete the square for
b
x2 + x,
a
etc.

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Example (4a)
Complete the square for the following quadratic x2 + 6x − 2.

Factorising using the complete square technique

Example (4b)
Hence, factorise the quadratic 2x2 + 12x − 4.

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SOLVING Quadratic Equations

(1) If the quadratic expression is already factorised, then we use

The null factor law

(x+2)(x−1) = 0 ⇐⇒ x+2 = 0 or x−1 = 0 ⇐⇒ x = −2 or x = 1

If a product of two or more factors is zero then at least one

of the factors is zero (‘null’), and vice versa.

AB = 0 ⇐⇒ A = 0 or B = 0.
Pay attention This only works when zero is on one side of equal sign.

x(x + 2) = 3 ⇐⇒ x2 + 2x − 3 = 0, etc.

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SOLVING Quadratic Equations

(2) Using quadratic formula

The Quadratic formula

The roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 for a ̸= 0 are
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= .
2a
The formula is known as the quadratic formula.

(*Completing the square is the method that leads to this formula - the
proof is given in the lecture notes.)

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In Maths 1 Program:
we work in R ( over R).

The discriminant of the quadratic is the expression ∆ (Delta)

∆ = b2 − 4ac.
The discriminant can be used to describe the roots of the quadratic
equation:
∆ > 0 two real roots;
∆ = 0 one real root;
∆ < 0 no real roots.

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Examples I

Example
(of solving quadratic equations) Solve the following quadratic
equations for x and determine the nature of their roots.
1 2x2 − 3x − 4 = 0;
2 2x2 − 4x + 2 = 0;
3 x2 + 4x + 5 = 0.

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Examples II

1 Solve 2x2 − 3x − 4 = 0 for x. Using the formula (here,

a = 2, b = −3, c = −4)

2x2 − 3x − 4 = 0
p
−(−3) ± (−3)2 − 4 × 2 × (−4)
⇐⇒ x =
2×2
√
+3 ± 9 + 32
=
4
√ √ √
+3 ± 41 3 + 41 3 − 41
= i.e. x = or x = .
4 4 4
Two real roots.

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Examples III

2 Solve 2x2 − 4x + 2 = 0 for x.

Using the formula (with a = 2, b = −4 and c = 2),
p
+4 ± (−4)2 − 4 × 2 × 2
x=
2×2
√
4 ± 16 − 16
=
√4
4± 0
= =1 One real root.
4
3 Solve x2 + 4x + 5 = 0 for x. Using the formula,
√
−4 ± 16 − 20
x=
√2
−4 ± −4
= No real roots.
2

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Using quadratic formula to factorise

The Factor Theorem

If x = a is a root of a polynomial equation, then (x − a) is a factor of
the corresponding polynomial expression, and vice versa.

If x1 and x2 are the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, then

ax2 + bx + c =a(x − x1)(x − x2).

Note: If x1 and x2 are irrational, take care with signs, fractions and
brackets.

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Example (5 for factorisation)
Factorise the following quadratics over R.
1 2x2 − 3x − 4
2 x2 + 6x + 4 (for students to try at home)
1 On a previous slide we have seen: a = 2, b = −3 and c = −4
2x2 − 3x − 4 = 0
p
−(−3) ± (−3)2 − 4 × 2 × (−4)
⇐⇒ x =
2×2
√
+3 ± 9 + 32
=
4
√ √ √
+3 ± 41 3 + 41 3 − 41
= i.e. x = or x = .
4 4 4
Thus, √ √
3+ 41 3− 41
2x2 − 3x − 4 = 2(x − x1 )(x − x2 ) = 2(x − 4 )(x − 4 ).

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A factor that cannot be further decomposed as an irreducible
factor.

If ∆ < 0, then ax2 + bx + c is irreducible (in/over R) once any

common factor shared by a, b and c has been extracted:

2x2 − 2x + 4 = 2(x2 − x + 2).

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Parabola
In the xy−plane, the points y
(x, y) for which

y = x2
y = x2
form a shape that is called a
O x
parabola - basic parabola.

The points which satisfy any relation of the type

y = ax2 + bx + c, (a ̸= 0)

form a parabola.

a > 0 Positive parabola a < 0 Negative parabola

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The discriminant
Consider the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 for a ̸= 0 and the
roots obtained by the quadratic formula
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= .
2a

The discriminant ∆ = b2 − 4ac can be used to describe

the roots of the quadratic equation:
∆ > 0 two real roots;
∆ = 0 one real root;
∆ < 0 no real roots.
the x-intercepts of the parabola
y
y y

• •
• • x
O

• •
• O x
x
O
•
∆=0 ∆<0
∆>0
one x-intercept no x-intercepts
two x-intercepts
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Parabolas

A parabola has one intrinsic feature, its turning point or vertex.

This point also sits on an axis (line) of symmetry.

y = a(x − h)2 + k, vertex is at (h, k)

b
y = ax2 + bx + c, vertex has x = −
2a
1
y = a(x − x1 )(x − x2 ) vertex has x = (x1 + x2 ).
2

A parabola in the xy−plane might be cut by one or both axes. A

point at which this occurs is known as an axis intercept.

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 y

• •
x
O

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Sketching parabolas

We can sketch a parabola in the xy−plane by

working out the location of the feature points (the vertex and
axis intercept(s));
ruling axes, and labelling them and the origin;
plotting the feature points (relatively) accurately;
drawing a parabola - like curve through them; and
labelling each feature point with its coordinates.

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Example (6)
Sketch the graph of parabola y = x2 − 3x − 4.
1 Feature points (calculations):
x - intercepts: y = 0, i.e. x2 − 3x − 4 = 0 i.e. x = −1, or x = 4, so
(−1, 0) and (4, 0).
y - intercepts: x = 0, so y = −4, thus (0, −4) is the y-intercept.
The vertex: x = 32 and y = − 25 4
, thus, ( 32 , − 25
4
).
y y

x
• • x
2 O O

•
•
y
y

(−1, 0) (4, 0)
• •
• • x
O x
3 O

(0, −4) •
•
•
• ( 3 , − 25 )
2 4

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Example (7 (try at home))
Sketch the graph of parabola y = x2 + 2x + 3.
Note that ∆ < 0.

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Example (8 (try at home))
Sketch the graph of parabola y = −(x + 2)(x − 4).

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Let’s do some exercises

LMS - Practice Booklet section- Practice Booklet 2 (Quadratics)-

Pre-tutorial exercises

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The rest of the week

Please send me any suggestions about lectures

This week in tutorials, you will work on Sets and Lines.
(After your tutorial, ensure you work through Practice Booklet 1)
Next week, in tutorials, you will work on Quadratics.
(Before tutorials next week, complete Pre-tutorial exercises from
the Practice Booklet 2).
Before next week lecture, download and read through the Course
Note Chapter 1 Section 4 about polynomials.

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 THANK YOU

HAVE A GREAT WEEK

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