9 RADIO RECEIVERS

INTRODUCTION: FUNCTIONS OF A
9.1 RECEIVER
Basically, a receiver is a collection of electronic devices and
hapter OutlineReceiver circuits that accepts the transmitted signals from the
Introduction: Function of a transmission medium and then converts those signals hack
Receivers
Classificationof Radio original form.
to their
Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) We know that in a communication system, a radio
Receiver transmitter radiates or transmits a modulated carrier
Superheterodyne Receiver Basic
Elements
signal. This modulated carrier signal travels down the
Receiver Parameters channel i.e., transmission medium and reaches at the input
AM Superheterodyne Receiver: that the modulated carier
(Description of Various Blocks)
ofradio receiver. This means

the antenna of the radio receiver.

signal is picked up by
R.F. Amnplifier This modulated signal so received is generally very weak.
A Series Resonance Circuit
Characteristics of a Series Reso Therefore, inside the receiver this weak signal is first
nant Circuit amplified in an R.F. (Radio Frequency) amplifier stage of
A Parallel Resonance Circuit or the radio receiver. Also, since the received modulated signal
Tuned Circuit contains a lot of noise or unwanted signals at adjacent
Characteristics of Parallel Reso-
frequencies, it must be selected and the noise must be
nant or Tuned Circuit
rejected. Finally, in receiver, the R.F. carrier or modulated
The Single-tuned Voltage Amplifier
The Frequency Response of a signal must be demodulated to get back the original
since the
Single-tuned Voltage Amplifier modulating or baseband signal. Further,
demodulated or detected signal (i.e., audio signal in case
of
Limitation of a Single-tunedVoltage broadcast receiver) is generally weak, it has to be amplihed
Amplifier
Double-tuned Voltage Amplifier in one or more stages of audio amplifier.
From the above discussion, we can summarize the
main
The Frequency Response of
Double-tuned Voltage Amplifier function of a radio receiver as:
Stagger-Tuned Voltage Amplifier Intercept the incoming modulated signal (1.e.
Neutralization in FR Turned
electromagnetic waves) by the receiving antenna
Amplifiers Local Oscillator unwanted
Frequency Mixers Tracking (11) Select the desired signal and reject the
Automatic Gain Control (AGC) or signals.
Automatic Volume Control (AVC) ii) Amplify this selected R.F. signal
Linear Diode Detector with n-Filter
and Simple AGC Delayed AGC (iv) Detect the modulated signal to get back the original
Amplified and Delayed AGC modulating or baseband signal.
AGC Characteristics (v) Amplify the modulating frequency signal.
Double Conversion Receiver This means that a radio receiver is an electrone
(Communications Receiver) equipment which picks up the desired signal, rejects ine
LIC Superheterodyne AM Receivers unwanted signals, amplifies the desired signal, demodulates
the modulated signal to get back the original modulating
frequency signal.
582
 Radio Receivers 583
9.2 CLAssIFICATION OF RADIO RECEIVERS
We can classify
the radio receiver in two
ways as under :
(A) Depending upon the applications, the radio receivers may
Amplitude Modulation (A.M.) Broadcast Receiuvers: These be classified as follows:
receivers
broadcast of speech or music transmitted are used to receive the
which operate on long wave, from amplitude modulation broadcast transmitters
medium wave or short wave bands.
i) Frequency Modulation (F.M.) Broadcast Receivers:
These receivers are used to
broadcast programmes from F.M. broadcast
transmitters
receive the
which operate in VHF or UHP
bands.
(ii) Communication Receivers : Communication receivers are used for
reception of
and short wave
telephone signals. This means that communication receivers aretelegraph
used for
various purposes other than broadcast services.
(iv) Television Receivers: Television receivers are used to receive television broadcast in VHF or
in UHF bands.
(v) Radar Receivers: Radar receivers are used to receive Radar (i.e., Radio detection and ranging)
signals.
(B) Depending upon the fundamental aspects, the radio receivers may also be classified as
under:
(i) Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receivers.
(ii) Superheterodyne Receiver.
In fact, various forms of receivers have been proposed from time to time. However, only two of
them became popular for commercial applications. These are Tuned Radio frequency (TRF) receiver
and superheterodyme receiver. Presently, the superheterodyne receiver is the most popular and
most widely used. The TRF receiver was used earlier in the 1940s. The TRF receiver had some
inherent drawbacks which were removed in superheterodyne receiver. Therefore, we shall start our discussion
with TRF receiver and then come to the superheterodyne receiver.
93 TUNED RADIO FREQUENCY (TRF) RECEIVER
The tuned radio-frequency (TRF) receiver was one of the earliest types of AM receivers. TRF receivers
ure probably the simplest designed radio receiver available today, however, they have several short
comings that limit their use to special applications. With the development of the superheterodyne
oeiver, TRF receivers are seldom used except for special-purpose, single-station receivers.
Tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver is the simplest radio receiver. Figure 9.1 shows the block
receiver is a n RF stage. This
iagram of a tuned radio frequency receiver. The very first block of this
these RF (radio frequency) amplifiers
age generally contains two or three RF amplifiers. Actually,
variable tuned circuit at the input and output sides. At the
e tuned RF amplifiers i.e., theý have antenna as shown in block diagram in figure 9.1. At this
put of the receiver, there is a receiving
There are two basic types of radio receivers: coherent and non-coherent. With a coherent, or
used for demodulation are
yachronous, receiver, the frequencies generated in the receiver and
ynchronized to oscillator frequencies generated in the transmitter (the receiver must have some
to it). With non-coherent, or asynchronous,
eans of recovering the received carrier and synchronizing
the receiver or the frequencies used for demodulation
evers, either no frequencies are generated in carrier
Completely independent from the transmitter's frequency. Non-coherent detection is often
from the received waveform by detecting
detection because the information is recovered
d envelope
e
shape of the modulated envelope
 Communication Systems
584 Analog
present. However, with te
the
antenna signals from
different sources (1.e., Btations)
are

