CH-Three

RESEARCH METHODS Research Proposal

A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
 The research proposal is a detailed plan of a study.
 It is a document which shows researchers’ ideas in an
easily accessible way.
 The intent of the written research proposal is to provide
a focused and scholarly presentation of a research
problem and plan.
 A good research proposal centres in a good idea.
 Getting a good idea hinges on familiarity with the topic.
 Familiarity with a topic requires a preparation period
of reading, observation, discussion, and incubation.
READEVERYTHING THATYOUCANIN YOURAREA OFINTEREST.

 See what are the important and missing parts of

our understanding.
 Figure out how to build/discover those parts.
 Then write the important parts as the proposal.
THEOBJECTIVE IN WRITING APROPOSAL IS TODESCRIBE:
•what you will do?
•why it should be done?
•how you will do it?
THE WRITTEN PROPOSAL:

🢝 forces researchers to clarify their thoughts and

to think about all aspects of the study;
🢝 Serves as a guide
🢝 is essential to get ethical approval, if the
study involves research on human subjects or
experimental animals
🢝 is an essential component submitted for funding.
APROPOSAL CANBEJUDGEDACCORDING TOTHEFOLLOWINGMAIN
CRITERIA.
🢝 Is it adequate to answer the research
question(s), and achieve the study objective?
🢝 Is it feasible in the particular set-up for the study?
🢝 Does it provide enough detail that can allow
another investigator to do the study and arrive at
comparable results?
 COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
The basic components of a research proposal are very much similar in many fields.
However, how they are phrased and presented may vary among disciplines.
The following components may be taken as the usual ones.
 Title - the research topic
 Introduction/background
 Statement of problems
 Purpose of study
 Research questions and hypotheses
 Scope and limitation of the study
 Significance of the study
 Chapter structure/organization of the research report
 Literature review
 Methodology
 Work-plan/timeline
 Budget
 References
TITLE - THE RESEARCH TOPIC

 The topic is the subject matter of a proposed study.

 Shows the central idea to learn about or to explore.
 The title should give a definite and concise indication of what
is to come.
 Titles should almost never contain abbreviations.
 Should be brief and eliminate unnecessary words; “An
Approach to …., A study of …”, and so forth.
 consider a title no longer than 12 words,
 Title page needs to show your name, the name of your
department/faculty/college, the name of your advisor(s) and
date of delivery under the title.
 The title page has no page number and it is not counted in
any page numbering;
INTRODUCTION/BACKGROUND
 The introduction provides background information for the
research proposal.
 Its purpose is to establish a framework for the research, so that
readers can understand how it is related to other research.
 The introduction needs to create reader interest in the topic,
include a statement sufficiently interesting to encourage readers
to read farther and see the significance in the study.
 The statement is an important problem that your study intends
to address.
 establish the problem that leads to the study,
 After establishing the research problem, justify its importance
by reviewing studies that have examined the issue.
 The purpose of reviewing studies in the introduction is to justify
the importance of the study and to create distinction between
past studies and the proposed one.
INTRODUCTION/BACKGROUND

To review the literature related to the research problem for an

introduction to a proposal consider the following research tips:
🢝 refer to the literature by summarizing groups of studies,
not individual ones (unlike the main LR).
🢝 The intent should be to establish broad areas of research.
🢝 To deemphasize single studies, place the in-text references
at the end of a brief paragraph or at the end of a
summary point about several studies.
🢝 Review research studies that used quantitative, qualitative
or mixed methods approaches.
🢝 Find recent literature to summarize;
🢝 Cite older studies if they are valuable because they have
been widely referenced by others.
INTRODUCTION/BACKGROUND
 After advancing the problem and reviewing the literature about it,
the researcher then identifies deficiencies (the missing parts) found in
the literature.
 In other words, the researcher needs to show why more work is
necessary (the proposed work)
 Deficiencies in past literature may exist because:
 topics not have been explored with a particular group, sample or
population;
 the literature may need to be replicated or repeated to see if the
same findings hold, given new samples of people or new sites for
study;
 In any given study, authors may mention one or more of these
deficiencies.
 Deficiencies can often be found in the “suggestions for future
research” sections of journal articles and authors can reference
these ideas and provide further justification for their proposed study.
INTRODUCTION/BACKGROUND
In summary, when identifying deficiencies in the past
literature, proposal developers might use the following
research tips
 Cite several deficiencies to make the case even
stronger for a study
 Identify specifically the deficiencies of other studies
(methodological flaws, variables overlooked)
 Write about areas overlooked by past studies,
including topics, special statistical treatment, and so
forth.
 Beyond mentioning the deficiencies, proposal writers
need to tell how their planned study will remedy or
address these deficiencies and provide a unique
contribution to the scholarly literature.
INTRODUCTION/BACKGROUND

