BIOLOGY SUMAN DEBNATH (M.Sc in ZOOLOGY), B.

Ed (Life Sciences)

HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE

Health: Health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being of a person. It is not
merely the absence of disease or physical fitness. Balanced diet, personal hygiene and regular exercise are
very important to maintain good health. When people are healthy they are more efficient at work. This
increase productivity and brings economy. Health can be affected by the following factors.

 Lifestyle related problems: The habit and food related problems affect our health reversibly, e.g.
diabetes, obesity, etc.
 Infections: Health gets affected by infections caused by various pathogens, e.g. Bird flu, Corona
 Genetic disorders: These include defects or deficiencies inherited by child from his parents, e.g.
Hemophilia.

Diseases Any deviation from normal state of health is called a disease, in which the normal functioning of
body or any organ gets disturbed or deranged. Diseases can be classified as given below

 Congenital Diseases These diseases are present in human, since birth and caused due to mutation,
chromosomal aberration or environmental factors, e.g. sickle-cell anemia, cleft palate, etc.
 Acquired Diseases These diseases are developed after birth and are not transferred from parents to
offspring.
 Communicable or infectious diseases: It spreads from one person to other.
(a) Contagious diseases spread by direct contact, e.g. ringworm, leprosy, etc.
(b) Non-contagious diseases spread through indirect contact, e.g. cholera, typhoid, etc.
 Non communicable diseases: They do not spread from one person to other, e.g. arthritis,
diabetes, etc.
Communicable or Infectious Diseases
Various microorganisms responsible for infectious disease are Viruses, Prions (Misfolded protein),
Bacteria, Protozoa, Fungi, Worm (Helminths) etc. These are disease causing organisms called as
Pathogens. The pathogens can enter our body by various ways, multiply and disturb the normal metabolic
activities thus, shattering the major organ systems. Depending upon the causative organism/pathogen
communicable diseases are of following types:

Diseases caused by Virus :

Disease Pathogen Mode of Incubation Symptoms Tests Therapy
Infection
Common Rhino- Droplet infection 3-5 days Nasal congestion, sore Chest Anti-
cold virus throat, cough, headache -X ray histamine,
tiredness Phenyl-
ephrine
Chicken pox Herpes Contagious 12-20 days High fever with dark PCR Zoster
zoster red coloured rash or Immuno
virus pox changing into Globulins
vesicles crusts and (ZIG),
falling. Varicella
vaccine
Small Pox Variola Contagious and 12 days Appearance of rash PCR Small pox
Virus droplet infection changing into pustules, vaccine
scalps and falling
pockmarks are left.

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BIOLOGY SUMAN DEBNATH (M.Sc in ZOOLOGY), B.Ed (Life Sciences)