the desired signal (i.e., station) selected. B. p d

in selected
station) is But
help f inp
variable tuned circuit of
RF amplifiers weak signal is amnleniB ele
of pv. This selected
weak of the
order by the kr
signal is usually very
amplifier (i.e., R.F stage).
VAntenna Audio
Audio
Demodulator Power
RF or detector
Amplifier
Amplifier
Stage Loud
speaker
receiver
Fig.9.1. Block
diagrarm of a TRF
the d e s i r e d signal
and amplify it.
i8 to select
of RF stage
Thus, the funetion signal is applied to the demodslas
modulated The
thus at the output of tho tor.
incoming
After this, the amplified modulated signal and
demodulates the
demodulator or detector This audio signal is amplifiod ator,
baseband signal (1.e., audio sigmal). desirodudio
we get modulating
or
is further amplified by a
power amplifier upto
this audio signal receiver is the loudspeaker. A loudsneoer
amplifier. After that, The last stage of this 8a
level to drive the loudspeaker. into sound signal.
electrical signal
transducer which changes
Receiver
9.3.1 Drawbacks of TRF
and the simplest one, it has certain
TRF receiver is cheaper
As discussed above, although
drawbacks as under oscillate at higher frequencies from the
from a tendency to
) The TRF receiver suffers at same frequency. Ifsuch an amplifer
RF amplifiers with high gain and operating
multistage leaked back to the input ofthe RF
small portion of the output
has a gain of 20,000 then ifa result. This type of leakage could result
then positive feedback and oscillstion will
stage, radiation coupling or coupling
capacitance coupling,
from power supply coupling, stray and output stages. Definitely,
this type of
element common to the input
through any other
condition is undesirable for a good receiver.
of the receiver.
Thisproblem is also termed as instability desired signal and an
of a receiver is ite ability to distinguish between a
(i) The selectivity TRF receiver is poor. In fact, it is
difficult to achieve
undesired signal. The selectivity of circuits.
to the enforced use of single-tuned
sufficient selectivity at high frequencies due
Another problem associated with the TRF
receiver is the bandwidth variation
over the tuning
(ii) consider that a tuned circuit is required
range. For example, in
AM broadcast system, let us

a frequency of 540 kHz.

to have a bandwidth of 10 kHz at
of this tuned circuit must be
According to the definition, the Quality factor Q
resonance frequency
Q bandwidth 54
Now, at the other end ofthis AM broadcast band (i.e., 1640 kHz), Quality
the factor Qof the co
according to sbove equation, must increase by a factor of 1640/535 i.e., 3) to a value of 164. Howeve
in practice due to several losses dependent upon frequency would prevent such a large increa
her
Thus, practically, the Quality factor Q of this tuned circuit is unlikely to exceed 120 and
providinga bandwidth of the tuned cireuit equal to
1640 13.8 kHz
120
 Radio Receivers
Therefore, due to this inereased bandwidth of 13.8 kHz in place of a fixed bandwidth of h
the receiver
would pick up or select adjacent
frequencies (i.e., stations) with the desired frequene es
ation.
statio This means that the bandwidth of the TRF receiver
varies with the incoming frequency.
4 SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER BASIC ELEMENTS
matter of fact, the non-uniform
As a
selectivity of the TRF led to the development of the
cuperheterodyne receiver near the end of World War I.
Although the quality of the
receiver has imporved greatly since its
original design, its basic
superheterodyne
and it is still used today for a wide variety of radio communicationsconfiguration has not changed much,
services. The superheterodyne
receiver has remained in use because its gain, selectivity, and
to those of other receiver
sensitivity characteristics are superior
configurations.
Figure 9.2 shows the block diagram of a
receiver have been removed in a superheterodyne receiver. All the drawbacks in TRF
most widely used. This means that the superheterodyne
receiver. The basic superheterodyne receiver is
television receiver, radar receiver etc. superheterodyne principle is used in all types receiver like
of
In a
superheterodyne receiver, the incoming RF signal
oscillator signal frequency
through a mixer and is converted frequency
is combined with the local
This lower fixed into a
signal of lower fixed frequency.
frequency is known as
intermediate frequency. However, the
frequency signal contains the same modulation intermediate
as the
signal is now amplified and demodulated to original signal. This intermediate frequency
reproduce the
The word
heterodyne stands for mixing. Here we haveoriginal signal.
mixed the incoming
the local oscillator frequency. Therefore this signal frequency
receiver is called
Antenna superheterodyne receiver.
Loud
RF Mixer o LE speaker
Stage Amplifier
Demo- Audio Power
dulator
Amplifier Amplifier

