OEE351 RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM LTPC

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COURSE OBJECTIVES:
To Provide knowledge about various renewable energy technologies
To enable students to understand and design a PV system.
To provide knowledge about wind energy system.
To Provide knowledge about various possible hybrid energy systems
To gain knowledge about application of various renewable energy technologies
UNIT I INTRODUCTION 9
Primary energy sources, renewable vs. non-renewable primary energy sources, renewable energy
resources in India, Current usage of renewable energy sources in India, future potential of renewable
energy in power production and development of renewable energy technologies.
UNIT II SOLAR ENERGY 9
Solar Radiation and its measurements, Solar Thermal Energy Conversion from plate Solar
Collectors, Concentrating Collectors and its Types, Efficiency and performance of collectors,. Direct
Solar Electricity Conversion from Photovoltaic, types of solar cells and its application of battery charger,
domestic lighting, street lighting, and water pumping, power generation schemes. Recent Advances in PV
Applications: Building Integrated PV, Grid Connected PV Systems,
UNIT III WIND ENERGY 9
Wind energy principles, wind site and its resource assessment, wind assessment, Factors
influencing wind, wind turbine components, wind energy conversion systems (WECS), Classification of
WECS devices, wind electric generating and control systems, characteristics and applications.
UNIT IV BIO-ENERGY 9
Energy from biomass, Principle of biomass conversion technologies/process and their
classification, Bio gas generation, types of biogas plants, selection of site for biogas plant, classification
of biogas plants, Advantage and disadvantages of biogas generation, thermal gasification of biomass,
biomass gasifies, Application of biomass and biogas plants and their economics.
UNIT V OTHER TYPES OF ENERGY 9
Energy conversion from Hydrogen and Fuel cells, Geo thermal energy Resources, types of wells,
methods of harnessing the energy, potential in India. OTEC, Principles utilization, setting of OTEC plants,
thermodynamic cycles. Tidal and wave energy: Potential and conversion techniques, mini-hydel power
plants and their economics.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
COURSE OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course students will be able to:
CO1: Attained knowledge about various renewable energy technologies
CO2: Ability to understand and design a PV system.
CO3: Understand the concept of various wind energy system.
CO4: Gained knowledge about various possible hybrid energy systems
CO5: Attained knowledge about various application of renewable energy technologies
REFERENCES
1. Twidell & Wier,‘Renewable Energy Resources’ CRC Press( Taylor & Francis).
2. Tiwari and Ghosal/ Narosa,‘Renewable energy resources’.
3. D.P.Kothari, K.C.Singhal,‘Renewable energy sources and emerging technologies’, P.H.I.
4. D.S.Chauhan, S.K. Srivastava, ‘Non – Conventional Energy Resources’, New Age Publishers, 2006.
5. B.H.Khan, ‘Non – Conventional Energy Resources’, Tata Mc Graw Hill, 2006.
 UNIT I
RENEWABLE ENERGY (RE) SOURCES
Environmental consequences of fossil fuel use, Importance of renewable sources of energy, Sustainable
Design and development, Types of RE sources, Limitations of RE sources, Present Indian and international
energy scenario of conventional and RE sources.

Introduction
Renewable energy is energy produced from sources that do not deplete or can be replenished or
refilled within a human’s life time. The most common examples of renewable energy sources include wind,
solar, geothermal, biomass, and hydropower. Non-renewable energy comes from sources that will run out or
will not be replenished in our lifetime or even in many lifetimes. Most of the non-renewable energy sources
are fossil fuels, which influence the environment greatly and contribute to harmful global warming and
climate change. Renewable energy is sustainable as it originates from sources that are inexhaustible (unlike
fossil fuels). Despite of many advantages renewable energy sources have certain limitations like higher
capital cost, intermittency, storage capabilities, geographic limitations, etc., which make them inevitable.

Environmental consequences of fossil fuel use

Fossil fuels are formed from the fossilized, buried remains of plants and animals that lived millions
of years ago so they are named accordingly. Fossil fuels, which include coal, natural gas, petroleum, shale
oil, and bitumen, are the main sources of heat and electrical energy. All these fuels contain the major
constituents like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and other materials like metal, sulphur and nitrogen compounds.
During the combustion process different pollutants like fly ash, sulphur oxides (SO2 and SO3), nitrogen
oxides (NOx = NO2 + NO) and volatile organic compounds are emitted. Gross emission
of these pollutants constitutes to atmospheric pollution and can affect human beings and environment.

TEDA is Tamil Nadu Energy Development Agency. It is an independent agency setup by Government
of Tamil Nadu in the year 1984, as a registered society with a specific purpose – to create awareness
and migrate the State from using fossil fuels to renewable energy.

Atmospheric Pollution
Atmospheric pollution occurs in many forms but can generally be thought of as gaseous and
particulate contaminants that are present in the earth’s atmosphere. Chemicals discharged into the air that
have a direct impact on the environment are called primary pollutants. These primary pollutants sometimes
react with other chemicals in the air to produce secondary pollutants. The most commonly found air
pollutants are oxides of Sulphur, oxides of nitrogen, oxides of carbon, hydrocarbons, particulates (fly ash).

Oxides of Sulphur (SO2)

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is a colourless gas with a sharp, irritating odour. It is produced by burning
fossil fuels and by the smelting of mineral ores that contain sulphur. Erupting volcanoes can be a significant
natural source of sulphur dioxide emissions.

Environmental effects
When sulphur dioxide combines with water and air, it forms sulphuric acid, which is the main
component of acid rain. Acid rain can:
 Cause deforestation
 Acidify waterways to the detriment of aquatic life
 Corrode building materials and paints.

Health effects
 Sulphur dioxide affects the respiratory system, particularly lung function and can irritate the eyes.
 Sulphur dioxide irritates the respiratory tract and increases the risk of tract infections.
 It causes coughing, mucus secretion and aggravates conditions such as asthma and chronic
bronchitis.
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Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
The term nitrogen oxides (NOx) describes a mixture of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2), which are gases produced from natural sources, motor vehicles and other fuel burning processes.
Nitric oxide is colourless and is oxidised in the atmosphere to form nitrogen dioxide. Nitrogen dioxide has
an odour and is an acidic and highly corrosive gas that can affect our health and environment. In poorly
ventilated situations, indoor domestic appliances such as gas stoves and gas or wood heaters can be
significant sources of nitrogen oxides.

Environmental and health effects of nitrogen oxides

 Elevated levels of nitrogen dioxide can cause damage to the human respiratory tract and increase a
person's vulnerability to respiratory infections and asthma.
 Long-term exposure to high levels of nitrogen dioxide can cause chronic lung disease.
 It may also affect the senses of smell an odour.
 High levels of nitrogen dioxide are also harmful to vegetation, damaging foliage, decreasing growth
or reducing crop yields.
 Nitrogen dioxide can fade and discolour furnishings and fabrics, reduce visibility and react with
surfaces.

Oxides of Carbon (CO, CO2)

Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless gas formed when substances containing carbon (such as
petrol, gas, coal and wood) are burned with an insufficient supply of air. Motor vehicles are the main source
of carbon monoxide pollution in urban areas.

Health effects
 Carbon monoxide has serious health impacts on humans and animals.
 When inhaled, the carbon monoxide bonds to the haemoglobin in the blood in place of oxygen to
become carboxyhaemoglobin. This reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the red blood cells and
decreases the supply of oxygen to tissues and organs, especially the heart and brain.
 For people with cardiovascular disease, this can be a serious problem.
 The effects are reversible, so symptoms decrease gradually when exposure to carbon monoxide
stops.

Hydrocarbons
A hydrocarbon is any compound that consists of carbon and hydrogen atoms. They are organic
compounds. Because of the unique covalent nature of carbon, there are thousands upon thousands of
hydrocarbons in the world. Gasoline, petroleum, coal, kerosene, charcoal, natural gas, etc., are all a form of
hydrocarbons.

Environmental and health effects of hydrocarbons

 These substances contribute to the greenhouse effect and climate change
 Deplete the ozone
 Reduce photosynthetic ability of plants
 Increase occurrences of cancer and respiratory disorders in humans.

India uses about 500 million T of coal every year to produce electricity, about 3.6 trillion cubic feet of
natural gas for power, chemicals and fertilizers and over 160 million T of oil for transport and
industry.

Particulates (Fly Ash)

Fly ash is composed of tiny, airborne particles and is thus considered as a type of particulate matter or
particle pollution. Fly ash contains different trace elements (heavy metals).

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Environmental and health effects of fly ash
Wet ash ponds can pollute groundwater and if ingested, the arsenic contaminated water increases a
person's risk of developing cancer.
Inhalation or ingestion of the toxins in fly ash can have impacts on the nervous system, causing
cognitive defects, developmental delays, and behavioural problems while also increasing a person's chance
of developing lung disease, kidney disease, and gastrointestinal illness.
When ash is disposed in dry landfills or wet ponds, there are associated environmental effects. Wet
surface impoundments account for a fifth of coal ash disposal. These wet impoundments can be an issue if
they do not have proper liners for the landfill or pond to prevent leaking and leaching. Both leaking and
leaching lead to groundwater contamination.
Leaching is a process that occurs when fly ash is wet, and it simply means that the toxic components
of the ash dissolve out and percolate through water. This groundwater contamination can be harmful to
human health if the groundwater is a source of drinking water. In addition to leaching, fly ash toxics are able
to travel through the environment as a result of erosion, runoff, or through the air as fine dust. The fact that
the chemicals in the ash can escape and move through the environment is what makes fly ash harmful

Green House Gas Emissions from Various Energy Sources

Greenhouse gases are gases in earth’s atmosphere that trap heat. They let sunlight pass through the
atmosphere, but they prevent the heat that the sunlight brings from leaving the atmosphere.
Most of the emissions of human-caused (anthropogenic) greenhouse gases come primarily from burning
fossil fuels like coal, hydrocarbon gas liquids, natural gas and petroleum, for energy use. Global warming or
climate change has been observed for around 150 years and is a growth in this phenomenon.
The other GHG that are emitted as a result of human activity are
 Methane (CH4), which comes from landfills, coal mines, agriculture, and oil and natural gas
operations
 Nitrous oxide (N2O), which comes from using nitrogen fertilizers and certain industrial and waste
management processes and burning fossil fuels
 High global warming potential (GWP) gases, which are human-made industrial gases
 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
 Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
 Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)
 Nitrogen trifluoride (NF3)

Importance of renewable sources of energy

Renewable energies are obtained from sources of clean, inexhaustible and increasingly competitive
energy. They differ from fossil fuels principally in their diversity, abundance and potential for use anywhere
on the planet. In addition, they produce neither greenhouse gases – which cause climate change – nor
polluting emissions. Their costs are also falling at a sustainable rate, whereas the general cost trend for fossil
fuels is in the opposite direction in spite of their present volatility.
Renewable energies received assistance from the international community through the Paris Accord
signed at the World Climate Summit held in Paris on December 2015. The agreement, which will enter into
force in 2020, establishes, for the first time in history, a binding global objective. Nearly 200 signatory
countries pledged to reduce their emissions so that the average temperature of the planet at the end of the
current century remains well below 2° C, the limit above which climate change will have more catastrophic
effects. However the aim is to keep it to 1.5° C.