In summary, five components of writing a good introduction:

a) establishing the problem leading to the study,
b) reviewing the literature about the problem;
c) identifying deficiencies in the literature about the
problem;
d) targeting an audience and noting the significance of the
problem for this audience;
e) identifying the purpose of the proposed study
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
 is the problem or issue that leads to the need for a study.
 the issue that exists in the literature, theory, or practice
 It might spring from an experience researchers have had in their
personal lives or workplaces.
 It may come from an extensive debate that has appeared in the
literature.
 It might develop from policy debates in government or among
top executives.
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
 The research problem in a study begins to become clear
when the researcher asks:

• what is the need for this study?” or

• what problem influenced the need to undertake this
study?”,

• Why does this research need to be conducted?” .

If a researcher is unable to answer these questions clearly then
the statement of the problem is likely to be ambiguous
the research problem is often confused with the research questionsthose
questions that the investigator would like to answer in order to understand or
explain the problem.
Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions
or Hypotheses
 Purpose Statements, Research Questions,
Hypotheses, and Objectives

Purpose Research Research

Hypotheses
Statement Questions Objectives
Overall Raise questions Make predictions State goals
Intent
direction to be answered about expectations

One or more One or more One or more One or more

Form
sentences questions statements objectives

Use Quantitative Quantitative Quantitative Typically

and qualitative and qualitative research quantitative
research research research
Placement End of End of the introduction, after the literature
introduction review, or in a separate section of the study
 Why These Statements and Questions Are
Important
• Represent major signposts
• Help identify appropriate methods
• Help link intent with the results
 What We Need to Know to Design Quantitative
Purpose Statements, Research Questions, and
Hypotheses

• What is a variable?
• What is a theory?
• What elements go into these statements and
questions?
What Is a Variable?

A Variable
(A Characteristic or Attribute)

That can be and

Measured Varies
(Can be assessed (Can assume
on an instrument different values or
and recorded on scores for different
an instrument) individuals)
 Categorical and Continuous Measures of
Variables
• A categorical measure is a value of a variable
assigned by the researcher into a small number of
categories. (e.g., gender)
• A continuous measure is the value of a variable
assigned by the researcher to a point along a
continuum of scores, from low to high. (e.g., age)
 Variables and Constructs

• A variable is an attribute or characteristic stated in

a specific or applied way.
• A construct is an attribute or characteristic
expressed in an abstract, general way.

Construct Student Achievement

Variable Grade Point Average

 Families of Variables in Quantitative Studies

Probable Cause Effect

(X)
(Y) (Z)
Independent Intervening Dependent
Variables Variables Variables
• Treatment
• Measured

Control
Variables

Moderating Confounding
Variables Variables
 Family of Variables

• Dependent variables: An attribute or

characteristic influenced by the independent
variable.
• The outcome
• The effect
• The criterion
• The consequences
 Family of Variables (cont’d)

• Independent variable: An attribute or

characteristic that influences or affects an outcome
or dependent variable
• Treatment variable
• Measured variable
• Control variable
• Moderating variable
 Intervening Variables

• Intervening variables (mediating variables):

An attribute or characteristic that “stands between”
the dependent and independent variables
Example of an Intervening Variable

Independent Dependent
Step 1 Variable Variable

Example Convenient office hours Student seeks help

for students from faculty

Independent
Independent Intervening
Step 2 Variable Variable
Variable
Convenient office hours Student becomes willing
Example to take risks
for students

Independent Intervening Dependent

Step 3 Variable Variable Variable
Convenient office hours Student becomes willing
Example for students
Student seeks help
to take risks from faculty
Family of Variables

• Confounding variables (spurious variables):

Attributes or characteristics that the researcher
cannot directly measure because their effects
cannot be easily separated from the other
variables, even though they may influence the
relationship between the independent and the
dependent variable
 Theories as Bridges Between Independent and
Dependent Variables

Independent Dependent
Variables Variables
 Different Types of Explanations in
Quantitative Research
Extensive Tests by Broad
Other Researchers Abstractions
As a formal theory that is expressed by connected
hypotheses and variables identified by authors