Local AGC
Oscillator
-- L-Tunni-ng
Gangaed
Fig. 9.2. Block diagram of a
Thus, in a
local oscillator superheterodyne receiver, a constant
superheterodyne receiver
signal frequency
which the capacitancesfrequency and incoming RF
signals
difference is maintained
frequency (IF) amplifier are
ganged frequency
together and operated by a through capacitancebetween the
generally contains a number of common control knob. The tunning in
mutually coupled tuned circuits.
a
specially chcsen Thus, with this large transformers each consistingintermediate
width requirements frequency, the IF
amplifier number of double-tuned of a
pair of
the (i.e., selectivity) of the provides most of the gain circuits, operating at
sensitivity and selectivity of the receiver. This means that (i.e.,
the IF sensitivity) and band
Also, since the
which the characteristics superheterodyne
of the IF
receiver. amplifier determinees
receiver is tuned, the selectivityamplifier are
qute uniform
throughout its and independent
sensitivity
of the
incoming
Explain
tunning range and not of the
superheterodyne
subject to the variations
frequency to
the
principle working of super
receiver are
like a TRF
heterodyne receiver. receiver.
 Analog Communication Systems
Further since the I.F.
amplifier works at a fixed I.F. frequency, the design of this systa
easy to provide high gain and constant bandwidth.
stem 18 quite
Because of its narrow bandwidth, the I.F, amplifier rejects all
other frequene
intermediate frequency (1.F.). Actually, this rejection procesa reduces the
other stations or sources. In fact, this selection process 18 the key to the
risk of interfaXCept
exceptional performance. superheterodvno om
eiver's
After the I.F. amplifier, signal is applied at the input of demodulator which e
the
extra the
original modulating signal (i.e., audio signal). This audio signal is amplified by an audacts
to get a particular voltage level. This amplified
audio s1gnal is further amplified by a power as
to get a specified power level so that it may activate the loudspeaker. The loudspeakeree amplie
which converts this audio electrical signal into audio sound signal and thus
the originol er
reproduced i.e., the original transmission is received.
The advantages of the superheterodyne receiver make it the most suitable
for the maiori.
radio receiver applications like AM, FM, communications,
single-sideband, television ao
radar receiver; all use superheterodyne principle. This means that it can be
considered as tod
standard form of radio receiver. oday's
Important Point: In today's overcrowded radio-frequency spectrum, the FCC makes
channel assignments as close together as possible, with only 10 kHz adjacent
separating
broadcast-band AM channels. Spacing for adjacent commercial broadcast-band FM commercial
200 kHz, and commercial television channels are channels is
separated by 6 MHz. A radio receiver must be
capable of separating the desired channel's signals without allowing interference from an
channel to spill over into the desired channel's passband. adjacent

9.4.1 Advantages of Superheterodyning

) No variation in bandwidth. The BW remains constant over the entire operating range.
i) High sensitivity and selectivity.
(ii) High adjacent channel rejection.
9.4.2 Frequency Parameters of AM Receiver
The AM receiver has the
following frequency parameters
G) Two frequency bands: Medium wave (Mw) band and short wave
i) RF carrier range (MW band) : 535 kHz to 1650 kHz
(SW) band.
(SW band) :5 to 15 MHz
ii) Intermediate frequency IF: 455 kHz
(iv) IF bandwidth B: 10 kHz.
9.5 RECEIVER CHARACTERISTICS
There areseveral parameters commonly used to ssfully
evaluate the ability ofa receiver
demodulate a radio
signal. The most important parameters are selectivity and to succeh
are often used to
compare the quality of one radio receiver to sensitlviuy
another.
Because the type of receiver is almost the same ystem,
for various forms of modulation Or sy
therefore, it is generally most convenient to rodyne
receiver while dealing with AM receivers. explain
the various principles of a
Thus, with the discussion of AM superhsis is
recenver,
formed for the more complex versions of superheterodyne receiver. In this section, a ees
let us
various superheterodyne receiver characteristics. They are as under:
() Sensitivity
i) Selectivity
(ii) Fidelity
 Radio Recelvers

