Chapter 1: Introduction to Biology

Lesson 1.2: The Scientific Method

The goal of science is to learn and explain how nature works. We do

this by observing the natural and physical world and also through research
and experimentation. Science is, in part, a process of learning about the world
through observation, inquiry, formulating and testing hypotheses, gathering
and analyzing data, and reporting and evaluating findings. This process is
sometimes referred as the scientific method. We are all part of an amazing a
mysterious phenomenon called "life" that thousands of scientists everyday
are trying to better explain. And it's surprisingly easy to become part of this
great discovery! All you need is your natural curiosity and an understanding of
how people use the process of science to learn about the world.

Lesson Objectives
• Identify the goal of science.
• Describe how scientists study the natural world; using the scientific method.
• Explain how and why scientists do experiments.
• Describe types of scientific investigations.
• Explain what a scientific theory is.

Vocabulary
● dependent variable ● hypothesis ● scientific law
● evidence ● independent variable ● scientific theory
● experiment ● observation
● homeostasis ● prediction

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

There are basic methods of gaining knowledge that are

common to all of science. At the heart of science is the scientific
investigation, which is done by following the scientific method. A
scientific investigation ​is a plan for asking questions and testing
possible answers. It generally follows the steps listed in ​Figure
1.17. ​See ​http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zcavPAFiG14& ​for an
overview of the scientific method.

Figure 1.17​: Steps of a Scientific Investigation. A

scientific investigation typically has these steps.

Chapter 1: The Scientific Method 5

Making Observations & Inferences
A scientific investigation typically begins with
observations. You make observations all the time.
Observations are made using your 5 senses. These
include sight, sound, taste, touch, and smell. An
inference is a guess that is made based on your
observations. Let’s say you take a walk in the woods and
observe a moth, like the one in ​Figure 1.18​, resting on a
tree trunk. You observe that the moth has spots on its
wings that look like eyes. You think the eye spots make
the moth look like the face of an owl. You infer that the
moth uses the “owl eye” to protects itself from predators.
Figure 1.18​: Does this moth remind you of an owl?

Asking a Question
Observations often lead to questions. For example, you might ask yourself why the moth has
eye spots that make it look like an owl’s face. What reason might there be for this observation? Asking a
question helps focus your investigation.

Forming a Hypothesis
The next step in a scientific investigation is forming a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a possible
answer to a scientific question, but it isn’t just any answer. A hypothesis must be based on scientific
knowledge, and it must be logical. A hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable. Falsifiable is the ability
to collect data that does not support a hypothesis. Finally, hypotheses are often stated as an “If...then”
statement, because it shows ​cause and effect​; if A occurs, then B will happen. Assume you know that
some birds eat moths and that owls prey on other birds. From this knowledge, you make the hypothesis:
If a moth has eye spots on its wings, then birds will avoid eating it.

Testing the Hypothesis - Conducting a Controlled Experiment

Next, you must gather evidence to test your prediction. Evidence is any type of data that may
either agree or disagree with a prediction. So it may either support or disprove a hypothesis. The most
ideal way to gather data is to conduct a controlled experiment. All good controlled experiments include
the following elements: independent variables, dependent variable, constants, control group, and
experimental groups. These terms will be discussed later in the section. However, a controlled
experiment cannot be used in every situation; sometimes scientists simply rely on a large number of
consistent observations to draw conclusions. For example, suppose you gather evidence by making
more observations of moths with eye spots -- many observations under many types of conditions. If you
consistently observe that birds really do avoid eating the moths, then your data (observations) support
your prediction.

Drawing Conclusions
Evidence that agrees with your prediction supports your hypothesis. Does such evidence prove
that your hypothesis is true? Not necessarily; a hypothesis cannot be proven conclusively to be true
unless there is a very tightly controlled experiment. This is rarely possible because you can never
examine all of the possible evidence, and someday evidence might be found that disproves or refutes
the hypothesis. Nonetheless, the more evidence that supports a hypothesis, the more likely the
hypothesis is to be true.