As a conceptual framework often expressed as a

visual model by other authors for relationship

As a theoretical rationale posed by other authors

based on studies for relationship

An explanation posed by the author as a hunch

No Test for why the independent variable relates to the Narrow
dependent variable Application
 Elements of a Quantitative Purpose
Statement
• A quantitative purpose statement identifies the variables, their
relationship, and the participants and site for research
• Guidelines for writing
• Use a single sentence
• Use wording such as The purpose of this study . . .
• If using a theory, state the theory you plan to test
• Use quantitative words (e.g., “relate,” “compare,” “describe”) to
describe the relationships between variables
 Elements of Quantitative Purpose
Statement (cont’d)
• Guidelines for writing (cont’d)
• Independent variable (1st position in sentence)
• Dependent variable (2nd position in sentence)
• Control and/or mediating variable (3rd position in
sentence)
• Research site
• Participants
 Quantitative Research Questions
• Types of quantitative research questions
• Describe results of your variables
• Compare two or more groups on the independent variable in terms of
the dependent variable
• Relate two or more variables
• Guidelines for writing
• Pose a question
• Begin with “how,” “what,” or “why”
• Specify the independent, dependent, and mediating or control variables
• Use the words describe, compare, or relate to indicate the action or
connection among the variables
• Indicate the participants and the research site for the study
 Research Hypotheses: Types
• Null hypothesis
• No change in the dependent variable
• Example: There will be no significant difference in test scores
between fifth-grade boys and girls on the XYZ achievement
test.
• Directional alternative hypothesis
• Specifies the direction of the change in the dependent variable
the researcher predicts will take place
• Example: Fifth-grade girls will have higher scores on the XYZ
achievement test than fifth-grade boys.
 Research Hypotheses: Types (cont’d)

• Nondirectional alternative hypothesis

• Does not specify the direction of the change in the dependent variable
• Example: There will be a difference in test scores on the XYZ achievement test for
fifth-grade boys and girls.
 Research Hypotheses

• Guidelines for writing

• State the variables in this order: independent (first position),
dependent (second position), and control (third position)
• When comparing, explicitly state the groups; if variables are
related, specify the relationship between the variables
• Make a prediction about changes you expect in your groups.
• State information about the participants and the site unless it
repeats information stated in your purpose statement
Designing Qualitative Purpose Statements and
Research Questions

• Understand how these statements and questions

differ from quantitative research
• Understand the role of a central phenomenon in
qualitative research
• Understand qualitative research as an emerging
process
 Differences Between Quantitative and
Qualitative Purpose Statements and Research
Questions
Quantitative—more closed Qualitative—more open-ended
• Probable cause/effect • Descriptive (“What happened?”)
• (“Why did it happen?”) • Interpretive (“What was the meaning
• Use of theories (“Why did it happen in to people of what happened?”)
view of an explanation or theory?”) • Process-oriented (“What happened
• Assess differences and magnitude over time?”)
• (“How much happened?”)
• (“How many times did it happen?”)
• (“What were the differences among
groups in what happened?”)
 Explaining or Predicting Variables Versus
Exploring or Understanding a Central
Phenomenon

Quantitative Qualitative
Explaining or Predicting Understanding or
Variables Exploring a Central
Phenomenon

X Y
Y

The independent variable (X) In-depth understanding of Y;

influences a dependent external forces shape and are
variable (Y) shaped by Y
 Two Qualitative Research Considerations

• The focus of the research is around a central

phenomenon which is an issue or a process the
researcher would like to study.
• Qualitative research is built on an emerging design.
 Elements of Qualitative Purpose Statement

• A single sentence
• A statement such as, “The purpose of this study”
• The central phenomenon
• A statement identifying the type of qualitative design
• Qualitative words (e.g., “explore,” “understand,” “discover”)
• The participants
• The research site
 Types of Qualitative Research Questions:
• Central question: The overarching question you explore in the
research study
• Subquestions: Divides the central question into smaller, specific
questions
• Issue subquestions: Narrow the focus of the central question
into specific issues
• Procedural subquestions: Indicate the steps to be used in
analyzing the data in a qualitative study
• Interview questions: Questions that are asked during your
interview that are based on your subquestions and central
question
Scope and limitation
 The focus of the study needs to be given
 Potential limitations of the study may also be shown in
the research proposal
Significance of the study
describing the significance of the study for selected
audiences,
Showing the importance of the problem for different
groups that may benefit from reading and using the
study.
By including this section, the researcher creates a
rationale for the importance of the study.
The more audiences that can be mentioned, the greater
the importance of the study and the more it will be seen
by readers to have wide application.
In designing this section, one might include:
🢝 Three or four reasons that the study adds to
the scholarly research and literature in the
field
🢝 Three or four reasons about how the study
helps improve practice
🢝 And three or four reasons as to why the study
will improve policy
Chapter structure/ organization of the research report
The number of chapters in the report The
contents of each chapter.
 LITERATURE REVIEW

 A literature review means locating and assessing

studies about a topic.
 Often these are research studies, but they may also
include conceptual articles or thought pieces that
provide frameworks for the topics.
 By research studies it means that the author or authors
pose a question or hypothesis, collect data and try to
answer the question or hypothesis.
 LITERATURE REVIEW