6
AM SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER ( DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS BLOCKS)
.cpction, let us discuss the principle and working of different blocks used in
inth
A Mr e c e i v e r .
a
superheterodyae
7 RF AMPLIFIER

Basic Concept
RFamplifier is small signal tuned
a
amplifier with tuned
tout side. Both these input and output tuned circuits circuits both in the input side and
rier frequency. Accordingly the tuned circuits select the desired tuned
are
to the desired
incoming
carrier frequency and reject all
ndesired frequencies including the image frequency. Hence the RF
Peguency rejection. Also the gain provided by the RF amplifier will resultamplifier
in
provides image
sthio in the output of the receiver. This is due to the fact that the improved signal/ noise
incoming weak
higher level with the help of RF amplifier before it is fed at the input of the mixersignal is raised to
ntributes most of the noise generated in the receiver. However, if the stage which
irectly to the incoming
frequency mixer, the signal/noise ratio at the output of the mixer weak signal is fed
pd hence any amount of subsequent amplification cannot stage is quite poor
iunction of the RF amplifier is to improve S/N ratio. improve S/N ratio. Thus the one
important
There also where an RF amplifier is not used in the
are some cases
receiver rather its use is
s2economical there. The best example of this kind of receiver is a domestic receiver used in a
ignal-strength area like a metropolitan city. Since in a metropolitan city like Delhi, several high-
ae situated and in such places strength is obviously very high and thus there is stations
no need for the use
RF amplifier. In such cases the tuned circuit connected to the antenna is the
Jthe mixer. actual input circuit
However, a receiver having an RF amplifier is
ithout RF amplifier. obviously superior in performance to a receiver
We may summarize the
advantages of RF amplifier as under
6) Greater gain i.e., better
sensitivity
(i) Improved rejection of adjacent undesired
signals i.e. better selectivity
(i) Improved signal/noise ratio
iv) Improved image frequency rejection
() Improved coupling of the receiver to the antenna
(vi) Prevention of re-radiation of the local oscillator
voltage through the antenna
(vii) Prevention of spurious frequencies from entering the mixer and
interfering frequency equal to IF. heterodyne to produce

12Circuit of RF Amplifier
igure 9.10 shows the circuit diagram of one stage RF amplifier using an NPN transistor. It is
all signal amplifier using parallel tuned circuit as the load impedance. This parallel output
ed Circuit is tuned to the incoming desired signal frequency. The output from the receiving
n a is transformer coupled to the base of the transistor. The secondary coil of the input tuned
1 8 tuned to the incoming desired signal frequency with the help of ganged tuning
i . n fact the tuning capacitors i.e., variable air capacitors in the input side and the output
mde of the
he RE amplifier are ganged together. In addition to this, small trimmer capacitors are
n shunt with these tuning capacitors for the purpose of RF alignment.

eif-bias is provided with the help of resistors R, and R, and Rg-Cg assembly. A decoupling
work cons1sting
consisting of resistor R and capacitor C, is placed in the collector supply lead.
606 Analog Communication Systems

9.19 LOCAL OSCILLATOR

used in medium w a v e and short wave AM h
The most common types of local oscillator
and the Hartley, the colpitts
and the clapp oscillators. The adcasting
receivers are the Armstrong
are utilized for higher irequency receiver
systems. All local osei
colpitts and clapp oscillators tuned circuit to determine the frequency of oscillatian
Ors
use a single
are L-C oscillators and with gure
oscillator circuit used in a superheterodyne receiver along
9.30 shows a typical local mixer
circuit.