Of the total renewable energy capacity of about 32,730MW installed all over India, TN alone has
about 8326.86MW, thus about 25.44% of the total installed capacity, with Tamil Nadu having about
34.31% of the total wind energy installed capacity in India.

Other importance of renewable energy are:

Indispensable partner in the fight against climate change: Renewables do not emit greenhouse gases in
energy generation processes, making them the cleanest, most viable solution to prevent environmental
degradation. Most renewable energy sources produce little to no global warming emissions. Even when
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including “life cycle” emissions of clean energy (i.e, the emissions from each stage of manufacturing,
installation, operation, decommissioning), the global warming emissions associated with renewable energy
are minimal.

Inexhaustible: Compared to conventional energy sources such as coal, gas, oil and nuclear - reserves of
which are finite - clean energies are just as available as the sun from which they originate and adapt to
natural cycles, hence their name “renewables”. This makes them an essential element in a sustainable energy
system that allows development today without risking that of future generations.

Reducing energy dependence: The indigenous nature of clean sources gives local economies an advantage
and brings meaning to the term “energy independence”. Dependence on fossil fuel imports results in
subordination to the economic and political short-term goals of the supplier country, which can compromise
the security of energy supply.

Increasingly competitive: The main renewable technologies – such as wind and solar photovoltaic – are
drastically reducing their costs, such that they are fully competitive with conventional sources in a growing
number of locations. Economies of scale and innovation are already resulting in renewable energies
becoming the most sustainable solution, not only environmentally but also economically, for powering the
world. Renewable energy is providing affordable electricity across the country right now, and can help
stabilize energy prices in the future.

Benefiting from a favourable political horizon: The international community has understood its obligation
to firm up the transition towards a low-carbon economy in order to guarantee a sustainable future for the
planet. International consensus in favour of the “de-carbonization” of the economy constitutes a very
favourable framework for the promotion of clean energy technologies.

Improved public health: Wind, solar, and hydroelectric systems generate electricity with no associated air
pollution emissions. Geothermal and biomass systems emit some air pollutants, though total air emissions
are generally much lower than those of coal- and natural gas-fired power plants. In addition, wind and solar
energy require essentially no water to operate and thus do not pollute water resources or strain supplies by
competing with agriculture, drinking water, or other important water needs.

Jobs and other economic benefits: Compared with fossil fuel technologies, which are typically
mechanized and capital intensive, the renewable energy industry is more labour intensive. Solar panels need
humans to install them; wind farms need technicians for maintenance. This means that, on average, more
jobs are created for each unit of electricity generated from renewable sources than from fossil fuels.

Reliability and resilience: Wind and solar are less prone to large-scale failure because they are distributed
and modular. Distributed systems are spread out over a large geographical area, so a severe weather event in
one location will not cut off power to an entire region. Modular systems are composed of numerous
individual wind turbines or solar arrays. Even if some of the equipment in the system is damaged, the rest
can typically continue to operate. Wind and solar photovoltaic systems do not require water to generate
electricity and can operate reliably in conditions that may otherwise require closing a fossil fuel-powered
plant due to water scarcity.
Sl. No Renewable Energy Advanatges
1 Solar energy  Sunlight does not produce any wastes or pollutants for
(From the sun) environment.
 It is free to collect sunlight as it is always present
2 The Wind  The wind does not produce any wastes or pollutants for environment.
 It takes up little ground space
3 Hydropower  Hydropower is considered as inexpensive source.
 It does not leave any harmful chemicals as waste.
4 Biomass  Growing biomass crops use up carbon dioxide and increase oxygen
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  Biomass is always available, thus, it can be used as renewable
resource.
5 Geothermal Energy:  For heating and cooling, geothermal heat pump systems use 25% to
50% less electricity than conventional systems.
 Biomass is always available and can be used as a renewable resource
Sustainable Design and development
Sustainable energy is a form of energy that meet our today’s demand of energy without putting them
in danger of getting expired or depleted and can be used over and over again. Sustainable energy should be
widely encouraged as it do not cause any harm to the environment and is available widely free of cost. All
renewable energy sources like solar, wind, geothermal, hydropower and ocean energy are sustainable as they
are stable and available in plenty.

Sustainable energy sources

Fossil fuels are not considered as sustainable energy sources because they are limited, cause
immense pollution by releasing harmful gases and are not available everywhere on earth. There are many
forms of sustainable energy sources that can be incorporated by countries to stop the use of fossil fuels.
Sustainable energy does not include any sources that are derived from fossil fuels or waste products. This
energy is replenishable and helps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and causes no damage to the
environment. Hydropower is the most common form of alternative energy used around the world.

Need for Sustainable Energy

During ancient times, wood, timber and waste products were the only major energy sources. In short,
biomass was the only way to get energy. When more technology was developed, fossil fuels like coal, oil
and natural gas were discovered. Fossil fuels proved boom to the mankind as they were widely available and
could be harnessed easily. When these fossil fuels were started using extensively by all the countries across
the globe, they led to degradation of environment. Coal and oil are two of the major sources that produce
large amount of carbon dioxide in the air. This led to increase in global warming. Also, few countries have
hold on these valuable products which led to the rise in prices of these fuels. Now, with rising prices,
increasing air pollution and risk of getting expired soon, forced scientists to look out for some alternative or
renewable energy sources. Sustainable Energy came into the picture as it could meet our today’s increasing
demand of energy and also provide us with an option to make use of them in future also.

Sustainable Design
Sustainable design seeks to reduce negative impacts on the environment and the health and comfort
of human beings, thereby improving performance of energy systems. Sustainable design principles include
the ability to:
 optimize site potential;
 minimize non-renewable energy consumption;
 use environmentally preferable products;
 protect and conserve water;
 enhance indoor environmental quality; and
 optimize operational and maintenance practices.
Utilizing a sustainable design philosophy encourages decisions at each phase of the design process
that will reduce negative impacts on the environment and the health of mankind, without compromising the
bottom line. It is an integrated, holistic approach that encourages compromise and trade-offs. Such an
integrated approach positively impacts all phases of an energy source life-cycle, including design,
construction, operation and decommissioning.

 25068 Solar domestic lighting systems installed in Tamil Nadu with assistance from Government.
 6095 Solar street lights installed in pubic places/streets mostly in village panchayats with
Government assistance and active support and involvement of Rural Development Department.

Examples of sustainable green buildings in Chennai

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Anna Centenary Library
The Anna Centenary Library is located at Kotturpuram, Chennai and has also been awarded the
LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) Gold rating. An artificial tree is established at the
middle of the library to promote awareness about conservation of trees. Water is recycled by an on-plant
treatment unit and subsequently uses 64% less water than any other building of the same size. Power
conservation steps are also taken which translates to a saving of 17.5% than buildings of the same size.
Government Super Specialty Hospital
Govt. Super Specialty Hospital which is located at Triplicane contributes to the ever-growing list of
Green Buildings in Chennai. The large building has adopted excellent eco-conservative methods and
continues to be successful in preserving energy and water resources

World Bank
The World Bank is located at Tharamani and is a certified green building. The office has always
strived hard to entwine environmental concern with development and operational strategy. The office boasts
of water recycling plant, carbon sensors, automated lighting, etc., Also, the World Bank office at Chennai is
its largest branch outside of Washington DC and encompasses a wide area of 1,28,000 square feet which
showcases the steadfast dedication shown by the employees and the administrators to conserve natural
resources.

Express Avenue
Located at Royapettah, Express Avenue is also recognized as a green building which further shows
that builders are becoming conscious about the environment. The mall is covered with windows made up of
an environmentally-conservative material or more specifically with tensile fabric. It also has an in-built
sewage treatment plant and is worthy of a place in the top 10 green buildings list.

Raintree Hotel
The Raintree Hotel is considered to be one of the first Green Buildings of South India and has an
eco-sensitive policy. The hotel has adopted a set of eco-friendly steps without compromising quality for the
customers. Water for the air-conditioners is processed and recycled using a sewage treatment plant which
helps preserve water resources. The heat generated by the air conditioners is used to heat the waters in the
washroom. The employees working at the Raintree Hotel are also made to emphasize and adopt the eco-
sensitive policy.

Solar Panels
In Brisbane Australia, the Kurilpa Bridge holds the title of the largest foot bridge powered by solar
panels. Solar photovoltaic systems are the easiest and most common form of renewable energy within
residential homes and now in public structures as well. The Kurilpa bridge save 37.8 tonnes of carbon
emissions yearly as its LED lighting system is powered solely by the sun.

Wind Turbines
The Bahrain World Trade Centre is a revolutionary structure. It is the first commercial building to
use wind turbines on a horizontal axis, attached to the actual building for electricity. The wind powers a
generator resulting in electricity. The Bahrain World Trade Centre has just over 15% of its entire energy
needs powered by the 675 kW (kilowatt) turbines.

Renewable energy and sustainable development

Renewable energy has a direct relationship with sustainable development through its impact on
human development and economic productivity. Renewable energy sources provide opportunities in energy
security, social and economic development, energy access, climate change mitigation and reduction of
environmental and health impact.

Energy security
The notion of energy security is generally used, however there is no consensus on its precise
interpretation. Yet, the concern in energy security is based on the idea that there is a continuous supply of
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energy, which is critical for the running of an economy. Renewable energy sources are evenly distributed
around the globe as compared to fossils and in general less traded on the market. Renewable energy reduces
energy imports and contribute diversification of the portfolio of supply options and reduce an economy’s
vulnerability to price volatility and represent opportunities to enhance energy security across the globe. The
introduction of renewable energy can also make contribution to increasing the reliability of energy services,
to be specific in areas that often suffer from insufficient grid access. A diverse portfolio of energy sources
together with good management and system design can help to enhance security.
Social and economic development
Generally, the energy sector has been perceived as a key to economic development with a strong
correlation between economic growth and expansion of energy consumption. Globally, per capita incomes
are positively correlated with per capita energy use and economic growth can be identified as the most
essential factor behind increasing energy consumption in the last decades. It in turn creates employment;
renewable energy study in 2008, proved that employment from renewable energy technologies was about
2.3 million jobs worldwide, which also has improved health, education, gender equality and environmental
safety.

Energy access
The sustainable development seeks to ensure that energy is clean, affordable, available and
accessible to all and this can be achieved with renewable energy source since they are generally distributed
across the globe. Access concerns need to be understood in a local context and in most countries there is an
obvious difference between electrification in the urban and rural areas, this is especially true in sub-Saharan
Africa and South Asian region. Distributed grids based on the renewable energy are generally more
competitive in rural areas with significant distances to the national grid and the low levels of rural
electrification offer substantial openings for renewable energy-based mini-grid systems to provide them with
electricity access.

Climate change mitigation and reduction of environmental and health impacts

Renewable energy sources used in energy generation helps to reduce greenhouse gases which
mitigates climate change, reduce environmental and health complications associated with pollutants from
fossil fuel sources of energy.