 Literature review is not a simple compilation of every

work written about a topic.
 Mention the problem addressed
 State the central purpose or focus of the study
 Briefly state information about (methodology) the
sample, population or subjects;
 Review key results that relate to the proposed study
LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature review accomplishes several

purposes:
•It shares with the reader the results of other studies
that are closely related to the one being undertaken;
•It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the
literature;
•It provides a framework for establishing the
importance of the study as well as a benchmark for
comparing the results with other findings;
 LITERATURE REVIEW

Theoretically, there is no single form of a literature

review for a proposal;
 It can assume various forms.
 For example, the literature review in a proposal may
be brief and summarize the major literature on the
research problem;
 Or may be an outline of the various studies related to
the issue planned to be assessed by the proposed study.
Placement of LR
In a quantitative research proposal LRis usually placed
in a separate section titled review of the literature;
For qualitative research articles, the literature review
may be found in a separate section, included in the
introduction or threaded throughout the study.
 How to organize a literature review
 Introduction: define the topic and tell the reader
about the structure of the section;

Or you may tell the reader about the sections included
in LR. This passage is a statement about the
organization of the section.
Body: this is where you show the review;
There are some ways in which you could
organize your discussion:
🢝 chronologically: for example, if writers' views have tended to
change over time.
🢝 thematically: take particular themes in the literature;
🢝 methodologically: the focus is on the methods,
Conclusion: End the literature review with a summary of the major
themes and pointing out the major flaws in methodology, gaps in
the research, contradictions, and areas for further study and
suggest how your proposed study will contribute to the literature.
Priority for selecting literature material
What types of literature might be reviewed and in what
priority?
Consider the following:
1. may start with broad syntheses of the literature, such
as overviews.
2. Next, turn to journal articles in respected, journals,
especially those that report research studies.
Start with the most recent issues of the journals and look
for studies about your topic and then work back in time.
Follow up on references at the end of the articles for
more sources to examine.
3. books related to the topic.
4. recent conference papers.
5. Dissertations and
6. others, the web also provides helpful materials for
a literature review.
Theory/
Theory base, theoretical perspective, theoretical
rationale etc
Conceptual matters about the issue being examined
An interrelated set of variables formed into propositions
that specify the relationship among variables
A theory might appear in a research study as an
argument, a discussion or rationale and it helps to
explain (predict) phenomena that occur in the world.
in quantitative study – it provides an explanation or
prediction about the relationship among variables in the
study
A theory explains how and why the variables are
related, acting as a bridge between or among the
variables
Researchers state their theories in several ways such as a
series of hypotheses or visual models
Theory may be placed in the literature review; in the
hypotheses or research questions or in a separate
section.
Theory in qualitative research -inquirers employ theory
as a broad explanation
Some qualitative studies do not include theory
Methodology
This section is like the heart of the research proposal.
You must decide exactly how you are going to achieve
your stated objective (specific research questions and or
hypotheses);
Show the method of data collection and analysis chosen;
Remember the criteria for the choice of methods;
•Philosophy of each approach, the research problem,
personal experiences and the audience
Describe the nature of each approach adopted;
Provide the rationale for using each approach;
Work plan /timeline
Work plan is a schedule that shows the different
components of a research proposal and how they will be
implemented within a specific time-span.
It may include:
🢝 The tasks to be performed;
🢝 When and where the tasks will be performed;
🢝 Who will perform the tasks and the time each
person will spend on them;
Budget
Budget items need to be shown
• Cost for every budget item should be shown
• There may be a need for budget justification of
certain costs whose requirement is not obvious
Typically, a proposal budget reflects the following costs.
Personnel: Salaries and wages of all participants of the
study
• Consumable supplies: office supplies (stationeries)
• Equipments: properties which are expensive
• Travel: cost of projected-related travel
• Communications: postage, telephone,
telegram, fax, e-mail charges associated with a
project
• Overhead costs for institutions
Budget justification
The budget justification follows the budget as an explanatory note justifying
briefly, in the context of the proposal, why the various items in the budget are
required.
References
You must give references to all the information that you obtain from books,
articles in journals, and other sources.
Referencing style
When identifying a useful document, make a complete reference to the source
using an appropriate style
Researchers need to use an appropriate and consistent reference style
throughout.
List of references
For a journal paper give:
the names of the authors,
the year of publication,
the title of the paper,
the title of the journal,

the volume number of the journal,

the first and last page numbers of the paper
For a book give:
the author,
the year of publication,
the title, and the edition number if there is one,
the name of the publisher,
the page numbers for your reference.
For an internet reference give:
the author of the web page,
the title of the item on the web page,
the date the item was posted on the web page
the date the item was accessed from the web page
the complete and exact URL.