FUNDAMENTAL OF FLUID

MECHANICS
(GEE 228)
Author: Engr Sule Joseph
Department of Civil Engineering

EDO STATE UNIVERSITY UZAIRUE, EDO STATE, NIGERIA

APRIL, 2024
PRESSURE
&
FLUID
STATICS
Objectives
• Determine the variation of pressure in a
fluid at rest
• Calculate pressure using various kinds of
manometers
• Calculate the forces exerted by a fluid at
rest on plane or curved submerged
surfaces
PRESSURE OF A LIQUID
When a fluid is contained in a vessel, it exerts force
at all points on the sides and bottom and top of the
container. The force per unit area is called pressure.
If, F = The force, and
A = Area on which the force acts; then
intensity of pressure, p = F/A ... (2.1)
The pressure of a fluid on a surface will always act
normal to the surface.
PRESSURE HEAD OF A LIQUID
A liquid is subjected to pressure due to its own weight, this pressure increases as the
depth of the liquid increases.
Consider a vessel containing liquid,
as shown in Fig. 2.1. The liquid will exert
pressure on all sides and bottom of the
vessel. Now, let cylinder be made to stand
in the liquid, as shown in the figure.
Let, h = Height of liquid in the cylinder,
A = Area of the cylinder base,
w = Specific weight of the liquid,
and, p = Intensity of pressure.
Now, Total pressure on the base of the cylinder = Weight of liquid in the cylinder
i.e., p. A. = wAh
p = wAh/A = wh i.e., p = wh ...(2.2)
As p = wh, the intensity of pressure in a liquid due to its depth will vary directly
with depth.
As the pressure at any point in a liquid depends on height of the free surface above
that point, it is sometimes convenient to express a liquid pressure by the height of the
free surface which would cause the pressure, i.e., h = p/w. The height of the free
surface above any point is known as the static head at that point.
Hence, the intensity of pressure of a liquid may be expressed in the following three
ways:
1. As a force per unit area (i.e., N/mm2, N/m2), and
2. As an equivalent static head (i.e., metres, mm or cm of liquid).
3. In Pascal, Pa such that 1Pa = N/m2. IkPa = 1KN/m2 and 1MPa = 1MN/n2 =
1N/mm2
Alternatively:
Pressure variation in fluid at rest:
In order to determine the pressure at any point in a fluid at rest “hydrostatic law” is
used; the law states as follows: “The rate of increase of pressure in a vertically
downward direction must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at that point.”
Example 2.1. Find the pressure at a depth of 15 m below the free surface of water in
a reservoir.
Solution. Depth of water, h = 15 m
Specific weight of water, w = 9.81 kN/m3
Pressure p:
We know that, p = wh = 9.81 × 15 = 147.15 kN/m2
i.e., p = 147.15 kN/m2 = 147.15 kPa (Ans.)
Example 2.2. Find the height of water column corresponding to a pressure of 54
kN/m2.
Solution. Intensity of pressure, p = 54 kN/m2
Specific weight of water, w = 9.81 kN/m3
Height of water column, h:
Using the relation: p = wh; h = p/w
= 54/9.81
= 5.5 m (Ans.)
PASCAL’S LAW
The Pascal’s law states as follows : “The intensity of pressure at any point in a liquid at rest,
is the same in all directions”.
Proof. Let us consider a very small wedge shaped element LMN of a liquid, as shown in Fig.
2.3.
Let, px = Intensity of horizontal pressure on the element of liquid,
py = Intensity of vertical pressure on the element of liquid,
pz = Intensity of pressure on the diagonal of the right angled triangular element,
α = Angle of the element of the liquid,
Px = Total pressure on the vertical side LN of the liquid,
Py = Total pressure on the horizontal side MN of the liquid, and
Pz = Total pressure on the diagonal LM of the liquid.
Now, Px = px × LN ...(i)
and, Py = py × MN ...(ii)
and, Pz = pz × LM ...(iii)
As the element of the liquid is at rest, therefore the sum of horizontal and
vertical components of the liquid pressures must be equal to zero.