The Indian renewable energy is ranked fourth in wind power, fifth in solar power and fifth in
renewable power installed capacity as of 2018. In 2019, India was ranked as the fourth most
attractive renewable energy market in the world.
Types of RE sources
Alternative or renewable energy comes from natural processes that can reliably produce cheap
energy with minimal impact to the environment. The most popular renewable energy sources currently are:
 Solar energy
 Wind energy
 Hydro energy
 Tidal energy
 Geothermal energy
 Biomass energy
 Hydrogen

Solar energy
Sunlight is a renewable resource, and its most direct use is achieved by capturing the sun’s energy. A
variety of solar energy technologies are used to convert the sun’s energy and light into heat: illumination,
hot water, electricity and (paradoxically) cooling systems for businesses and industry.
Photovoltaic (PV) systems use solar cells to convert sunlight into electricity. Solar hot water systems
can be used to heat buildings by circulating water through flat-plate solar collectors. Mirrored dishes that are
focused to boil water in a conventional steam generator can produce electricity by concentrating the sun’s
heat. Commercial and industrial buildings can also leverage the sun’s energy for larger-scale needs such as
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ventilation, heating, and cooling. Finally, thoughtful architectural designs can passively take advantage of
the sun as a source of light for heating and cooling.
Homeowners, businesses and government entities can take advantage of the benefits of solar power
in many ways: Install a home solar system or commercial solar panels; construct or retrofit a building to
incorporate solar hot water, cooling or ventilation systems; design from scratch structures that take
advantage of the sun’s natural attributes for passive heating and lighting.

Wind energy
Wind can be considered a form of solar energy because of the uneven heating and cooling of the
atmosphere cause winds (as well as the rotation of the earth and other topographical factors). Wind flow can
be captured by wind turbines and converted into electricity. On a smaller scale, windmills are still used
today to pump water on farms.
Commercial grade wind-powered generating systems are available to meet the renewable energy
needs of many organizations.
Single-wind turbines can generate electricity to supplement an existing electrical supply. When the
wind blows, the power generated by the system goes to offset the need for utility-supplied electricity.
Utility-scale wind farms generate electricity that can be purchased on the wholesale power market,
either contractually or through a competitive bid process.

Hydro energy
Hydropower is not a new invention, though the waterwheels once used to operate the gristmills and
sawmills of early America are now largely functioning as historic sites and museums. Today, the kinetic
energy of flowing rivers is captured in a much different way and converted into hydroelectricity. Probably
the most familiar type of hydroelectric power is generated by a system where dams are constructed to store
water in a reservoir which, when released, flows through turbines to produce electricity. This is known as
“pumped-storage hydropower,” where water is cycled between lower and upper reservoirs to control
electricity generation between times of low and peak demand.
Another type, called “run-of-river hydropower,” funnels a portion of river flow through a channel
and does not require a dam. Hydropower plants can range in size from massive projects such as Hoover
Dam to micro-hydroelectric power systems. The direct use of hydroelectric power is naturally dependent on
geographic location. Assuming a dependable waterway source is accessible and available, micro-
hydroelectric plants can be constructed to supply electricity to farm and ranch operations or small
municipalities.

Ocean energy
There are two types of energy that can be produced by the ocean: thermal energy from the sun’s heat
and mechanical energy from the motion of tides and waves.
Ocean thermal energy can be converted into electricity using a few different systems that rely on
warm surface water temperatures. “Ocean mechanical energy” harnesses the ebbs and flows of tides caused
by the rotation of the earth and the gravitational influence of the moon. Energy from wind-driven waves can
also be converted and used to help reduce one’s electricity costs.
There are also lesser developed technologies that leverage ocean currents, ocean winds and salinity
gradients as sources of power conversion.
Cold ocean water from deep below the surface can be used to cool buildings (with desalinated water
often produced as a by-product), and seaside communities can employ the methods to tap natural ocean
energy described above to supplement municipal power and energy needs.
Ocean energy is an evolving source of alternative energy production, and with more than 70 percent
of the surface of our planet covered by ocean, its future looks promising, depending on geographies and
regulatory guidelines.

Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy is derived from the heat of the earth. This heat can be sourced close to the surface
or from heated rock and reservoirs of hot water miles beneath our feet. Geothermal power plants harness
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these heat sources to generate electricity. On a much smaller scale, a geothermal heat pump system can
leverage the constant temperature of the ground found just 10 feet under the surface to help supply heat to a
nearby building in the winter or to help cool it in the summer.
Geothermal energy can be part of a commercial utility energy solution on a large scale or can be part
of a sustainable practice on a local level. Direct use of geothermal energy may include Heating office
buildings or manufacturing plants; helping to grow greenhouse plants; heating water at fish farms; and
aiding with various industrial processes (e.g., pasteurizing milk).

Biomass energy
Bioenergy is a type of renewable energy derived from biomass to create heat and electricity or to
produce liquid fuels such as ethanol and biodiesel used for transportation.
Biomass refers to any organic matter coming from recently living plants or animals. Even though
bioenergy generates about the same amount of carbon dioxide as fossil fuels, the replacement plants are
grown as biomass to remove an equal amount of CO2 from the atmosphere, keeping the environmental
impact relatively neutral.
There are a variety of systems used to generate this type of electricity, ranging from directly burning
biomass to capturing and using methane gas produced by the natural decomposition of organic material.
Manufacturing facilities can be equipped to burn biomass directly to produce steam captured by a
turbine to generate electricity. In some cases, this process can have a dual purpose by powering the facility
as well as heating it. For example, paper mills can use wood waste to produce electricity and steam for
heating. Farm operations can convert waste from livestock into electricity using small, modular systems.
Towns can tap the methane gas created by the anaerobic digestion of organic waste in landfills and use it as
fuel for generating electricity.

Hydrogen - High Energy/Low Pollution

Hydrogen is the simplest (comprised of one proton and one electron) and the most abundant element
in the universe, yet it does not occur naturally as a gas on earth. Instead, it is found in organic compounds
(hydrocarbons such as gasoline, natural gas, methanol, and propane) and water (H2O). Hydrogen can also be
produced under certain conditions by some algae and bacteria using sunlight as an energy source.
Hydrogen is high in energy yet produces little or no pollution when burned. Liquid hydrogen has
been used to launch space shuttles and other rockets into orbit since the 1950s. Hydrogen fuel cells convert
the potential chemical energy of hydrogen into electricity, with pure water and heat as the only by-products.
However, the commercialization of these fuel cells as a practical source of green energy will likely be
limited until costs come down and durability improves. Almost all the hydrogen used in the United States is
used in industry to refine petroleum, treat metals, produce fertilizer and process foods. In addition, hydrogen
fuel cells are used as an energy source where hydrogen and oxygen atoms are combined to generate
electricity.
There are also currently a few hundred hydrogen-powered vehicles operating in the United States, a number
that could increase as the cost of fuel cell production drops and the number of refuelling stations increases.
Other practical applications for this type of renewable energy include large fuel cells providing emergency
electricity for buildings and remote locations, electric motor vehicles powered by hydrogen fuel cells and
marine vessels powered by hydrogen fuel cells.
Wind power accounted for the highest at 46% (around 36 GW), followed by solar with a share of
36% (30 GW). The remaining market was captured by biomass at 12% (9 GW) and small hydro
projects catering to 6% (5 GW).
Limitations of RE sources
Despite of advantages when it comes to renewable energy, the positives outweigh the negatives. Some of the
limitations of renewable energy sources are;
 Some type of renewable energy sources is location-based and commercially feasible
 These types of energies need storage capacities
 Some energy sources cause pollution.
 Renewable energies frequently need funding for making them reasonable
9
  Some types of energy sources require a huge space

Limitations of solar
1) Higher Costs than Fossil Energy Forms –It has been estimated that solar power costs fall by 20% for
every 100% increase in supply. The Solar Cost Curve has declined massively in the last 2 years as
cheap Chinese solar production has made solar panel costs come down by 50%. Note in the next 4-5
years expect an average decline of around 10% per year which would make solar energy competitive
with fossil fuel energy in most parts of the world. Current solar power costs between 15-30/Kwh
depending on the solar radiation of the particular location, type of technology used etc.
2) Intermittent Nature – One of the biggest problems of Solar Power is that it is intermittent in nature as
it generates energy only when the sun shines. This problem can be solved with energy storage however
this leads to additional costs. Smart Grids and Cheaper Energy Storage in the future should allow even
higher penetrations of Wind and Solar Power possible.

3) High Capital Investment – A Solar Plant can cost around 450 lakhs to be spent in building 1
Megawatt. This is said to be too high, however the costs of energy can only be compared by Levelized
Cost of Energy (LCOE) which calculates the cost of energy over the lifetime calculating the capex, fuel
costs, maintenance, security and insurance costs. While it is true that the initial capital investment for
solar power is quite high, the lifecycle cost of solar energy is not that high.

4) Cannot be Built Anywhere – This disadvantage of Solar Energy is present with other forms of Energy
as well. Some forms of Energy are just better suited to some places. For example you can’t build a
nuclear plant on top of an earthquake prone region, you can’t build a wind farm near the Dead Sea., etc.,

Limitations of Hydro Energy

1) Environmental, Dislocation and Tribal Rights – Large Dam construction especially in populated
areas leads to massive Tribal Displacement, Loss of Livelihood and Religious Infringement as
potentially sacred Land is occupied by the Government.

2) Wildlife and Fishes get affected – The Fishes are the most affected species from Dam Construction as
the normal flow of the river is completely changed from its river character to a lake one. Submergence
of land also leads to ecological destruction of the habitat of land based wildlife.

3) Earthquake Vulnerability – Large Dam Construction has been linked to increased propensity of
Earthquakes. Massive Earthquakes in China and Uttarakhand in India were linked to the building of
Massive Dams in these countries

4) Siltation – When water flows it has the ability to transport particles heavier than itself downstream.
This has a negative effect on dams and subsequently their power stations, particularly those on rivers or
within catchment areas with high siltation.

5) Tail Risk, Dam Failure – Because large conventional dammed-hydro facilities hold back large
volumes of water, a failure due to poor construction, terrorism, or other cause can be catastrophic to
downriver settlements and infrastructure. Dam failures have been some of the largest man-made
disasters in history.

6) Cannot be Built Anywhere – This disadvantage of Hydro Energy is present with other forms of
Energy as well. Some forms of Energy are just better suited to some places. For example you can’t build
a nuclear plant on top of an earthquake prone region, you can’t build a wind farm near the Dead Sea etc.
Hydro Energy can only be built in particular places though enough of those places exist globally.

7) Long Gestation Time – The time to construct a large hydro power project can take between 5-10 years
which leads to time and cost overruns.

10
Limitations of Biomass Energy
1) Pollution in case of Poor Technology – Biomass Energy can lead to air pollution in the form of char if
the biomass is not completely combusted. This happens in the case of biomass energy being produced in
rural areas through bad technology.

2) Feedstock Problems – One of the biggest drawbacks of biomass energy is the problem of feedstock.
The plants are forced to run at lower utilization leading to higher costs if feedstock is not available due
to some reason like a drought.
3) Good Management Required – The operations of a biomass plant requires very good management
otherwise it may run into losses or even in some cases have to shut down. It requires a skill of high
order to run the plant optimally and make use of alternative feedstock in case the regular one is not
available.

4) Limited Potential – Biomass Energy has smaller potential than compared to other forms of energy like
solar, hydro, etc.,

5) Controversial – Large Biomass Plants like the one in Scotland have run into massive protests as people
think it might lead to air pollution and health hazards if constructed near their homes.

Limitations of Wind Energy

1) Low Persistent Noise – There have been a large number of complaints about the persistent level of low
level noise from the whirring of the blades of a wind turbine. There have been cases reported about
animals on farms getting affected by wind turbine noise.