Poliomyelitis Polio Direct and oral 7-14 days Damages motor CSF- Polio
Virus neurons causing Ana- Vaccine
stiffness of neck, lysis, (OPV),
convulsion and Sero- Physio-
paralysis of generally Logical therepy
legs. Testing
Measles Rubella Contagious and 10 days Rubella (Skin West- Edmonston
Virus Droplet infection eruptions), coughing, ern B- vaccine
sneezing etc. Blottin and sulpha
g, PCR drugs
Mumps Mumps Contagious and 12-26 days Painful enlargement of RT- Mumps
virus Droplet infection parotid and salivary PCR Vaccine
glands.
Rabies Rabies Indirect and 10 days to Spasm of throat and RT- Pasteur
virus inoculative 1-3 months chest muscles, fear PCR treatment,
(vectors are from water, paralysis rabbies
rabid animals and death. vaccine
especially dogs)
Dengue fever Dengue Aedes aegypti 5-7 days High fever, headache, ELIZA Acet-
virus (Mosquito) rash and muscle joint test aminophen
pain. In severe cases (Paracetam
Chikungunya Chikungu Aedes albopictus 3-7 days there is serious ol), Aspirin
nya virus bleeding and shock,
COVID-19, Corona Contagious and 14 days fever, tiredness, and RT-
SARS Virus Droplet infection dry cough aches and PCR
(Serious Acute pains, nasal congestion,
Respiratory runny nose, sore throat
Syndrome) or diarrhea
Diseases caused by Bacteria:
Disease Pathogen Mode of Incubation Symptoms Tests Therapy
Infection
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium Air-borne 2-10 weeks Coughing, chest pain Man- BCG
tuberculosis and and bloody sputum Toux vaccine,
droplet with tuberculin. test Strepto-
infection mycin,
Diptheria Corynebacterium Air-borne 2-6 days Inflammation of Bacter- DPT
diptheriae and mucosa of nasal io- Vaccine,
droplet chamber, throat, etc., logical Penicillin,
infection respiratory tract culture Erythromy
blocked. cin
Cholera Vibrio Cholerae Contamin 6 hours/ Acute diarrhea and Cell Oral
ated food 2-3days dehydration culture rehydration
and therepy,
water) Tetracyclin
Leprosy Mycobacterium Slowest 2-5 years Skin Leprom Dapsone,
Laprae infectious hypopigmentation, in in rifampicin
and nodulated skin, skin and
contagiou deformity of fingers tests. clofazimine
s and toes.
Pertussis Bordetella contagiou 7-14 days Whoops during PCR, Erythro-
(whooping pertussis s and inspiration Sero- mycin
cough) Droplet logy
infection

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BIOLOGY SUMAN DEBNATH (M.Sc in ZOOLOGY), B.Ed (Life Sciences)

Tetanus Clostridium Injury 3-21 days Degeneration of motor Spatula ATS

(lock jaw) tetani from neurons, rigid jaw test vaccine,
rusted iron muscles, spasm and Tedback
and metals paralysis
Typhoid Salmonella typhi Direct or 1-3 weeks Classic Typhoid fever Widal- Chlora-
oral test phenicol
Plague Pasteurella Indirect 2-6 days Bubonic plague affects PCR, Plague –
pestis and lymph nodes; western vaccine,
inoculativ pneumonic plague blotting Tetra-
e (Vector affects lungs and cycline
is rat flae) septicemic plague
causes anaemia.
Pneumonia Diplococcus Air borne 1-3 days Decrease in respiratory Chest- Penicillin
pneumoniae efficiency X ray
Salmonello- Salmonella Direct and 48 hours Diarrhoea bacteria ORS,
sis enteritidis oral culture Tetra-
cycline
Gonorrhoea Neisseria Sexual 2-10 days Inflammation of PCR Penicillin,
gonorrhoeae transmissi urinogenital tract. Ampicillin
on
Syphilis Treponema Sexual 3- weeks Painless lesions ELIZA Tetracyclli
pallidum transmissi orogenital warty n and
on growth ampicllin

Diseases caused by Protozoa:

Disease Pathogen Mode of Incub- Symptoms Tests Therapy
Infection ation
Amoebic – Entamoeba Contaminate 2-4 Pathogen enters human Stool Metronida-
dysentery histolytica d food and weeks intestine causing disease. test zole
water Passing of blood along
with the faeces and pain in
abdomen.
African Trypanosoma By the bite of 3 days – Swelling of lymphatic Blood pentamidin
sleeping brucei tsetse fly 3 week glands, fever, weakness, test e, suramin,
sickness (Glossina loss of weight, anaemia, eflornithine
palpalis) increase In pulse rate,
Kala azar Leishmania By bite of 3 Infects liver, lymph glands Blood Sodium
(dum-dum donovani sandfly months and WBCs of man, dog test stiboglucon
fever) and cat. Swelling, high ate,
fever and enlargement of Glucantime
spleen and liver, weakness
and anemia.
Time Incub
Malaria interval ation
Benign Plasmodium 48 10- Blood Hydroxy-
malaria vivax hour 17 RBCs and liver of the host test. chrloro-
Quartan Plasmodium Female 72 21- are on the target. Fever at (charact quinine
Malaria malariae Ano- hour 40 intervals, restlessness, less erized (chincona
Mild Tertian Plasmodium pheles 48 10- appetite, slight signet tree
Malaria ovale mosquito hour 17 sleeplessness, muscular ring on extract),
Malignant Plasmodium 3-4 8-12 pain, headache and a RBC) Quinone,
Malaria falciparum days Day feeling of chilliness. Mepacrine,
Paludrine