Chapter 1: The Scientific Method 6

Communicating Results
The last step in a scientific investigation is communicating what you have learned with others.
This is a very important step because it allows others to verify your methods and results. If other
researchers get the same results as yours, the hypothesis becomes stronger. However, if they get
different results, they may not support the hypothesis. When scientists share their results, they should
describe their methods and point out any possible problems with the investigation. Finally,
communicating results can be done in a variety of ways including scientific papers, blogs, news articles,
conferences, etc.
For example, while you were observing moths, perhaps your presence scared birds away. This
introduces an error into your investigation. You got the results you predicted (the birds avoided the
moths while you were observing them), but not for the reason you hypothesized. Other researchers
might be able to think of ways to avoid this error in future studies.

Chapter 1: The Scientific Method 7

CONTROLLED EXPERIMENTS

A scientific investigation ​is a plan for asking

questions and testing possible answers. A controlled
experiment ​is a special type of scientific investigation that is
performed under specific conditions, usually in a laboratory.
The complexity of an experiment can range. However, no
matter the complexity, all controlled experiments share
important properties. An example experiment can be seen
here​ ​or ​here​.

Figure 1.19​: A laboratory experiment studying plant

growth. What might this experiment involve?

Variables
An experiment generally tests how one variable is affected by another. The ​dependent variable
is measured throughout an experiment and is sometimes called the affected variable. In the plant
experiment shown above, the dependent variable is plant growth. The variable that affects the
dependent variable is called the ​independent variable​. Independent variables can be controlled by the
experimenter. In the plant experiment, the independent variable is fertilizer—some plants will get
fertilizer, others will not.

Constants
In any experiment, other factors that might affect the dependent variable must not change;
these are known as ​constants​. A constant is something that remains the same throughout the
experiment. These things are the same for each test. In the plant experiment, what factors do you think
should be constants? (​Hint: ​What other factors might affect plant growth?) You were right if you said
things such as: amount of sunlight, amount of water, container type and size, etc.

Control and Experimental Groups

Experiments will often have a control and experimental groups. An ​experimental group is a
group individuals/events that the independent variable is applied to during the experiment. The ​control
group is a group of individuals/events that are ​not t​ ested upon. Essentially, the control group creates a
baseline to compare the data from the experimental group to. It's important to note that not all
experiments have a control group.

Sample Size and Repetition

The sample in an experiment or investigation consists of the individuals or events that are
studied. Typically, the an experiment’s sample is much smaller than those that exist in the world. In
general​, the larger the sample is, the more likely it is that the results are valid. Similarly, the more
times that an experiment is repeated and the same results obtained, the more likely the results are
valid. This is why scientific experiments should always be repeated.

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OTHER TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

Controlled experiments are sometimes hard or even impossible to do. For example, a scientist
who is studying an extinct animal cannot experiment with the animal. The scientist must rely instead on
indirect evidence, such as fossils that the extinct animal left behind.

Natural Studies
When natural studies are completed, there are often factors that cannot be controlled. As such,
the data or observations are less reliable because there may have been other factors that influenced the
data. For example, assume you are studying how plants grow in a forest or field. You cannot control the
amount of sunlight or water the plants receive, so it will be difficult to determine which factors most
influence plant growth. However, the benefits of a natural study is that it shows what actually occurs in
nature. Therefore, it may provide a truer picture of what happens in the real world than an experiment.

Modeling
Another way to gain scientific knowledge without a
controlled experiment is by making and manipulating models. A
model is a representation of part of the real world, and these
can include physical models as well as computer simulations.
Did you ever build a model car? Scientific models are
something like model cars; which represent the real world in a
smaller simpler fashion. This is why models are useful for
investigating complex systems. By using a model, scientists can
better understand how the actual system works. An example of
a scientific model is shown in ​Figure 1.20​. Do you know what
systems these two models represent?
The usefulness of a model depends on how well its
predictions match observations of the real world. Even when a
model’s predictions match real-world observations, however, it
doesn’t prove that the model is true or that it is the only model
that works.