2) Loss of Scenery – The sight of giant 200 metres tall towers has drawn objections from neighbours
about wind power leading to loss of scenery and beauty.

3) Land usage – Wind Turbines can sometimes use large amounts of land if not properly planned and
built. The construction of roads to access the wind farms etc also takes up some land.

4) Intermittent Nature – Wind Power is intermittent in nature as it generates energy only when the wind
blows. This problem can be solved with energy storage however this leads to additional costs.

Limitations of Geothermal Energy

1) Long Gestation Time Leading to Cost Overruns – The Gestation Time for permitting, financing,
drilling, etc., can easily take 5-7 years to develop a geothermal energy field.

2) Slow Technology Improvement – Geothermal Energy has the potential to generate 100s of gigawatts
of electricity through new techniques like Enhanced Geothermal Energy. However the technology
improvement has been slow with setbacks.

3) Financing is the biggest problem in developing projects particularly for small project developers in this
industry. There are few big geothermal developers like Chevron and Calpine.

4) Regulations – Drilling for new geothermal energy fields, buying of geothermal companies in foreign
geographies faces innumerable hurdles.

5) Limited Locations – Geothermal Energy can only be built in places which have the geological
characteristics favourable to generation of geothermal power.

Limitations of Tidal Energy

1) High Initial Capital Investment – Tidal Barrages require massive investment to construct a Barrage or
Dam across a river estuary. This is comparable to construction of a massive dam for Hydro Power. This
is perhaps the biggest disadvantage of this technology.
11
2) Limited Locations – The US DOE estimates that there are only about 40 locations in the world capable
of supporting Tidal Barrages. This is because this Tidal Energy Technology requires sizable Tides for
the Power Plant to be built. The limited number of locations is a big hurdle.

3) Effect on Marine Life – The operation of commercial Tidal Power Stations has known to moderately
affect the marine life around the Power Plant. It leads to disruption in movement and growth of fishes
and other marine life. Can also lead to increase in silt. Turbines can also kill fish passing through it.
4) Immature Technology – Except for Tidal Barrage, the other forms of Technology generating Tidal or
Wave Power are quite immature, costly and unproven.

5) Long Gestation Time – The cost and time overruns can be huge for Tidal Power Plants leading to their
cancellation.

6) Difficulty in Transmission of Tidal Electricity – Some forms of Tidal Power generate power quite far
away from the consumption of electricity. Transportation of Tidal Energy can be quite cumbersome and
expensive.

7) Weather Effects – Severe Weather like Storms and Typhoons can be quite devastating on the Tidal
Power Equipment especially those places on the Sea Floor.
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Government of India, has formulated an action plan to
achieve a total capacity of 60 GW from hydro power and 175 GW from other RES by March, 2022,
which includes 100 GW of Solar power, 60 GW from wind power, 10 GW from biomass power and 5
GW from small hydro power.

Present Indian and international energy scenario of conventional and RE sources

The World Energy Council has been developing and using World Energy Scenarios for over a
decade to support its global member network of energy leaders, to clarify complexity, and to realise new
opportunities for successfully managing global energy transition. World energy consumption is the total
energy produced and used by the entire human civilization. Energy is essential for every activity of
life. There is a strong positive correlation between energy use and the quality of life. At global
level, per capita income of a country is directly proportional to the per capita energy consumption.

Country Installed capacity Unit: TWh

United States 3,291
Russia 1,008
Japan 903
China 754
Germany 537
Canada 520
France 464
India 337
United Kingdom 321
Ukraine 253
Brazil 242
Italy 226
Table: 1. Installed capacity of conventional energy sources across globe

International energy scenario of conventional sources

Oil
Oil reserves at the end of 2018 totalled 1730 billion barrels, up 2 billion barrels with respect to 2017.
The global R/P ratio shows that oil reserves in 2018 accounted for 50 years of current production.

12
Power Sector at a Glance "ALL INDIA"

Source: OM SECTION

1.Total Installed Capacity (As on 31.12.2023)- Source : Central Electricity Authority (CEA)
 Installed Generation Capacity (Sector wise) as on 31.12.2023 :

Installed
% Share in
Sector Generation
Total
Capacity (MW)
Central Sector 1,02,275 23.9%
State Sector 1,06,333 24.8%
Private Sector 2,19,691 51.3%
Total Installed Capacity 4,28,299 100.0%

 Installed Generation Capacity (Fuel wise) as on 31.12.2023 :

Installed
% Share in
Category Generation
Total
Capacity (MW)

Coal 2,07,776 48.5%

Fossil Fuel

Lignite 6,620 1.5%

Gas 25,038 5.8%
Diesel 589 0.1%
Total Fossil Fuel : 2,40,023 56.0%
RES (Incl. Hydro) 1,80,796 42.2%
Hydro 46,910 11.0%
Non-Fossil Fuel

Wind, Solar & Other RE 1,33,886 31.3%

Wind 44,736 10.4%
Solar 73,318 17.1%
BM Power/Cogen. 10,262 2.4%
Waste to Energy 583 0.1%
Small Hydro Power 4,987 1.2%
Nuclear 7,480 1.7%
Total Non-Fossil Fuel : 1,88,276 44.0%

Total Installed Capacity

4,28,299 100%
(Fossil Fuel & Non-Fossil Fuel)
Policy Initiatives / Decision Taken

Electricity Act 2003 has been enacted and came into force from 15.06.2003. The objective is to
introduce competition, protect consumer’s interests and provide power for all. The Act provides for
National Electricity Policy, Rural Electrification, Open access in transmission, phased open access in
distribution, mandatory SERCs, license free generation and distribution, power trading, mandatory
metering and stringent penalties for theft of electricity.
It is a comprehensive legislation replacing Electricity Act 1910, Electricity Supply Act 1948 and
Electricity Regulatory Commission Act 1998.The Electricity Act, 2003 has been amended on two
occasions by the Electricity (Amendment) Act, 2003 and the Electricity (Amendment) Act, 2007. The
aim is to push the sector onto a trajectory of sound commercial growth and to enable the States and
the Centre to move in harmony and coordination.

Performance of Generation from all Sources

1.0 Performance of Electricity Generation (Including RE)

1.1 The electricity generation target (Including RE) for the year 2023-24 has been fixed as 1750 Billion
Unit (BU). i.e. growth of around 7.2% over actual generation of 1624.158 BU for the previous year
(2022-23). The generation during 2022-23 was 1624.158 BU as compared to 1491.859 BU generated
during 2021-22, representing a growth of about 8.87%.

1.2 Total Generation and growth over previous year in the country during 2009-10 to 2023-24 :-

Total Generation
Year % Growth
(Including Renewable Sources) (BU)
2009-10 808.498 7.56
2010-11 850.387 5.59
2011-12 928.113 9.14
2012-13 969.506 4.46
2013-14 1,020.200 5.23
2014-15 1,110.392 8.84
2015-16 1,173.603 5.69
2016-17 1,241.689 5.80
2017-18 1,308.146 5.35
2018-19 1,376.095 5.19
2019-20 1,389.102 0.95
2020-21 1,381.855 -0.52
2021-22 1,491.859 7.96
2022-23 1,624.465 8.89
2023-24 * 1,308.098 6.90
* Upto December, 2023 (Provisional), Source: CEA (, 201
7)
1.3 The electricity generation target for the year 2023-24 was fixed at 1750 BU comprising of
1324.110 BU Thermal; 156.700 BU Hydro; 46.190 Nuclear; 8 BU Import from Bhutan and 215 BU RES
(Excl. Large Hydro).
2.0 Plant Load Factor (PLF):
2.1 The PLF in the country (Coal & Lignite based) from 2009-10 to 2023-24 is as under:
All India PLF Sector-wise PLF (%)
Year
(%) Central State Private
2009-10 77.5 85.5 70.9 83.9
2010-11 75.1 85.1 66.7 80.7
2011-12 73.3 82.1 68.0 69.5
2012-13 69.9 79.2 65.6 64.1
2013-14 65.60 76.10 59.10 62.10
2014-15 64.46 73.96 59.83 60.58
2015-16 62.29 72.52 55.41 60.49
2016-17 59.88 71.98 54.35 55.73
2017-18 60.72 72.38 56.90 55.34
2018-19 61.07 72.64 57.81 55.24
2019-20 55.99 64.21 50.24 54.64
2020-21 54.51 63.40 46.23 54.66
2021-22 58.87 69.71 54.50 53.62
2022-23 64.15 74.67 61.86 56.64
2023-24 * 68.06 74.30 63.41 66.63
* Upto December, 2023 (Provisional), Source : CEA(, 2017)

3.0 Power Supply Position

The power supply position in the country during 2009-10 to 2023-24 :
Energy Peak
Surplus (+) / Maximum Surplus (+) /
Year Requirement Availability Peak Demand
Deficits (-) Demand Met Deficits (-)
(MU) (MU) (MU) (%) (MW) (MW) (MW) (%)
2009-10 8,30,594 7,46,644 -83,950 -10.1 1,19,166 1,04,009 -15,157 -12.7
2010-11 8,61,591 7,88,355 -73,236 -8.5 1,22,287 1,10,256 -12,031 -9.8
2011-12 9,37,199 8,57,886 -79,313 -8.5 1,30,006 1,16,191 -13,815 -10.6
2012-13 9,95,557 9,08,652 -86,905 -8.7 1,35,453 1,23,294 -12,159 -9.0
2013-14 10,02,257 9,59,829 -42,428 -4.2 1,35,918 1,29,815 -6,103 -4.5
2014-15 10,68,923 10,30,785 -38,138 -3.6 1,48,166 1,41,160 -7,006 -4.7
2015-16 11,14,408 10,90,850 -23,558 -2.1 1,53,366 1,48,463 -4,903 -3.2
2016-17 11,42,929 11,35,334 -7,595 -0.7 1,59,542 1,56,934 -2,608 -1.6
2017-18 12,13,326 12,04,697 -8,629 -0.7 1,64,066 1,60,752 -3,314 -2.0
2018-19 12,74,595 12,67,526 -7,070 -0.6 1,77,022 1,75,528 -1,494 -0.8
2019-20 12,91,010 12,84,444 -6,566 -0.5 1,83,804 1,82,533 -1,271 -0.7
2020-21 12,75,534 12,70,663 -4,871 -0.4 1,90,198 1,89,395 -802 -0.4
2021-22 13,79,812 13,74,024 -5,787 -0.4 2,03,014 2,00,539 -2,475 -1.2
2022-23 15,11,847 15,04,264 -7,583 -0.5 2,15,888 2,07,231 -8,657 -4.0
2023-24 * 12,24,291 12,21,152 -3,139 -0.3 2,43,271 2,39,931 -3,340 -1.4
* Upto December, 2023 (Provisional), Source : CEA(
 (In Billion Units)
Total Generation (Including Renewable Sources)
1,800 1624.5
1,600 1491.9
1376.1 1389.1 1381.9
1,400
1308.1
1241.7
1173.6
1,200 1110.4
928.1 969.5 1020.2
1,000 850.4
805.4
800

600

400

200

0
2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
2012 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20 2020-21 2021-22 2022-23

12.00 Growth in Total Generation (%)

10.00 9.14 8.84 8.89
7.96
8.00 7.15
5.59 5.23 5.69 5.80 5.35
6.00 5.19
4.46
4.00

2.00 0.95

0.00
-0.52
-2.00
2009-10

2010-11

2011-12

2012-13

2013-14

2015-16

2016-17

2017-18

2018-19

2019-20

2020-21

2021-22

2022-23
2014-15
 Aalim Muhammed Salegh College of Engineering
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Sub: OEE351 Renewable Energy Systems Class: III/VI sem CSE
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
UNIT II- SOLAR ENERGY
1. Explain about the Central Receiver solar thermal system OR Explain the solar
tower power stations.
Main principles and components:
 Central receiver systems in the tower
 Mirrors tracking the course of the sun in two axes (Heliostats)
 Heliostats reflect the direct solar radiation onto a receiver, centrally positioned on a
tower.
 In the receiver, radiation energy is converted into heat and transferred to a heat transfer
medium (e.g. air, liquid salt, water/steam). This heat drives a conventional thermal
engine.
 To ensure constant parameters and a constant flow of the working medium also at times
of varying solar radiation, either a heat storage can be incorporated into the system or
additional firing using e.g. fossil fuels (like natural gas) or renewable energy (like
biofuels) can be used.