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BIOLOGY SUMAN DEBNATH (M.Sc in ZOOLOGY), B.Ed (Life Sciences)

Life cycle of Plasmodium (Malarial Parasite)

Life cycle of Plasmodium is digenetic, i.e, It is completed in two host body.
 Primary host: Female Anopheles Mosquito (Sexual reproduction)
 Secondary host: Human Being (Asexual reproduction)

Life of Plasmodium is Triphasic, i.e., it is completed in three phases:

 Schizogony: Phases of asexual multiplication of parasite include the RBC of man.

 Gametogony: Sexual phases which starts in man and is completed in mosquito
 Sporogony: An asexual multiplicative phase in mosquito.

Phases of life cycle of Plasmodium:

 Plasmodium enters the human body as sporozoites (infectious form) through the bite of infected
female Anopheles (vector).
 The sporozoites reach the liver cells via blood where they initially multiply to form Merozoit.
 Then these merozoit attack the RBCs and divide into it to produce thousands of Trophozoit stage.
Resulting in rupturing of RBC.
 The rupture of RBCs is associated with the release of haemozoin, a toxin which causes the chill and
high recurring fever every three to four days.
 Some of the merozoit transforms into gametocytes.
 The female Anopheles mosquito when bites an infected human being they sucked up gametocytes
along with the blood meal.
 The gametocytes (male and female) fused together to for zygote, Ookinate stage.
 It moves and penetrate through the wall of stomach and enters into haemolymph and undergo further
development to form sporozoites and moves to the salivary glands of the insect.
 The bite of these infected mosquitoes introduces the sporozoites inside a healthy human body,
thus initiating the above cyclic process again.

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BIOLOGY SUMAN DEBNATH (M.Sc in ZOOLOGY), B.Ed (Life Sciences)

Diseases caused by Helminths:

Disease Pathogen Mode of Incubati Symptoms Tests Therapy

Infection on
Filariasis Wuchereria Culex 4 weeks Swelling of the legs Blood Albenda-
(Elephantiasis) bancroftii mosquito to 8-16 and scrotum as test- zole,
months lymphatic tissues are larva of diethylcarha-
targetted Filarial mazine
worm
Ascariasis Ascaris contamin 4-8 It enters small intestine Stool Chenopodiu
lumbricoides ated food weeks causing chronic pain, test m, alcopar,
and water indigestion, diarroehea Bendex,
and vomiting mebendazole
, etc
Ancylostomiasis Ancvlostoma Boring 1-2 Worm infects small Stool Albendazole,
(hookworm duodenale through weeks intestine causing blood Test mebendazole
disease) the skin dysentery, loss of and pyrantel
and feet weight and anaemia pamoate
Taeniasis Taenia Solium Un- 6-8 Abdominal Stool Praziquantel
(Tapeworm cooked weeks pain, nausea, diarrhoea Test and
disease) pork or constipation Albendazole

Diseases caused by Fungal disease:

Disease Pathogen Mode of Incubation Symptoms Therapy
Infection
Ringworm or Trichophyton, Contamin 10-14 days Dry scaly lesions on Antifungal cream
Tinea pedes Epidermophyton ated skin, nails and scalp Clotrimazole
and cloths, (Lotrimin, Mycelex)
Microsporum Combs,
Towels
Dandruff Malassezia Contamin 24-36 hours Dry skin, flakes of skin Antidandruff
globoca ated that range from small shampoo,
cloths, and white to large, Azelaic acid
Combs, greasy and yellow,
Towels itchy flaking that
appears on the scalp or
eyebrow or around the
hairline.