Resolving the forces horizontally: Pz sin α = Px
PASCAL’S LAW
pz . LM. sin α = px . LN ( i.e Pz = pz. LM)
But, LM . sin α = LN ... From Fig 2.3
∴ pz = px ...(iv)
Resolving the forces vertically:
Pz .cos α = Py – W
(where, W = weight of the liquid element)
Since the element is very small, neglecting its weight, we have:
Pz cos α = Py or pz . LM cos α = py .MN
But, LM cos α = MN ...From Fig 2.3
∴ pz = py ...(v)
From (iv) and (v), we get: px = py = pz,
which is independent of α.
Hence, at any point in a fluid at rest the intensity of pressure is exerted equally in all
directions,
which is called Pascal’s law.
Example 2.3. The diameters of ram and plunger of an hydraulic press are
200 mm and 30 mm respectively. Find the weight lifted by the hydraulic
press when the force applied at the plunger is 400 N.
Solution. Diameter of the ram, D = 200 mm = 0.2 m
Diameter of the plunger, d = 30 mm = 0.03 m
Force on the plunger, F = 400 N
Pressure
intensity
transmitted to
the large piston
= 5.689 × 105
N/m2
Force on the
large piston =
Pressure
intensity × area
of large piston
= 5.689 × 105 ×
7. 854 × 10–3 =
4468 N
Hence, load
lifted by the
large piston =
4468 N (Ans.)
ABSOLUTE AND GAUGE PRESSURES
Atmospheric pressure:
The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon all surfaces with which it is in contact,
and it is known as atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure is also known as ‘Barometric
pressure’.
The atmospheric pressure at sea level (above absolute zero) is called ‘Standard atmospheric
pressure’.
At sea level, the pressure made by air column of 1 meter square cross-sectional area and height
equals to the atmosphere is 103kN or 103 kPa
Gauge pressure:
It is the pressure, measured with the help of pressure measuring instrument, in which the
atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero.
Gauges record pressure above or below the local atmospheric pressure, since they measure the
difference in pressure of the liquid to which they are connected and that of surrounding air. If the
pressure of the liquid is below the local atmospheric pressure, then the gauge is designated as
‘vacuum gauge’ and the recorded value indicates the amount by which the pressure of the liquid is
below local atmospheric pressure, i.e. negative pressure. (Vacuum pressure is defined as the
pressure below the atmospheric pressure).
 When the local atmospheric pressure is not given in a problem, it is taken as 100 kN/m2 or 10 m of water for simplicity of
calculations.
Standard atmospheric pressure has the following equivalent values: 101.3 kN/m2 or 101.3 kPa; 10.3 m of water; 760
mm of mercury; 1013 mb (millibar) ; 1 bar ;100 kPa = 105 N/m2.
Example 2.6. Calculate the pressure at a point 5 m below the free water surface in a
liquid that has a variable density given by relation: ρ = (350 + Ay) kg/m3
where, A = 8 kg/m4 and y is the distance in metres measured from the free surface
Example 2.10. (a) What is hydrostatic paradox?
(b) A cylinder of 0.25 m diameter and 1.2 m height is fixed centrally on the top of a large cylinder of 0.9 m diameter
and 0.8 m height. Both the cylinders are filled with water. Calculate:
(i) Total pressure at the bottom of the bigger cylinder, and (ii) Weight of total volume of water.
What is hydrostatic paradox between the two results and how this difference can be reconciled?
Solution. (a) Hydrostatic paradox:
Fig. 2.8 shows three vessels 1, 2 and 3 having the same area A at the bottom and each filled with a liquid upto the
same height h.

According to the hydrostatic equation, p = wh; the intensity of pressure (p) depends only on the height of the column
and not at all upon the size of the column. Thus, in all these vessels of different shapes and sizes, the same intensity
of pressure would be exerted on the bottom of each of these vessels. Since each of the vessels has the same area A at
the bottom, the pressure force P = p × A on the base of each vessel would be same. This is independent of the fact
that the weight of liquid in each vessel is different. This situation is referred to as hydrostatic paradox.