-o IF out
Ncc
zAo
MIXER LOCAL
OSCILLATOR

CB
IFT 1 2Ro
RF Cc
Input
t
Rs
Co

Ganged
Fig. 9.30 A local oscillator circuit.
Local oscillator frequency of the standard broadcast receiver is usually made higher than the
incoming signal frequency by an amount equal to intermediate frequency (IF) of 455 kHz. To clarify
this let us consider the standard AM broadcast band which extends from 540 kHz to 1650 kHz. Let
the local oscillator frequency is made smaller than
the incoming signal frequency. In such
local oscillator should be case. the
capable of varying frequency in the range of 85 kHz to 1195 kHz.
gives a ratio of maximum to minimum frequency equal to 14:1. This
However, this ratio
achieved by normal tunable capacitance. The capacitance of normal tunable capacitors may e
cannot De
varied in the ratio of maximum capacitance to minimum capacitance equal to 10:1 which gives a
maximum frequency ratio of 3.2:1. This means that if the local oscillator
than the signal frequency by an amount of 455 kHz, the normal frequency 1s kept i0
On the other hand, if the tunable capacitors cannot De ue
local oscillator gnal
frequency by an amount of 455 kHz frequency is made larger than the incominsAM
then the variation of the
band would be from 995 kHz to
2105 kHz which
capacitance over the compie
achieved by using normal tunable gives a ratio of 2.2 :1. This
ratio can be ivers
used commercial
capacitor. Thus, due to this reason, the superheterodyne recoming
for broadcasting use local
signal frequency which is higher than the oscillator frequency which is higher than the n the
intermediate frequency. incoming signal frequency by an amount e
 Radio Receivers 615
Solution: Given that 1 MHz, BW 10 klHz
We know that

Ix10 100
BW10x10 Ans
9.21 TRACKING

The receiver has a number oftunable cireuits such as the antenna or mixer or a local oscillator
turned circuits. All these eircuits must be turned correctly if any station is to be tuned. For this
reason., the capacitors in the various turned circuits are ganged (mechanically coupled to each
other). Due to this arrangement, it is possible to use only one tuning control to vary the tuning
capacitors simultaneously. The local oscillator frequency (f) must be precisely adjusted to a value
which is above the signal frequency () by IF i.e., f £, +IF.
=

Ifthis tuning is not done precisely then the frequency difference i.e., (G-fs) is not correct. This
type of errors are known as the tracking errors, because tracking is a process in which the local
0Scillator frequency follows or tracks the signal frequency to have a correct frequency difference.
Due to the tracking errors, the stations will appear away from their correct position on the frequency
dial of the receiver.
Practically, it is not possible to always keep a constant diference between f and f, Hence,
some tracking error is always present. The tacking can be two point tracking or three point tracking.
9.21.1 Intermediate Frequencies and IF Amplifiers
In this section, we shall discuss intermediate frequencies used in different communication
systems and intermediate frequency amplifier.
9,21.1.1. Choice of Intermediate Frequency
receiver is generally a
In any communication system, the intermediate frequency (IF) of a
promise because there are certain reasons why it must be neither low nor high. Following are
or factors which affect the choice of intermediate freguency in any communication system:
) If the intermediate frequency (IF) is quite high then a poor selectivity and poor adjacent
channel rejection will result unless sharp cut-off filters are used in the IF stage of the
receiver.
i) A very high value of intermediate frequeney (1F) causes tracking problems in receiver.
cii) If the intermediate frequency is lowered, the image-frequency rejection will become poorer.
The rejection of an image frequency is given by
.(9.326)
a 1+Qp
where, Q=Quality factor
. (9.33)
.(9.34)
and ff+2
From equations (9.18) and (9.19) it is clear that image frequeney rejection is improved if
the ratio of image frequency to signal frequency is inereased and this requires a high
intermediate frequeney (IF). It may also be observed that image frequeney rejection will
become worse if the signal frequency is increased.
Giv) If the intermediate frequeney is very low, it will make the selectivity too sharp and thus
cutting off the sidebands.
()If the intermediate frequency (1F) is very low, then the frequency stability of the local
oscillator will have to be made correspondingly higher since now any frequency drift is a
larger proportion of the low IF than that of a high IF.
(vi) The intermediate frequency must not fall within the tunning range of the receiver otherwise
instability would occur and a heterodyne whistles would be heard and thus would make it
impossible to tune to the frequency band just adjacent to the intermediate frequeney (IF).
616 Analog Communication Systems

9.21.1.2. Intermediate Frequencies Used

Following are the diff ent intermediate frequencies which are used in different communicati
systems ation
G) In case of standard broadcast AM receivers, which are tuned to 540 kHz
to 1650 kH .
intermediate frequency is 455 kHz. the
ii) AM, SSB and other receivers used for shortwave or VHF reception use a
first IF in
range of 1.6 to 2.3 MHz, or else above 30 MHz. Actually, such of type the s