Heliostats
Heliostats are reflecting surfaces provided with a two-axis tracking system which
ensures that the incident sunlight is reflected towards a certain target point throughout the day.
Heliostats commonly concentrate sunlight by means of a curved surface or an
appropriate orientation of partial areas, so that radiation flux density is increased.
Heliostats consist of the reflector surface (e.g. mirrors, mirror facets, other sunlight-
reflecting surfaces) a sun-tracking system provided with drive motors foundations and control
electronics.
The individual heliostat‟s orientation is commonly calculated on the basis of: the
current position of the sun, the spatial position of the heliostats, the target point.
 The target value is communicated electronically to the respective drive motors via a
communication line. This information is updated every few seconds.
The concentrator surface size of currently available heliostats varies between 20 and
150 m2 ; to date, the largest heliostat surface amounts to 200 m².
Controller:
Heliostats are usually centrally controlled and centrally supplied with electrical
energy.
As an alternative, autonomous heliostats have been developed which are controlled
locally. There, the energy required for the control processor and the drives is provided by
photovoltaic cells mounted parallel to the reflector surface.
Heliostat fields
The layout of a heliostat field is determined by technical and economic optimization:
Heliostats located closest to the tower present the lowest shading,
Heliostats placed north on the northern hemisphere (or south on the southern
hemisphere) show the lowest cosine losses.
Heliostats placed far off the tower, by contrast, require highly precise tracking and,
depending on the geographic location, have to be placed farer from the neighboring heliostats.
The cost of the land, the tracking and the orientation precision thus determine the
economic size of the field.
Cosine losses: representing the difference between the amount of energy falling on a
surface pointing at the sun, and a surface parallel to the surface of the earth.
Tower
The height of the tower, on which the receiver is mounted, is also determined by
technical and economic optimization.
Higher towers are generally more favorable, since bigger and denser heliostat fields
presenting lower shading losses may be applied.
However, this advantage is counteracted by the high requirements in terms of
tracking precision placed on the individual heliostats, tower and piping costs as well as
pumping and heat losses.
Common towers have a height of 80 to 100 m. Lattice as well as concrete towers are
applied.
RECEIVER
Receivers of solar tower power stations serve to transform the radiation energy,
diverted and concentrated by the heliostat field, into technical useful energy.
Nowadays, common radiation flux densities vary between 600 and 1,000 kW/m2.
Receivers classification according to:
 the applied heat transfer medium (e.g. air, molten salt, water/steam, liquid metal)
 the receiver geometry (e.g. even, cavity, cylindrical or cone-shaped receivers)
According to heat transfer medium:
 Water/steam receiver
 Salt receiver
 Open volumetric air receiver
 Closed (pressurized) air receivers

WORKING :
In these power plants, solar radiations are reflected from arrays of mirrors (called
heliostats) installed in circular arcs around the central tower. Reflected radiations concentrate
on to the receiver. The array is provided with a tracking control system that focuses beam
radiation towards the receiver as shown in Figure 5.11. Water is converted into steam in the
receiver itself that operates a turbine coupled with a generator. Alternatively, the receiver may
be utilised to heat a molten salt and this fluid is allowed to flow through a heat exchanger
where steam is generated to operate the power cycle

2.With a schematic diagram explain the structure of medium temperature solar

power plant.
Solar thermal power plants operating on medium temperatures up to 400°C, use the
line focusing parabolic collector for heating a synthetic oil flowing in the absorber tube. A
schematic diagram of a typical plant is shown in Figure 5.10. A suitable sun-tracking
arrangement is made to ensure that maximum quantity of solar radiation is focused on the
absorber pipeline.
Preheater and superheater are used to increase the inlet steam temperature for the
High Pressure (HP) turbine. Reheaters are used to raise the steam temperature for Low
Pressure (LP) turbine. The system generates superheated high pressure steam to operate a
Rankine cycle with maximum efficiency
 Process of solar thermal power generation:
− concentrating solar radiation by means of a collector system;
− increasing radiation flux density (i.e. concentrating of the solar radiation onto a
receiver), if applicable;
− absorption of the solar radiation (i.e. conversion of the radiation energy into
thermal energy (i.e. heat) inside the receiver);
− transfer of thermal energy to an energy conversion unit;
− conversion of thermal energy into mechanical energy using a thermal engine
(e.g. steam turbine);
− conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy using a generator.
3.A).With the help of block diagrams, explain the operations of stand-alone and grid
interactive solar PV systems.
B).What is MPPT? And explain it with any two techniques.
 1. Stand alone SPV System:

2. Grid connected PV System:

a) Without Battery Bank:
b) . With Battery Bank:
 B). MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING
MPPT or Maximum Power Point Tracking is algorithm that included in charge
controllers used for extracting maximum available power from PV module under
certain conditions. The voltage at which PV module can produce maximum power is
called „maximum power point‟ (or peak power voltage). Maximum power varies with
solar radiation, ambient temperature and solar cell temperature.
A MPPT, or maximum power point tracker is an electronic DC to DC
converter that optimizes the match between the solar array (PV panels), and the
battery bank or utility grid. To put it simply, they convert a higher voltage DC output
from solar panels (and a few wind generators) down to the lower voltage needed to
charge batteries.
Several algorithms were proposed to accomplish MPPT controller. Published MPPT
methods include:
(1) Perturb and Observe (PAO) ,
(2) Incremental Conductance Technique (ICT), and
(3) Constant Reference Voltage/Current.
Perturb and Observe (PAO)
Perturb-and-observe (P&O) method, also known as perturbation method is a
type of MPPT algorithm. The concept behind the “perturb and observe” method is to
modify the operating voltage or current of the photovoltaic panel until you obtain
maximum power from it. It is often referred to as hill climbing method, because they
depend on the fact that on the left side of the MPP, the curve is rising (dP/dV > 0)
while on the right side of the MPP the curve is falling (dP/dV < 0). Perturb and
observe is the most commonly used MPPT method due to its ease of implementation.
Perturb and observe method may result in top-level efficiency, provided that a proper
predictive and adaptive hill climbing strategy is adopted.
Algorithm:
The voltage to a cell is increased initially. If the output power increases, the voltage is
continually increased till the output power starts decreasing. Once the output power starts
decreasing, the voltage to the cell is decreased till maximum power is reached. This
process is continued till the MPP is attained. This results in an oscillation of the output
power around the MPP.
Drawback:
One of the major drawbacks of the perturb and observe method is that under steady state
operation, the output power oscillates around the maximum power point.
This algorithm can track wrongly under rapidly varying irradiation conditions.
4. Explain about the Solar cells with types and its Characteristics. Also define the fill factor.
Photovoltaic power generation is a method of producing electricity using solar cells. A
solar cell converts solar optical energy directly into electrical energy. A solar cell is essentially a
semiconductor device fabricated in a manner which generates a voltage when solar radiation falls
on it.
In semiconductors, atoms carry four electrons in the outer valence shell, some of which
can be dislodged to move freely in the materials if extra energy is supplied. Then, a semiconductor
attains the property to conduct the current. This is the basic principle on which the solar cell
works and generates power.

SOLAR CELL, MODULE, PANEL AND ARRAY

Solar Cell
The solar cell consists of
(i) p-type silicon material layer,
 (ii) n-type silicon material layer,
(iii) front metallic grid and
(iv) opaque back metal contact as shown in Figure 3.24
The bulk material consists of p-type silicon having thickness about 100 350 mm. A
thin layer of n-type silicon having thickness of about 2 mm is diffused on this bulk material,
providing p-n junction. A metallic grid at top with n-type material and an opaque back metal
contact at the bottom of p-type material are provided which also act as negative and
positive terminals.
Solar PV Module
A Single solar cell cannot be used as such as it has
(1)A very small output
(2)No protection against dust moisture , mechanical impacts and atmospheric harsh
condition

Solar PV panel.
Solar PV panel consists of a number of solar PV modules connected in series and
parallel to obtain the power of desired voltage and current. When modules are connected in
series, it is desirable that each module should produce maximum power at the same current.
When solar PV modules are connected in parallel, it is desirable that each module should
produce maximum power at the same voltage. A frame is used to mount several modules to
form a solar PV panel.
In the panel, bypass diodes are installed across each module so that any defective
module can be bypassed by the output of remaining modules.
The blocking diodes are connected in series with each series string of modules which enable
the output of the remaining series strings should not be absorbed by the failed string. A
typical panel with the series and the parallel connections is shown in Figure
Solar PV Array
A PV array consists of a number of solar panels which are installed in an array field.
The solar panels may be installed as stationary facing the sun or installed with some tracking
mechanism. The installation should ensure that no panel should cast shadow on any of the
neighboring panels and those panels can be easily maintained.

Solar cells are fixed on a board and connected in series and parallel combinations to provide
the required voltage and power to form a PV module
TYPES OF SOLAR CELL
The solar cells depending on the type of material used can be classified as
(1) single crystal silicon solar cell,
(2) polycrystalline and amorphous silicon cell,
(3) cadmium sulphide-cadmium telluride cell,
(4) copper indium diselenide cell
(5) gallium arsenide cell.
Single Crystal Silicon
Silicon solar cells are commonly used for both terrestrial and space applications. The
basic raw material is sand (SiO2) from which silica (Si) is extracted and purified repeatedly to
obtain the metallurgical grade silicon. It contains about 1% impurities and further processed
to convert it to a purer semiconductor grade silicon. It is then finally converted into a single
crystal ingot.
A single crystal ingot is a long cylindrical block of about 6 cm to 15 cm in diameter.
 Crystalline cells basically require 300 mm to 400 mm of absorber material; the ingot
is sliced in wafers of 300 mm thickness. These wafers are the starting material for a series of
process steps such as surface preparation, dopants diffusion, anti-reflection coating, contact
grid on the surface and base contact on the upper surface and on the lower one.
The efficiency of single crystal silicon is about 22%. It is most efficient and robust.
It has two main drawbacks: (i) it needs high energy to produce and hence is costly
and (ii) it requires high intensity of radiation to produce solar electricity.

Polycrystalline Silicon Cells

The production cost of a single crystal silicon cell is quite high compared to the
polycrystalline silicon cell. Polysilicon can be obtained in thin ribbons drawn from molten
silicon bath and cooled very slowly to obtain large size crystallites. Cells are made with care
so that the grain boundaries cause no major interference with the flow of electrons and grains
are larger in size than the thickness of the cell.