Diseases caused by Prions

Disease Pathogen Mode of Incubation Symptoms Therapy
Infection
Mad cow Prions Eating infected 2.5-5 years Personality changes, Trimipramine an
disease (Misfolded cattle products, in human muscle stiffness, antidepressant, and
Creutzfeldt- Protein) including beef involuntary muscle fluphenazine an
Jakob disease movements, dementia, Antipsychotic
(CJD) and seizures

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BIOLOGY SUMAN DEBNATH (M.Sc in ZOOLOGY), B.Ed (Life Sciences)

AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome)

Disease Pathogen Mode of Infection Symptoms Preventive Tests Therapy
measures
AIDS Human  Sexual contact with Lack of  Use of ELISA Anti-
Immunodeficiency infected person. immunity, disposable (Enzyme retroviral
Virus (HIV),  Transmission Rapid needles and Linked drugs
member of a group contaminated blood weight syringes, Immuno
of viruses called and blood products. loss,  Checking Sorbent
retrovirus, which  Sharing infected Recurring blood for Assay)
have the envelope needles in case of of fever, HIV. Test,
enclosing the RNA intravenous drugs. Swelling  Free Western
genome  From infected mother of Lymph distribution blotting
to her child through glands, of condoms
placenta. Infections, and
Red advocating
blotches. safe sex
 There is a reduction of in the number of Helper T-cell (CD4), which stimulates antibody
production by B-Cells, resulting in loss of natural defence against viral infections.

Viral replication in Human Body

 HIV is a retrovirus, Its genome consists of two single-stranded RNA.
 After the entrance of the virus into the body of the person,
 The virus enters into macrophages where RNA genome of the virus replicates to form viral DNA
with the help of reverse transcriptase enzyme.
 This viral DNA gets incorporated into host cell's DNA and directs the infected cells to produce
viruses.
 New virus particles assemble and come out of host cell.
 New viruses can infect other cells.
 The incubation period of AIDS ranges between 6 months to 10 years.

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BIOLOGY SUMAN DEBNATH (M.Sc in ZOOLOGY), B.Ed (Life Sciences)

Cancer
Cancer is uncontrolled proliferation of cells without any differentiation. It commonly originates in the
tissues in which the cells are regularly replaced by mitosis.

Normal cells show a property called contact inhibition, by virtue of which contact with other cells inhibits
their uncontrolled growth. Cancer cells appear to have lost this property. As a result of this, cancerous cells
just continue to divide giving rise to masses of cells called tumors. It is of two types

(i) Benign tumour: This is a solid neoplasm or tumour that stops growing by itself and does not invade
other tissues and remain confined to a particular site.
(ii) Malignant tumour cells grow very rapidly, invading and damaging the surrounding normal tissues.
Cells sloughed from such tumors reach distant sites through blood, and whenever they get lodged in the
body, they start a new tumor there. This property called metastasis. It is the most feared property of
malignant tumors.

Types of cancer:
 Carcinomas - epithelial cells (skin or tissue lining) eg,
Thyroid, Breast, Stomach, Lungs, Prostate, Colon.
 Melanoma - Pigment producing cells (moles)
 Lymphomas - Lymphatic tissue,
 Sarcoma - Bone, Muscle, Fat, Connective tissue
 Leukemia - Blood/bone marrow
 Myeloma: Blood plasma and WBC affected

Causes of cancer:
Chemical and physical agents that can cause cancer are called carcinogens.
 Overexposure to ionising radiations like X-rays, UV rays, gamma rays, etc. which literally
punches holes in the DNA, Alter the correct genetic sequences.
 Chemicals like nicotine, caffeine, steroids and arsenic air pollutants cause cancers of lungs, brain
breast or blood,
 Viruses, which include the human papilloma virus (implicated in cervical cancer), the human T cells
lymphocytic virus (implicated in lymphoma) and hepatitis B virus (implicated in liver cancer)
 Oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes,

Detections/tests:
 Biopsy and histopathological studies of tissue.
 Uses of techniques like radiography (X-rays), CT Scan (computed tomography), MRI Scan
(magnetic resonance imaging)
 Uses of antibodies against Cancer Specific Antigens.