receivers use two or

more different intermediate frequencies.
(ii) FM broadcast receivers tuned to a standard band of 88 MHz to 108 MHz use an IF whicL
ich is :
almost 10.7 MHz.
(iv) Television receivers in the VHF band (54 MHz to 223 MHz) and in the
UHF hand
MHz to 940 MHz) use an IF between 26 MHz and 46 MHz with 36 MHz and (470
46 MH. Z are
the two most popular values
(v) Microwave and radar receivers using a frequency range of 1 GHz to 10 GHz
use JFs whi
depend upon the application with 30 MHz, 60 MHz and 70 MHz are the
values
most popular
9.21.1.3. Intermediate Frequency (IF) Amplifier
This stage of a superheterodyne receiver generally contains two or more
stages of small sional
tuned amplifier using CE configuration. The output of the frequency mixer
produced across the
tuned circuit is coupled to the input of this amplifier. Each such tuned circuit has a
characteristic and the overall response of the n-stages of IF amplifier provides the
passband
required 10 kH
bandwidth. Infact, the number of tuned circuits inductively coupled to the next
here n is the number of stages of IF amplifier. This type of tuned circuit tuned to the
stage is (n + .
intermediate
frequency and inductively coupled to the next stage is generally known as IF transformer (i.e.
IFT). In majority of the commercial broadcast receivers two stages of IF amplifier are used.
In
these stages, the quality factor Q of the tuned circuit is kept high because the band of
accommodated is quite small being only 10 kHz in amplitude modulation broadcast frequencies
receiver.
Figure 9.28 shows the circuit diagram of a two-stage IF amplifier. The two stages are
similar. The IF voltage from the first IF transformer is fed to the base of the quite
AVC bias is applied at the lower end of the first IF transformer transistor T. The
secondary. For the first IF amplifier
stage, the collector terminal is grounded through resistor
a positive bias from the 6 volt d.c.
R, whereas the emitter terminal is provided
supply through a potential divider constituted by the resistors R,
and R. Also, since the base terminal is
grounded through the AVC bias, it results in the
negative bias at the base with respect to the emitter terminal. Ra - Ca combination makes required
the AVC
decoupling network. For the given values of resistors R and R,, the emitter to base bias is at +3
volts. The base is connected
through the IF transformer secondary to a part of the positive
supply through the potential divider containing resistors and d.c.
negative collector-to-base bias VccB (i.e. reverse bias) and R Rg. Hence, there results the required
forward bias). The output of the second I.P. positive emitter-to-base bias VEEBe
amplifier stage is fed to the demodulator. Also the Kj
C, combination provides the emitter self-bias. The R, C, combination
provides the collector sell
-

bias in the first stage. In addition to this,

of one stage to the low input
impedance matching the high collector circuit
of
impedance
impedance of the following stage is obtained by using a
transformer. step-dow
Neutralization
Every stage of intermediate-frequency (IF) amplifier
provides
results a tendency of oscillation in common emitter amplifier because high
a gain. Due
of positive
to this,
feedback fromther
tne
output to the input through collector junction capacitance. Thus, the oscillations so
hawling in the audio output. So hence, the operation of the IF amplifier becomes generated cause
balance this, we use negative feedback in IF amplifier stages. This unstable.
negative feedback is provide
by a capacitor C, or C6 Connected between the base and the one end of the primary tuned cireult,
the collector being connected to the other.
 Radio Receivers 617

tant Point: Basically, the input

port signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
inipsing the RF bandwidth for the noise power measurement.
is calculated at a receiver
However, the RF bandwidth is
ipally wider than the bandwidth of the rest of the receiver (i.e., the IF bandwidth is narrower
genho RFbandwidth). Reducing the bandwidth is effectively equivalent to reducing (improving)
than

the
ise figure of the receiver. The noise reduction ratio achieved by reducing the bandwidth is
ealled bandwidth improvement (BI).
AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL (AGC) OR AUTOMATIC VOLUME CONTROL(AVC)
9.22 AUTOMATIC
2