The polycrystalline silicon solar cell can be fabricated in three designs, namely p-n
junction cells, Metal Insulator Semiconductor (MIS) cells, and conducting oxide-insulator
semiconductor cells.
For a p-n junction solar cell, a polycrystalline silicon film is deposited by chemical
vapour deposition on substrates like glass, graphite, metallurgical grade silicon and metal. An
MIS cell can be developed by inserting a thin insulting layer of SiO2 between the metal and
the semiconductor.
A nicely developed cell with chromium metal base with SiO2 insulation over it, the
p-type crystalline silicon can give efficiency up to 12% at AM-1 condition with cell
dimension of 0.2 cm2.
Amorphous Silicon Cells
 Amorphous silicon is pure silicon with no crystal properties. It is highly light
absorbent and requires only 1 mm to 2 mm of material to absorb photons of the incident light.
Thin amorphous layers can be deposited on cheap substrates like steel, glass and plastic.
Hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si : H) is a suitable material for thin film solar cells,
mainly due to its high photo-conductivity, high optical absorption of visible light with optical
band gap of 1.55 eV. Thin films of nearly 0.7 mm can produce solar cells comparatively at
low cost.
Amorphous silicon cells can be fabricated in four structures: (i) metal, insulator–
semiconductor (MIS), (ii) p-i-n devices, (iii) hetrojunction, and (iv) Schottky barriers.
The p-i-n junction, a-Si solar cells are beneficial for commercial production due to
their good performance.
A common type of p-i-n junction, a-Si solar cell, consists of a deposited layer of
boron doped a-Si : H(200 Å) and above it, is a deposited layer of n-doped a-Si : H (80 Å).
Then, a 70 Å thick layer of Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) is deposited over the n-type layer which
serves in two ways, i.e., conducting electrode and anti reflective coating.
In a single junction (a-Si : H) solar cell, a part of solar radiation with less energy than
band gap remains unutilized and wasted as heat, causing low cell efficiency.
This drawback is solved by adopting a ‘tandem structure’ that involves stacked
junctions where semiconductors having different energy gaps are erected on top of each other
with decreasing band gap in the direction of light path.

V-I and P-V characteristics of a solar cell:

Mathematical Model of Solar Cell

EFFICIENCY OF SOLAR CELLS

Electrical characteristics of a solar cell are expressed by the current–voltage curves
plotted under a given illumination and temperature conditions. The significant points of the
curve are short-circuit current Isc and open circuit voltage Voc.
Maximum useful power of the cell is represented by the rectangle with the largest
area. When the cell yields maximum power, the current and voltage are represented by the
symbols Im and Vm respectively. Leakage across the cell increases with temperature which
reduces voltage and maximum power. Cell quality is maximum when the value of ‘fill factor’
approaches unity where the Fill Factor (FF) is expressed as

Energy conversion efficiency (h) is defined as the ratio of power output of cell (in watts) at its
maximum power point (PMAX) and the product of input light power (E, in W/m2) and the
surface area of the solar cell (S in m2) under standard conditions
η= maximum output power/(irradiance × area) = PMAX/(E × S)
The performance of a photovoltaic device defines the prediction of the power that the
cell will produce. Current–voltage (I–V) relationships, which measure the electrical
characteristics of solar cell devices, are represented by I–V curves. These I–V curves are
obtained by exposing the cell to a constant level of light while maintaining a constant cell
temperature, varying the resistance of the load, and measuring the current that is produced.
By varying the load resistance from zero (a short circuit) to infinity (an open circuit),
researchers can determine the highest efficiency as the point at which the cell delivers
maximum power. The power is the product of voltage and current. Therefore, on the I–V
curve, the maximum power point (PMAX) occurs where the product of current and voltage is
a maximum. No power is produced at the short-circuit current with no voltage or at open-
circuit voltage with no current.
Therefore, the maximum power generated is expected to be somewhere between
these two points. Maximum power is generated at only one place on the power curve, at about
the „knee‟ of the curve. This point represents the maximum efficiency of the solar device at
converting sunlight into electricity.
 UNIT - WIND ENERGY
1. Clearly explain the principle of WECS with neat block diagram. (OR) Describe
the working of a wind power system and its components with a neat schematic
diagram.
Wind energy, extracted by blades, rotates the shaft which, by using the gear and
coupling mechanism, operates the generator housed inside a nacelle. A roller
assembly links the tower with the nacelle to permit its rotation about a vertical axis to
keep the rotor in wind direction. Large wind turbine generators use pitch regulation
and run at a fixed speed (50 cycles/second) to facilitate synchronization with the grid
supply. A 225 kW WEG having a rotor diameter of 27 metres with swept area of 573
sq. m, installed on a tubular tower, is shown in Figure 7.23 with its various
subsystems as follows:

Blades: Wind turbine blades need to be lightweight and possess adequate strength and hence
require to be fabricated with aircraft industry techniques. The blades are made of glass fibre
reinforced polyster with a suitable structural geometrical shape to create lift as the air flows over
them
Nacelle: It houses the generator, the gear box hydraulic system and the yawing mechanism.
Nacelle is placed at the top of the tower and is linked with the rotor.
Power transmission system: Mechanical power generated by rotor blades is transmitted to
the generator through a two-stage gear box. From the gear box, the transmission shaft rotates the
generator with a built-in friction clutch. The gear box is provided to increase the generator
speedbto 1500 rpm.
Generator: Generally the large WTGs, used with grid-connected systems, have induction
generators. They use reactive power from grids and feed the generated power to boost the grid
supply. Medium capacity WTGs use synchronous generators installed to electrify villages, and
provide industrial power supply to remote places. Small capacity WTGs use permanent magnet
dc generators which supply power to microwave stations and illuminating lighthouses.
Yaw control: Yawing is done by two yawing motors, which mesh with a big-toothed wheel
mounted on top of the tower. Yaw control continuously tracks and keeps the rotor axis in the
wind direction. During high speed wind, i.e., more than the cut-out speed, the machine is stopped
by turning the rotor axis at right angles to the wind direction.
Brakes: Braking of WEGs is done by full feathering. An emergency STOP activates the
hydraulic disc brakes fitted to the high-speed shaft of the gear box.
Controllers: WEGs are monitored and controlled by a microprocessor-based control unit. A
controller monitors the parameters in the nacelle besides controlling the operation of the pitch
system. Variations in the blade position are performed by a hydraulic system, which also delivers
pressure to the brake system.
Tower: Modern wind turbine generators are installed on tubular towers. Large turbines
use lattice towers designed to withstand gravity loads and wind loads. The height of the tower is
decided for obtaining the designed value of wind speed and dimensions of the rotor (the higher
the turbine capacity the larger the rotor).

WORKING:

There is an air turbine of large blades attached on the top of a supporting tower of
sufficient height. When wind strikes on the turbine blades, the turbine rotates due to the design
and alignment of rotor blades.
The shaft of the turbine is coupled with an electrical generator. The output of the
generator is collected through electric power cables
When the wind strikes the rotor blades, blades start rotating. The turbine rotor is
connected to a high-speed gearbox. Gearbox transforms the rotor rotation from low speed to high
speed.
The high-speed shaft from the gearbox is coupled with the rotor of the generator and
hence the electrical generator runs at a higher speed. An exciter is needed to give the required
excitation to the magnetic coil of the generator field system so that it can generate the required
electricity. The generated voltage at output terminals of the alternator is proportional to both the
speed and field flux of the alternator.
The speed is governed by wind power which is out of control. Hence to maintain
uniformity of the output power from the alternator, excitation must be controlled according to the
availability of natural wind power. The exciter current is controlled by a turbine controller which
senses the wind speed.
Then output voltage of electrical generator(alternator) is given to a rectifier where the
alternator output gets rectified to DC. Then this rectified DC output is given to line converter unit
to convert it into stabilized AC output which is ultimately fed to either electrical transmission
network or transmission grid with the help of step up transformer.
An extra units is used to give the power to internal auxiliaries of wind turbine (like motor,
battery etc.), this is called Internal Supply Unit. There are other two control mechanisms attached
to a modern big wind turbine.
 Controlling the orientation of the turbine blade.
 Controlling the orientation of the turbine face.
The orientation of turbine blades is governed from the base hub of the blades. The blades
are attached to the central hub with the help of a rotating arrangement through gears and small
electric motor or hydraulic rotary system.
The system can be electrically or mechanically controlled depending on its design. The
blades are swiveled depending upon the speed of the wind. The technique is called pitch control. It
provides the best possible orientation of the turbine blades along the direction of the wind to
obtain optimized wind power.
The orientation of the nacelle or the entire body of the turbine can follow the direction of
changing wind direction to maximize mechanical energy harvesting from the wind.
The direction of the wind along with its speed is sensed by an anemometer (automatic
speed measuring devices) with wind vanes attached to the back top of the nacelle.
The signal is fed back to an electronic microprocessor-based controlling system which
governs the yaw motor which rotates the entire nacelle with gearing arrangement to face the air
turbine along the direction of the wind.

2. A).How energy from wind can be extracted? Explain the process by using suitable
diagram.
Wind turbines extract energy from wind stream by converting the kinetic energy of
the wind to rotational motion required to operate an electric generator. By virtue of the kinetic
energy, the velocity of the flowing wind decreases. It is assumed that the mass of air which
passes through rotor is only affected and remains separate from the air which does not pass
through the rotor.
Accordingly, a circular boundary surface is drawn showing the affected air mass and
this boundary is extended upstream as well as downstream as detailed in Figure

As the free wind (stream) interacts with the turbine rotor, the wind transfers part of its
energy into the rotor and the speed of the wind decreases to a minimum leaving a trail of
disturbed wind called wake. The variation in velocity is considered to be smooth from far
upstream to far downstream. However, the fall in static wind pressure is sharp.
The wind leaving the rotor is below the atmospheric pressure (in wake region) but at
far downstream it regains its value to reach the atmospheric level. The rise in static pressure is
at the cost of kinetic energy, consequently further decreasing the wind speed.
Wind flow is considered incompressible and hence the air stream flow diverges as it passes
through the turbine. Also the mass flow rate of wind is assumed constant at far upstream, at
the rotor and at far downstream. To compute the mathematical relationships, suppose:
P = atmospheric wind pressure
Pu = pressure on upstream of wind turbine
Pd = pressure on downstream of wind turbine
V = atmospheric wind velocity
Vu = velocity of wind upstream of wind turbine
Vb = velocity of wind at blades
Vd = velocity of wind downstream of wind turbine before the wind front reforms and
regains the atmospheric level
A = area of blades
M = mass flow rate of wind
r = air density.
The kinetic energy of wind stream passing through the turbine rotor is
B) .
3.Explain about the a).control strategies of Wind Energy Conversion System
with b).its characteristics.
3. Explain the applications of Wind Energy Conversion Systems. OR Explain the modes
of wind energy generation.
By nature, wind is not a steady source of energy, therefore, it cannot on its own meet
the needs of consumers at all times. Necessarily, it has to be integrated with some other
sources to provide a constant backup. Wind Electric Generators (WEGs) operate in one of the
following three modes.
(i) Standalone mode
(ii) Backup mode like wind–diesel
 (iii) Grid-connected mode.
Standalone Mode
This type of aero-generator represents decentralized application of wind energy and is
characterized by the situation where an individual energy consumer or a group of consumers
install their own wind turbine. The generating capacity of the WTG is matched with the
energy requirement. The two most promising applications of the wind energy conversion
system are:
(a) Power supply for domestic use and battery charging.
(b) Windmill water pump for irrigation and drinking purposes.
A WEG with a capacity of 2.5 kW to 5 kW is useful for domestic power supply. It operates
independently with a battery and its charging equipment is as detailed in Figure 7.24. Such
installations are useful for remote mountainous regions where the extension of grid or supply
of oil is a remote possibility. Special benefit accrues where the wind speeds are suitable for
power generation. It is preferred to have electric power at controlled frequency. As the wind
changes speed, the pitch of the blades is adjusted to control the frequency of turbine rotation.