Treatments
 Surgery,
 Chemotherapy,
 Radiation therapy and
 Immunotherapy

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BIOLOGY SUMAN DEBNATH (M.Sc in ZOOLOGY), B.Ed (Life Sciences)

Immunity
The ability of the host to fight against the disease causing organisms is called immunity and the cells,
molecules, proteins, etc. which play role in the phenomenon constitute a system known as immune system.
Types of Immunity

 Innate immunity is non-specific and present since the time of birth. It can be accomplished, by
providing different types of barriers to the entry of microbes which are:

Physical barriers: Skin (It prevents entry of microorganism), Mucus coating (epithelial lining of
respiratory, gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts
Physiological barriers: Sweat, Saliva, Tears, Bile, acidity of gastric juices prevents microbial
growth
Cellular barriers: Leucocytes (WBC), Neutrophils, Monocytes and Natural Killer cells,
macrophages.
Cytokine barriers: Virus infected cells secretes protein called interferons which protects non
infected cells from further viral infections.

 Acquired immunity is pathogen specific and characterised by memory of encountered pathogen

throughout life time. Acquired immunity can be classified as
(i) Active immunity is acquired when the host is exposed to antigen. It can further be classified into:
 Naturally acquired immunity involves natural infection by a pathogen which generates
antibodies and specialised lymphocytes.
 Artificially acquired immunity is comprised by vaccines that are introduced in body to
generate antibodies and specialised lymphocytes.
(ii) Passive immunity is acquired when ready-made antibodies are given to the body through injection.
It can be further classified into
 Natural antibodies pass passively from mother to child via placenta and milk.
 Artificial antibodies are formed within organisms are introduced through injection for
defensive purpose against the pathogen.

Organs of Immune System

 The primary lymphoid organs are bone marrow and thymus.

 Bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ, where all blood cells including lymphocytes are
produced.
 Thymus is a lobed organ, located near the heart and beneath the breastbone.
 Both bone marrow and thymus provide micro environments for the development and
maturation of B and T-lymphocytes
 The Secondary lymphoid organs are spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer's patches of small
intestine and appendix.
 Spleen is a large bean-shaped organ. It mainly contains lymphocytes and phagocytes. It also
has large reservoir of erythrocytes.
 Lymph nodes are located at different points along the lymphatic system. They trap the
microbes or antigens. These antigens are responsible for the activation of lymphocytes
causing the immune response.
 A lymphoid tissue is also located within the lining of the major tracts (respiratory, digestive
and urogenital tracts) called Mucosal Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT). It constitutes
about 50% of the lymphoid tissue in human body.

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BIOLOGY SUMAN DEBNATH (M.Sc in ZOOLOGY), B.Ed (Life Sciences)

Antibodies are immunoglobulins (Igs) which are produced in response to antigenic stimulation.
Antigens are substances which, when introduced into the body, stimulate the production of antibodies. Most
antigens are proteins but some are carbohydrates, lipids or nucleic acids.

Structure of Antibody
 Immunoglobulins are Y shaped structure,
glycoproteins in nature.
 It consists of four polypeptide chains (linked by
disulphide bonds) S=S
 It is made up of 2 Heavy chains (H) (440 amino
acids) and 2 Light chains (L) (220 amino acids)
forms H2L2 structure.
 An antibody has a variable portion in the arms. It is
called V-regions Variable or antigen binding site
(Fab). The remaining part of antibody is called
Constant portion or Crystalline fragments filament
(Fc).

They are mainly of five types of antibody:

 IgA: It is present in Body secretion- Saliva, Seminal
fluid, Urine, Mothers Milk (colostrum)
 IgD: effective against toxin and allergens.
 IgE: Present in Mucous membrane, Skins, lungs, It
triggers Hypersensitive reactions.
 IgG: It provides long term resistance, It is very
small and can crosses placenta and provide passive
immunity to the foetus and child upto 6 months.
 IgM: It is the largest antibody, can bind with
many antigen at a time and Produces first in
human body.