1. Basic Concept
It is generally observed that as a result of fading, the amplitude of the IF carrier signal at the
detector input may vary as much as s0 or 40 dB. This results in corresponding variations in general
level of reproduced programme at the receiver output. At a carrier minimum, the loudspeaker
output becomes inaudible and gets mixed in noise. On the other hand, at the carrier maximum. the
output of the loudspeaker becomes intolerably large. The simplest and the most effective means
adopted to balance the fading is the automatic gain control (AGC) or automatic volume control
AVC). Infact, this is universally used in all broadcast and radio receivers. It has been observed
thata properly designed AGC system reduces the amplitude variation due to fading from a high
value of 30 to 40 dB to a small value of 3 to 4 dB.
2. Principle of Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
The principle of operation of AGC contains the following steps
() to derive by rectification of carrier voltage in a linear diode detector, a dc voltage proportional
to the carrier amplitude.
(i) to apply this dc voltage as a reverse-biased voltage at the input of the RF amplifier, frequency
mixer and the IF amplifier.
the gains of all
Thus, now if the carrier signal amplitude increases, the AGC bias increases and
at the
the tuned stages preceding the detector decrease resulting in decrease in carrier amplitude
if the carrier amplitude
input of the detector bringing it back to its original or normal value. Now,
decreases due to some reason, then the reverse action takes place. Hence, the AGC smoothens out
thevariations in the carrier amplitude toa very large extent.
9.22.1 Linear Diode Detector with Capacitor Filter and Simple AGC
AGC. In this circuit, the
Figure 9.43 shows the circuit of a linear diode detector with simple
half-wave rectified voltage is developed across load resistor R. Capacitor C filters the RF components
resistor R.
due to which only the de and the modulating frequency voltage are obtained across the load
AGC is
The de component is removed from the output by the use of coupling capacitor Cc.
picked up from the diode end of the load resistor Detector diode
R. But, since this voltage consists of modulating
frequency component as well, therefore an AGC
filter consisting of a series resistor R^ and shunt
capacitor is used to remove the modulating
C
or frequency component and thus
baseband
as the
leaving only a positive d.c. voltage
required AGC bias. AGC
filter is Bias
The time-constant of this AGC
Suitable selected to remove all modulating
requency components. This time-constant
remove even the diode detector with capacitor
ACA must be large enough to Fig. 9.43. Linearfilter and simple AGC
tromn
Owest modulating frequency component
be on the
the AGC bias. However, AGC must
618 Analog Communication Systems - -

other hand, small enough to enable the AGC bias to follow the change in carrier amplitu
second. Now, this positive Aco A
yplcal time-constant of AGC filter is in the range of 0.1 to 0.2
is at the base of PNP transistors of
applied preceding tuned stages. This positive AGC
reduces the net forward bias at emitter junction thereby reducing the gain of the amplifier. H o n
biasa
in case of NPN transistors, a negative AGC bias is applied at the bases of the transistors of Dreer
tuned stages. In this case, the detector circuit is similar to that shown in figure 9.44, excon ding
the polarity of the diode is reversed. that

w-lo
HH

Fig. 9.44 Two-stage transistorized IF amplifier

 Radio Receivers 619
--

GAR DIODE DETECTOR WITH -FILTER AND SIMPLE AGC

E

she better
removal of RF components from the modulating frequency output, a n-filter is
le circuit diagram of linear diode
ace of a simple capacitor filter. Pigure 9.45 shows thecontrol is generally provided by
with T-filter and simple AGC. Also, a manual volume
iable resistor at the input of the first audio amplifier as shown in the figure.
Load resistance
Detector diode Manual
volume control

From I.F. A o To audio

Amplifier amplifier
0-
T-filter

AGC filter

r-filter and simple AGC

Fig. 9.45 Linear diode detector with

4 DELAYED AGC
now suffer from a major
drawback that the AGC becomes operative
AGC systems discussed till
aple The result of this is that the receiver gain
starts falling as s0on as
en for very week signals. must remain in
the output. On the other hand, an ideal AGC system
tector diode starts producing reaches a reasonable large predetermined
voltage.
erative until the input carrier voltage constant instead of
to maintain output level
the AGC must come into operation
absequently, in AGC operation, then it
serves

carrier voltage. If a delay is produced

ariation in input level of shows an arrangement to produce delay
in AGC operation. With zero
and
9.46
omepurpose. Figure AGC bias just equals the potential
of
signal voltages, diode D, conducts due to which the
mall remains fixed at a low positive value.
As the input carrier voltage
athode of this diode. Hence, AGCdue to rectification of carrier voltage in detector diode D, increases.
ncreases,the AGC bias produced of the positive cathode voltage of
when this rectified bias magnitude exceeds the magnitude
Also, works normally.
diode D,, then diode D, stops to conduct and the AGC system
Detector diode
-
R Modulating
From IF
Amplifier
C2 frequency
output

AGCfilterRA
AGC bias <-
D Delaydiode
CA Delay bias

Fig. 9.46 Linear diode detector with delayed AGC

9.25 AMPLIFIED AND DELAYED AGC

is amplified before application as reverse bias
Ong one step further, if the delayed AGC bias
characteristics closely approaches the ideal delaye
AeTuned amplifiers, the AGC behaviour or
AGC.
620 Analog Communication Systems

Detector diode- R
-
f w Cc
Manual volume
control
From IF
Modulating
Amplifier C CT frequency
output
9+Vcc
Delay and
AGC diode

Delay bias

HE
AGC T-fiter
Additional
IF amplifier

AGCbias
Fig. 9.47. Linear diode detector with amplified and delayed AGGC.

9.26 AGC CHARACTERISTICS

The AGC characteristic i.e., the curve giving audio output of receiver plotted against input carrier
voltage is shown in figure 9.48 for different cases.
Simple AGC is given by the curve S whereas an ideal AGC is represented by the curve ID.
The curve PD gives the AGC characteristics of delayed AGC and the curve AD gives the ampliífed
and delayed AGC characteristics.