Backup Mode Like Wind–Diesel

Wind energy, being intermittent, requires a backup of diesel generator to maintain a
24-hour power supply. In areas inaccessible to grid power, the emergency loads of hospitals,
defence installations and communication services are met with a wind–diesel hybrid system,
while the general loads of domestic and commercial establishments are fed by WTG, as
detailed in Figure 7.27. As the wind speed drops, low tariff loads are automatically switched
off to reduce the demand. During the period of no wind, priority loads are fed by the diesel
generator. Load management allows the full capital value of WTG to be used at all times,
besides maximum utilisation of free wind energy.
GRID CONNECTED WIND TURBINE GENERATORS
A common arrangement for connecting medium capacity WTGs (250 kW) to ‘state grid’ is
shown in Figure 7.28

WTGs generate electric power at 400 V; it is then stepped up to make this voltage compatible
to the grid (11 kV). In India, grid-connected WEGs constitute wind farms where the
generated power is distributed among the nearby consumers and the excess power is exported
to the grid. Electrical energy is purchased (imported) from the grid during periods of no wind.
Grid connected permanent magnet Synchronous Generator based WECS:
 UNIT BIOMASS ENERGY
1. Explain briefly the components of a Biogas plant. With the help of neat sketch,explain
the working of floating drum type Biogas plant
The biogas plant is a device that converts cattle dung and other organic matter into
inflammable gas called biogas and into a good quality organic manure under anaerobic
conditions. There are two popular designs of biogas plants: (i) Floating drum (constant
pressure) type and (ii) Fixed dome (constant volume) type.
Floating Drum Type Biogas Plant
A popular model developed by Khadi Village Industries Commission (KVIC) was
standardized in 1961. It comprises an underground cylindrical masonary digester having an
inlet pipe for feeding animal dung slurry and an outlet pipe for sludge. There is a steel dome
for gas collection which floats over the slurry. It moves up and down depending upon
accumulation and discharge of gas guided by the dome guide shaft
A partition wall is provided in the digester to improve circulation, necessary for
fermentation. The floating gas holder builds gas pressure of about 10 cm of water column,
sufficient to supply gas up to 100 metre. Gas pressure also forces out the spent slurry through
a sludge pipe.
Fixed Dome Type Biogas Plant
It is an economical design where the digester is combined with a dome-shaped gas
holder It is known as Janata model; the composite unit is made of brick and cement masonary
having no moving parts, thus ensuring no wear and tear and longer working life. When
gas is produced, the pressure in the dome changes from 0 to 100 cm of water column. It
regulates gas distribution and outflow of spent slurry.
2. Explain the Biomass Energy Conversion process.
Biomass material from a variety of sources can be utilised optimally by adopting
efficient and state-of-the-art conversion technologies such as:
1. Densification of biomass
2. Combustion and incineration
3. Thermo-chemical conversion
4. Bio-chemical conversion

Densification
Bulky biomass is reduced to a better volume-to-weight ratio by compressing in a die
at a high temperature and pressure. It is shaped into briquettes or pellets to make a more
compact source of energy, which is easier to transport and store than the natural biomass.
Pellets and briquettes can be used as clean fuel in domestic chulhas, bakeries and hotels.
Combustion
Direct combustion is the main process adopted for utilising biomass energy. It is
burnt to produce heat utilised for cooking, space heating, industrial processes and for
electricity generation. This utilisation method is very inefficient with heat transfer losses of
30–90% of the original energy contained in the biomass. The problem is addressed through
the use of more efficient cook-stove for burning solid fuels.
Incineration
Incineration is the process of burning completely the solid biomass to ashes by high
temperature oxidation. The terms incineration and combustion are synonymous, but the
process of combustion is applicable to all fuels, i.e., solid, liquid and gaseous. Incineration is
a special process where the dry Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is incinerated to reduce the
volume of solid refuse (90%) and to produce heat, steam and electricity.
Waste incineration plants are installed in large cities to dispose off urban refuse and
generate energy. It constitutes a furnace with adequate supply of air to ensure complete
combustion up to a capacity of 1000 tonnes/day
Thermo-chemical conversion
Thermo-chemical conversion is a process to decompose biomass with various
combinations of temperatures and pressures. It includes ‘pyrolysis’ and ‘gasification’.
Pyrolysis
Biomass is heated in absence of oxygen, or partially combusted in a limited oxygen
supply, to produce a hydrocarbon, rich in gas mixture (H2, CO2, CO CH4 and lower
hydrocarbons), an oil like liquid and a carbon rich solid residue (charcoal).
The pyrolitic or ‘bio-oil’ produced can easily be transported and refined into a series
of products similar to refining crude oil. There is no waste product, the conversion efficiency
is high (82%) depending upon the feedstock used, the process temperature in reactor and the
fuel/ air ratio during combustion.
Gasification
Gasification is conversion of a solid biomass, at a high temperature with controlled
air, into a gaseous fuel. The output gas is known as producer gas, a mixture of H2 (15–20%),
CO (10–20%), CH4 (1–5%), CO2 (9–12%) and N2 (45–55%). The gas is more versatile than
the
solid biomass, it can be burnt to produce process heat and steam, or used in internal
combustion engines or gas turbines to generate electricity. The gasification process renders
the use of biomass which is relatively clean and acceptable in environmental terms.
Liquefaction
Liquefaction of biomass can be processed through ‘fast’ or ‘flash’ pyrolysis, called
‘pyrolytic oil’ which is a dark brown liquid of low viscosity and a mixture of hydrocarbons.
Pyrolysis liquid is a good substitute for heating oil.
Another liquefaction method is through methanol synthesis. Gasification of biomass
produces synthetic gas containing a mixture of H2 and CO. The gas is purified by adjusting
the hydrogen and carbon monoxide composition. Finally, the purified gas is subjected to
liquefaction process, converted to methanol over a zinc chromium calatyst. Methanol can be
used as liquid fuel.
BIOCHEMICAL CONVERSION
There are two forms of biochemical conversions:
1. Anaerobic digestion
2. Ethanol fermentation
Anaerobic Digestion (Anaerobic Fermentation)
This process converts the cattle dung, human wastes and other organic waste with
high moisture content into biogas (gobar gas) through anaerobic fermentation in absence of
air. Fermentation occures in two stages by two different metabolic groups of bacteria. Initially
the organic material is hydrolyzed into fatty acids, alcohol, sugars, H2 and CO2. Methane
forming bacteria then converts the products of the first stage to CH4 and CO2, in the
temperature range 30–55°C.
Biogas produced can be used for heating, or for operating engine driven generators to
produce electricity. Fermentation occurs in a sealed tank called ‘digester’ where the sludge
left behind is used as enriched fertilizer.

Ethanol Fermentation
 UNIT OTHER ENERGY SOURCES
1. Explain the Working of tidal power plant with neat layout and specify the site
requirements.
Tidal power, also called TIDAL ENERGY, is a form of HYDROPOWER which
converts the energy of tides into the useful form of power, mainly in electricity.
Tides are the waves caused due to gravitational pull of the moon and sun. Ocean
tides are the periodic rise and fall of ocean water level occurs twice in each lunar day. During
one lunar day the ocean water level rises twice and fall twice.
Time interval between a consecutive low tide and high tide is 6.207 hrs.
Tidal range is the difference between the consecutive high tide and low tide. During
high tide, the water flow into the dam and during low tide water flow out which result in
moving the turbine.
Although not yet widely used, tidal power has potential for future electricity
generation. Tides are more predictable than wind energy and solar power.
IMPORTANT COMPONENTS OF A TIDAL POWER PLANT
There are three important components of a tidal plant:
(i) A barrage to form a basin
(ii) Sluice gates in the barrage for flow of water from the sea to the basin and vice-
versa
(iii) A powerhouse equipped with turbines, each coupled to a generator along with
auxiliary equipment.
Barrage (Dam or Dyke)
 The barrage should be constructed by the material available at site or from a nearby place.
 Barrages for tidal power projects have to withstand the force of sea waves, so the design
should be suitable to site conditions and to economic aspect of development.
 The rockfill dams or barrages are preferred due to their stability against flows. The dyke
(barrage) crest and slopes should be armoured for protection against waves.
Sluices
 Tidal power plants operate on the continuously varying difference in level at which the basin
must be filled from the sea or emptied to the sea, as required by the operating regime of the
power plant.
 This requires suitable sluice ways equipped with gates which can be operated quickly.
 These are required to be operated two or more times a day.
 There are two types of sluice ways, one type with crest gates and the other of the submerged
gates associated with venturi type.
 Sluice ways with crest gates are more prone to damage by wave action and masses carried by
the flow. Vertical lift gates are the natural choice and can be fabricated from stainless steel.
Turbines
 The energy potential in tidal power development is exploited from low to very low heads, for
which large size turbines are required. If the water head is more than 8 metres, a propeller
type turbine is quite suitable because the angle of blades can be changed to obtain maximum
efficiency while the water is falling.
 The main aim of the designer for a tidal power plant is to achieve as long a period of
operation as possible.
 The turbines beginning and finishing work at the minimum head provide maximum
efficiency, and this is the advantage of having turbines with variable pitch blade
Types of Tidal Power Plants
Tidal power plants can be broadly classified into the following four categories:
(i) Single-basin single-effect plant
(ii) Single-basin double-effect plant
 (iii) Double-basin with linked-basin operation
(iv) Double-basin with paired-basin operation
Single-basin Single-effect Plant
It is the oldest form of tidal power development and the basis of many tide mills.
The basin is filled through the sluice by the rising tide. The water level in the basin
reaches the highest level of the tide. It provides the water head of tidal range to the turbine.
The sluice gate is closed. The turbine is started only when the water in the sea is at falling
tide level. As the tide continues to fall a hydraulic head is formed at the barrage and at an
appropriate time water is released from the basin through the generating unit installed in the
powerhouse.
Electric power generation continues until the head is reduced to the minimum turbine
operating level. It normally occurs after the tide has reached its lowest point and has begun
to rise again. At this stage the turbine water passage is closed and all discharge from the
basin is stopped.
When the rising tide reaches the basin level, the filling sluice is opened, refilling of the
basin starts and the cycle is repeated. The cycle of operation showing the water level, the
generating and the refilling periods.
(i) The turbine capacity
(ii) Minimum head under which the turbine will operate efficiently
(iii) Time at which generation starts and stops.
These three variables need to be adjusted to produce the best possible results. In general
the aim should be to get as long a period of operation as possible, and with this objective, the
turbines would commence and stop operating at the minimum head consistent with high
efficiency.
In a single-basin single-effect tidal plant with ebb tide operation, the generation period is
only for 3.5 hours during every tide cycle. There are two tide cycles per day, so the energy
available is intermittent and fluctuates from a maximum at spring tides to a minimum at neaps.