Chapter 1: The Scientific Method 9

SCIENTIFIC THEORIES AND LAWS

Scientific Theories
With repeated testing, some hypotheses may eventually become scientific theories. A scientific
theory ​is a broad explanation that is widely accepted as true. To become a theory, a hypothesis must be
tested over and over again, and it must be supported by a great deal of evidence. People commonly use
the word ​theory ​to describe a guess about how or ​why s​ omething happens. For example, you might say,
‘‘I think a woodchuck dug this hole in the ground, but it’s just a theory.” Using the word ​theory ​in this
way is different from the way it is used in science. A scientific theory is more like a fact than a guess
because it is so well-supported.
One key idea behind theories is that they change. As scientist gain new information about a
topic, they will adjust or change the theory. There are several well-known theories in biology, including
the theory of evolution, cell theory, and gene theory. You will read about all three of these theories in
the next lesson. A video explaining scientific theories can be seen ​here​.

Scientific Laws
Scientists think of nature as a single system controlled by natural laws. By discovering natural
laws, scientists strive to increase their understanding of the natural world. Laws of nature are expressed
as scientific laws. A scientific ​law ​is a statement that describes ​what a​ lways happens under certain
conditions in nature. A law will not change and always hold true.
An example of a scientific law is the law of gravity, which was discovered by Sir Isaac Newton
(see ​Figure 1.16​). The law of gravity states that objects always fall towards Earth because of the pull of
gravity. Based on this law, Newton could explain many natural events. He could explain not only why
objects such as apples always fall to the ground, but he could also explain why the moon orbits Earth.
Isaac Newton discovered laws of motion as well as the law of gravity. His laws of motion allowed him to
explain why objects move as they do.

APPLYING CONCEPTS: Bio-Inspiration: Nature as Muse

For hundreds of years, scientists have been using design ideas from structures in nature. Now,
biologists and engineers at the University of California, Berkeley are working together to design a broad
range of new products, such as life-saving milli-robots modeled on the way cockroaches run and
adhesives based on the amazing design of a gecko's foot. This process starts with making observations of
nature, which lead to asking questions and to the additional aspects of the scientific process.
Bio-Inspiration: Nature as Muse c​ an be observed ​here​.

Chapter 1: The Scientific Method 10

Lesson Summary

● The goal of science is to understand the natural world through systematic study. Scientific
knowledge is based on evidence and logic.
● Scientists gain knowledge through scientific investigations. A scientific investigation is a plan for
asking questions and testing possible answers.
● Scientists use experiments to test hypotheses under controlled conditions. Experiments are
often done in a lab.
● Other types of scientific investigations include natural studies and modeling. They can be used
when experiments are difficult to do.
● Scientific theories are broad explanations that are widely accepted as true. This is because they
are supported by a great deal of evidence.

Chapter 1: The Scientific Method 11

1.2 References/ Multimedia Resources

"Gummy Bear Experiment." ​YouTube.​ YouTube, 03 Apr. 2007. Web. Summer 2013.
< ​http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dVRBDRAsP6​ >

"How Much Sugar Is in a Can of Soda?" ​YouTube.​ YouTube, 01 Sept. 2006. Web. Summer 2013.
< ​http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F10EyGwd57M&amp;feature=​related​ ​>

"QUEST." ​QUEST RSS​. N.p., n.d. Web. Summer 2013.

< ​http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/bioinspiration-nature-as-muse​ ​>

"Scientific Theory vs. Hypothesis." ​YouTube​. YouTube, 23 Sept. 2009. Web. Summer 2013.
< ​http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S5YGhprR6KE​ ​>

"10 - The Scientific Method Made Easy." ​YouTube​. YouTube, 22 Mar. 2008. Web. Summer 2013.
< ​http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zcavPAFiG14&​ ​>

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Chapter 1: The Scientific Method 12