-PD
S
-AD

S Simple AGC
ID-Ideal delayed AGC
PD Practical delayed AGC
AD Amplified & delayed AGC

Input carrier voltage-

Fig. 9.48. AGC Characteristics

9.27 DOUBLE CONVERSION RECEIVER (COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVEH

receiver

The block diagram ofa double conversion receiver

which is also called as communea
is as shown in figure 9.49.
ations

The main function of such type of receivers is reception of signals used in tne
and not the reception of entertainment signals.
 Radio Recoivers 621

fvom the block diagram, this receiver also operates on the principle of muperheterdyne
have already discussed.
As
se e n
hich w e
ever whic

difications and additions are made in this circuit.

However,lot of modif

Receiving
First IF Second IF
antenna

2 stage
H
Antenna First Second
coupling amplifiier mixer F a mpl mixer
unit 2 to 16MHz 2 to 16MHz 1.7MHz 1.7MHz 200 z
OFFO
Local Crystal Beat
oscillator oscillator freqency
1.5M z
3.7 to 17.7MHz scllator

Delay AGC
detAGGectorH E
Power Audio Squelch
amplifier amplifier circuit

Fig. 9.49 Block diagram of a double coversion receiver

9.27.1 Double Conversion

The receiver has two mixers and local oscillators and therefore has two intermediate frequencies
in the MHz range in
That is why it is called as the double conversion receiver. The first IF is high.
order to have better image frequency rejection. Whereas the second IF is low. in the kHz range in
order to have all the advantages of low IF, discussed earlier.
At this stage, it may be noted that the high IF must come first.
The other important circuits which are use in the double conversion receiver are as follows :
G) Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO)
i) Squelech circuit.
9.27.2 Beat Frequency Oscillator AF
(BFO) amplifier

The communications receiver Modulating

should be able to receive the trans signal
mission of Morse code. In order to make Input R3
the dots, dashes and spaces in the
Morse
The
code audible, the BFO is used.
ww-
oscillator is a simple Hartley
OScillator which operates at a frequency Ra R
of 1 kHz or 400 Hz above or below the DC Levei adjustment
amplifier ( potentiometer
last IF. When the IF is present, a
whistle is heard in the loudspeaker
nus the dots or dashes can be actually
heard. To avoid interference, the BFO
s
otherwise switched off.
AGC input
Fig. 9.50 Squelch circuit
622 I Analog Communication Systems
9.27.3 Squelch or Muting Circult
When the carrier is absent i.e. there is no signal present at the input, the receiver produc
loud noise. This is due to the use of delayed AGC. The AGC disappears in the absence of the produces a
signal. increasing the gains of the IF and RF amplifiers to a great extent. These amplifiers willinpu
ampify the noise present at their inputs. In order to avoid this, a squelch circuit is used. Saun
is also called as muting or quieting. Therefore, in the absenece of any input signal, the AGCsch
will be zero and the squelch cireuit will cut-off the first audio amplifier so that neither signana
noise can pas through to the loud speaker. nor

9.27.4 Other Important Features

The other important features of the communication receiver are fine tuning, variable sensitio
and seletivity. noise limiting, extra sensitivity and better image frequency rejection, better adiat
channel rejection, automatic frequency control (AFC) etc.

9.28 LIC sUPERHETERODYNE AM RECEIVERS

A complete superheterodyne AM receiver is now availabel in the form of linear IC. Becauso s
inductor cannot be fabricated in the IC form, therefore, we have to make
tuning circuit arrangemene
externally for coupling the in-built RF amplifier, mixer and IF
number of linear 1C superheterodyne AM receivers are available amplifier stages of the Linear ICs A
in the market.
Semiconductor Corporation offers LM 1820, a 14 pin IC which contains the RF The National
and local oscillator and IF amplifier. miver
amplifier. With proper external connections, this IC can be used as a
super heterodyne AM receiver. Figure 9.51 shows a
typical
superheterodyne AM receiver. These linear IC receivers are not soarrangement of IC LM 1820
popular they are neither low-
cost nor small sized. The size and
cost are found out mainly by the
linear 1C AM radios find frequency tuning circuit. The-
applications in the high quality AM receivers. However,
may be used in place of LC tuned circuit. ceramic filter=
These types of filters are IC
compatible. Use of these ceramic filters is theoretically possible to
fabricate a functional AM broadcast band receiver
potentiometers (for volume control and station selection) using just the chip and two externa
and antenna.

Audio
Output
13
14 213l7
LM 1820

MIXER
Amg Amg
AGC Detector

Fig. 9.51. Linear IC (LM

1820) superheterodyne AM receiver.