 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
The pressure of a fluid may be measured by the following devices:
1. Manometers:
Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid
by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of liquid. These are
classified as follows:
(a) Simple manometers:
(i) Piezometer, (ii) U-tube manometer, and (iii) Single column manometer.
(b) Differential manometers.
2. Mechanical gauges:
These are the devices in which the pressure is measured by balancing the fluid column by
spring ( elastic element) or dead weight. Generally these gauges are used for measuring high
pressure and where high precision is not required. Some commonly used mechanical gauges
are:
(i) Bourdon tube pressure gauge, (ii) Diaphragm pressure gauge,
(iii) Bellow pressure gauge, and (iv) Dead-weight pressure gauge.
Simple manometers
Let, A be the point at which pressure is to be measured. X–X is the datum line as shown in
Fig. 2.11 (a).
Let, h1 = Height of the light liquid in the left limb above the datum line,
h2 = Height of the heavy liquid in the right limb above the datum line,
h = Pressure in pipe, expressed in terms of head,
S1 = Specific gravity of the light liquid, and
S2 = Specific gravity of the heavy liquid.
The pressures in the left limb and right limb above the datum line X–X are equal (as the pressures
at two points at the same level in a continuous homogeneous liquid are equal).
Pressure head above X–X in the left limb = h + h1 S1
Pressure head above X–X in the right limb = h2 S2
Equating these two pressures, we get:
h + h1 S1 = h2 S2 or h = h2 S2 – h1S1 ...(2.6)
(ii) For negative pressure:
Refer to Fig. 2.11 (b).
Pressure head above X–X in the left limb = h + h1 S1 + h2S2
Pressure head above X–X in the right limb = 0.
Equating these two pressures, we get:
h + h1S1 + h2 S2 = 0 or h = – (h1 S1 + h2S2) ...(2.7)
Example 2.12. A U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure of oil of specific
gravity
0.85 flowing in a pipe line. Its left end is connected to the pipe and the right-limb is open to
the
atmosphere. The centre of the pipe is 100 mm below the level of mercury (specific gravity =
13.6) in
the right limb. If the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 160 mm, determine the
absolute
pressure of the oil in the pipe.
Solution. Specific gravity of oil, S1 = 0.85
Specific gravity of mercury, S2 = 13.6
Height of the oil in the left limb,
h1 = 160 – 100 = 60 mm = 0.06 m
Difference of mercury level,
h2 = 160 mm = 0.16 m.
Absolute pressure of oil:
Let, h1 = Gauge pressure in the pipe in
terms of head of water, and
p = Gauge pressure in terms of
kN/m2.
Equating the pressure heads above the
datum line X–X, we get:
h + h1 S1 = h2S2
or, h + 0.06 × 0.85 = 0.16 × 13.6 = 2.125 m
The pressure p is given by:
p = wh
= 9.81 × 2.125 kN/m2
= 20.84 kPa (Qw = 9.81 kN/m3 in S.I. units)
Absolute pressure of oil in the tube,
pabs. = patm. + pgauge
= 100 + 20.84 = 120.84 kPa (Ans.)
E.g 2.7: U-tube manometer containing mercury was used to find the negative pressure
in the pipe, containing water. The right limb was open to the atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure
in the pipe, if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs was 100 mm and height of water in the
left limb from the centre of the pipe was found to be 40 mm below.
• Specific gravity of water, S1 = 1
• Specific gravity of mercury, S2 = 13.6
• Height of water in the left limb, h1 = 40 mm =
0.04 m
• Height of mercury in the left limb, h2 = 100
mm = 0.1 m
• Let, h = Pressure in the pipe in terms of head
of water (below the atmosphere).
• Equating the pressure heads above the datum
line X–X, we get:
• h + h1S1 + h2S2 = 0 or, h = – (h1S1 + h2S2)
= – (0.04 × 1 + 0.1 × 13.6) = –1.4 m of water
• Pressure p is given by: p = wh = 9.81 × (– 1.4)
kN/m2 = – 13.73 kPa
• = 13.73 kPa (vacuum) (Ans.)
THANK
U