Single basin rising tide operation

In rising tide, there is rapid filling of the basin, so the turbine operates for a reduced
period. In ebb tide operation, the turbine and the generator operate for a longer time
giving higher output.
Single-basin Double-effect Plant
This arrangement makes use of the combination of the ebb tide and the flood tide
working, and power is generated both during emptying and filling of the basin. With a single
barrage, the water head which produces the energy operates from the sea towards the basin
during the flood tide and from the basin towards the sea during the ebb tide. The most practical
 method of achieving the double tide operation is by the use of the reversible turbine which can
operate in both directions of flow.

Double-basin with Linked-basin Operation

In this arrangement a large basin is converted into two basins of suitable dimensions;
one which is at higher level is called high basin and the other low basin. The scheme consists
of three barrages, one separating the high basin from the sea and containing the filling gates,
another separating the low basin from the sea and containing the emptying gates. The third
barrage separates the high basin from the low basin and contains the powerhouse.

The upper basin filling gates are opened only during the time when the sea level is
higher than the upper basin. The emptying gates of the lower basin are opened only when the
sea level is lower than the lower basin. The head on the turbine is the difference in elevation
between the upper and lower basins.
The two-basin scheme may be economically viable where power demand is less than
the guaranteed output as determined by the tide cycle. Alternatively, the two-basin system can
be operated by retaining water in high basin and releasing it to meet peak demands only.
Double-basin with Paired-basin Operation
The paired basin scheme consists of two single-basin single-effect separate schemes
located at a distance from each other. The locations are so selected that there is a difference in
tidal phase between them. Both the schemes never exchange water, but are interconnected
electrically. Both the basins operate in single-basin single-effect mode. One basin generates
electrical energy during the ‘filling’ process while the other during the ‘emptying’ process.
 This arrangement affords a little more flexibility in operation of the plants to meet
power demands. More benefit can be derived if there is a difference in tidal phase of the sea
near the two basins.
In case where there is no difference in tidal phase, variations in power output can be
evened out by resorting to ebb tide operation in one plant and flood tide operation in the other.
The paired-basin operation leads to a continuous output, still its power supply
remains irregular and there is no solution for equalizing the great difference in output between
the spring and the neap tide operation.
Further, it is difficult to find two tidal sites within reasonable distance of each other
having the requisite difference in time of high water.
2.Explain the working principle of a geothermal power plant With the help of a neat
sketch.
GEOTHERMAL POWER GENERATION
Electric power from geothermal resources can be developed in the following manner.
1. Liquid-dominated resource
(a) Flashed steam system
(b) Binary cycle system
2. Vapour-dominated resource
1.Liquid-dominated Resource
Geothermal fluid is either available from natural outflow or from a bored well. The
drilling cost increases greatly with depth and the technically viable depth is 10 km. Thus, only
the geothermal wells of maximum output at shallow depths offer the best prospects for power
generation.
Flashed steam system
The choice of geothermal power plant is influenced by brine characteristics and its
temperature. For brine temperatures more than 180°C, the geothermal fluid is used. This
flashed steam system is suitable for power generation as detailed
 Geothermal fluid is a mixture of steam and brine, it passes through a flash chamber
where a large part of the fluid is converted to steam. Dry saturated steam passes through the
turbine coupled with the generator to produce electric power. Hot brine from the flash
chamber and the turbine discharge from the condenser are reinjected into the ground.
Reinjuction of the spent brine ensures a continuous supply of geothermal fluid from the well.
Commercially available turbogenerator units in the range of 5–20 MWe are in use. To
improve the total efficiency of the system, hot water is utilised for poultry farming in cold
regions.
Binary cycle system
A binary cycle is used where geothermal fluid is hot water with temperature less than
100°C.
This plant operates with a low boiling point working fluid (isobutane, freon) in a
thermodynamic closed Rankine cycle. The working fluid is vaporized by geothermal heat in a
heat exchanger
Vapour expands as it passes through the turbine coupled with the generator. Exhaust
vapour is condensed in a water-cooled condenser and recycled through a heat exchanger.
Power plants of 11 MW in California and 10 MW at Raft River Idaho USA operate on binary
cycle.

Vapour-dominated Geothermal Electric Power Plant

 In a vapour-dominated plant, steam is extracted from geothermal wells, passed
through a separator to remove particulate contents and flows directly to a steam turbine.
Steam that operates the turbine coupled with the generator is at a temperature of
about 245°C and pressure 7 kg/cm2 (7 bar) which are less than those in conventional steam
cycle plants (540°C and 130 kg/cm2). Thus, the efficiency of geothermal plants is low, i.e.,
about 20%.
Exhaust steam from the turbine passes through a condenser and the water so formed
circulates through the cooling tower. It improves the efficiency of the turbine and controls
environmental pollution associated with the direct release of steam into the atmosphere.
Waste water from the cooling tower sump is reinjected into the geothermal well to ensure
continuous supply.

3.Discuss the theory and working principle of ocean thermal energy conversion systems.
The OTEC converts the thermal energy, available due to temperature difference between
the warm surface water and the cold deep water, into electricity. Power from the OTEC is
renewable and eco-friendly.
An OTEC plant can operate in remote islands and sea-shore continuously. It is very low
grade solar thermal energy, so the efficiency of energy recovery is quite low.
However, since the ocean thermal energy is dispersed over a large ocean surface area, it
has a big potential.
According to MNRE, the overall potential of ocean energy in the country may be in
excess of 50,000 MW. There is an enormous opportunity to tap this renewable source of energy.

WORKING PRINCIPLE—OTEC
There exists a temperature difference of about 20°C between the warm surface water
of the sea (receiving and absorbing solar radiation) and the cold deep water (which flows
from the Arctic regions in deep layers) in equatorial areas between latitude 30° S and 30° N.
Solar heat energy is absorbed by ocean water.
It can be explained by ‘Lambert’s law of absorption’. The law states that “each water
layer of identical thickness absorbs an equal fraction of light that passes through it”.
Thus, the intensity of heat decreases with the increase in water depth. Due to large
heat transfer at the ocean surface water, the highest temperature is attained just below the top
surface.
 OPEN-CYCLE OTEC :

An open-cycle OTEC uses the warm ocean surface water as working fluid. It is a non-
toxic and environment friendly fluid.
It consists of evaporator, low-pressure turbine coupled with electrical generator,
condenser, marine culture ponds, non-condensable gas exhaust, and pumps.
Evaporator used in an open-cycle system is a flash evaporator in which warm sea
water instantly boils or flash in the chamber that has reduced pressure than atmosphere or
vacuum.
The working principles of open-cycle OTEC plants
1.The warm ocean surface water is pumped into flash evaporator where it is partially
flashed into steam at a very low pressure. The remaining warm sea water is
discharged into the sea.
2.The low-pressure vapour (steam) expands in turbine to drive a coupled electrical
generator to produce electricity. A portion of electricity generated is consumed in
plants to run pumps and for other work, and the remaining large amount of
electricity is stored as net electrical power.
3.The steam with many gases (such as oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide) released
from the turbine separated from sea water in an evaporator is pumped into
condenser. The steam is cooled in a condenser by cold deep sea water.
4.The condensed non-saline water is discharged either directly in deep sea cold water
or through the marine culture pond.
5.The non-condensable gases are compressed to pressure and exhausted
simultaneously.
6.The warm ocean surface water is continuously pumped into evaporator and cycle
repeats.
 CLOSED RANKINE CYCLE OR ANDERSON CLOSED CYCLE OTEC
SYSTEM

It may be seen that warm water from the surface which is at a temperature of about 26°C
is brought in one pipe, and cold water at a temperature of around 5°C is brought in
another pipe from a depth of about 1000 metres. In OTEC plants two water pipes are
used in conjunction with a working fluid to generate electric power. Different
operational activities of the plant are:
(a) The warm sea water evaporates the liquid ammonia into vapour in a unit called an
evaporator. This can be done because ammonia exists in the form of gas at the
temperature corresponding to the surface sea water.
(b) The liquid ammonia which is not evaporated collects in a unit known as separator,
which again recirculates through the evaporator.
(c) The evaporated ammonia in the form of high pressure vapour is made to pass through
a turbine where its pressure and temperature make the turbine to rotate, thus converting
thermal energy into mechanical energy. The rotating turbine if coupled to an electric
generator produces electric power.
(d) The ammonia vapour coming out of the turbine, which is now at the lower pressure
than when it entered the turbine is condensed back into liquid ammonia by cooling it
with the colder sea water brought up from the deep part.
(e) The liquified ammonia collects in an ammonia sump. After a few hours of operation,
the make-up quantity of ammonia is added from the ammonia storage to make up for
the operational loss.
(f) The liquified ammonia is then pumped back to the evaporator, thus completing the
cycle. The cycle repeats to run the plant continuously.

4.Explain the energy extracted from sea waves with expression and Discuss about the
devices used for Wave Energy Conversion.
The movement of ocean water is termed as waves, which become huge in height
as one goes farther from the coast. This movement of large quantities of water up and down
can in principle be harnessed to convert into usable forms of energy such as electricity or
mechanical power. Waves are formed on the surface of water by the frictional action of the
winds resulting in the radial depression of energy from the blowing winds in all directions.
`````````PRINCIPLE OF WAVE ENERGY CONVERSION AND DEVICES
The wave energy plant utilizes an ‘oscillating water column’ chamber and a self-
rectifying air turbine to produce power. The device works similar to the operation of a bellow.
Ocean waves enter the chamber inside the caisson and cause the water mass to move up and down
producing a bidirectional air flow through an opening at the top of the caisson,
The special design of the turbine makes it rotate unidirectionally even though the
actuating air flow is bidirectional. The turbine drives an induction generator connected to the grid.

Cross section of the caisson module

Buoy Type Machine
The buoy is a floating part of a system which rises and falls with rise and fall of sea
waves. However, the device is moored and anchored as per design methodology to avoid
drifting.
The buoy oscillates up and down with the wave, the energy can be exhibited on a
pulley with a string and counterweight arrangement.
The up and down motion of the counterweight can be converted into to and fro
motion of a piston which can operate a machine or a generator.
 Oscillating buoy with a string, pulley and counterweight

Dolphin Type Wave Energy Generator

A supporting structure is built in the sea bed to provide a firm position for the equipment.
The structure is erected on pile foundations. One generator is installed on the top of the structure
which collects wave energy from the connecting shaft with rolling motion.
The gear arrangement with the stationary generator rotates the rotor to generate electric power.
The buoy is at the other end of the connecting rod floats and has two motions, namely rolling motion
and oscillatory motions represented by N and M respectively.
The floating generator collects wave energy from the buoy through a gear arrangement and
continuously generates power.

Oscillating Ducks
This wave power equipment was designed by Stephen Salter at Edinburgh university in
Scotland.
It is a float type wave energy conversion plant in which several duck-shaped devices
(each 25 m long) are installed in a linear width-wise array along a line which is perpendicular to
the direction of the wave.
The system consists of a long cylindrical spine of 15 m diameter on which cam shaped
ducks are installed in an array to form an assembly
It responds to the incoming wave with a nodding action.