Antigen-Antibody reaction
An antibody binds to more than one type of antigens on bacteria, as it has more than one type of binding
sites (antigenic determinants) on its surface. Though antibodies (immunoglobulins) trap antigens, they have
no power to destroy them. They only tag the molecules for destruction by special mechanism termed as
effector mechanism:

 Neutralisation: Antibodies cover the toxic sites of antigen and change virulent form to nonvirulant
form. Some antibodies neutralise toxins by acting as antitoxins.
 Agglutination: Antibodies bind to antigens and cause their clumping or agglutination. This
facilitates their destruction by other cells of the immune system.
 Opsonisation or Adherence: Antibodies called opsonins get attached to the surface of the antigens.
This enhances their recognition and digestion by the phagocytes.
 Lvsin antibodies, on coming in contact with antigen-containing cells, bring about the rupture of
their surface covering. So they are indirectly or directly responsible for killing the invading
pathogens.
 Precipitation: Antibodies called precipitins pick up the soluble antigens, and form heavy and
insoluble complex.

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BIOLOGY SUMAN DEBNATH (M.Sc in ZOOLOGY), B.Ed (Life Sciences)

Immune response
The immune responses are carried out with the help of two special types of cells i.e., B-lymphocytes
(humoral immunity) and T-Iymphocytes (cellular immunity).

(A) B-lymphocytes or B-cells produce antibodies and therefore, generate antibody mediated or humoral
immunity. They give rise to the

 Plasma cells (Effector B-cells) (the antigen specific T-cells stimulate specific B-lymphocytes to
multiply rapidly forming clone of plasma cells) and
 Memory B-cells (some of the activated B cells remain dormant as memory B cells until activated
once again by a new quantity of the same antigen).

(B) T-Iymphocytes or T-cells when triggered off by antigens, produce a clone of T-cells such as:

 Cytotoxic or Killer T-cells (directly attack and destroy antigens by secreting a protein perforin),
 Helper T-cells (stimulate the B-cells to produce antibodies),
 Suppressor T-cells (check from attacking the body's own cells),
 Memory T-cells are sensitized T-cells (retain memory of antigen specificity for future, sometimes
life long).

(C) Antigen presenting cells (APCs) are specialized cells which include macrophages, B-lymphocytes and
dendritic cells e.g., Langerhans cells of epidermis of skin,

They are distinguished by two properties:

(i) They express MHC class II molecules on the membrane, and

(ii) They are able to deliver a co-stimulatory signal that is necessary for helper T-cell activation.

Hypersensitivity or allergy:

 It is the excessive immune response to common antigens, called allergens. Common examples of
allergens are mites in dust, pollens, animal dander, etc.
 Symptoms of allergic reactions include sneezing, watery eyes, running nose and difficulty in
breathing. Allergy involves mainly IgE antibodies and chemicals like histamine.
 It causes marked dilation of all the peripheral blood vessels and the capillaries becomes highly
permeable so that large amounts of fluid leak out from the blood into the tissues,

Autoimmunity:

It is a condition in which structural or functional damage is produced by the action of immunologically

competent cells or antibodies against normal components of the body. It actually implies injury to self.
Examples of autoimmune diseases are

 Rheumatoid arthritis,
 Insulin-dependent diabetes,
 Chronic anaemia,
 Chronic hepatitis,
 Hashimoto's disease, etc

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BIOLOGY SUMAN DEBNATH (M.Sc in ZOOLOGY), B.Ed (Life Sciences)

Drugs and Alcohol Abuse

Drugs are psychoactive substances which are ingested for recreational use often is illegal and addictive. The
commonly abused drugs are

(i) Opioids are drugs which bind to opioid receptors in the central nervous system and gastrointestinal
tract, e.g. morphine and heroin.
(ii) Cannabinoids are a group of chemicals, which interact with cannabinoid receptors present mainly in
the brain (CNS).
(iii) Cocaine is obtained from Elythroxylum coca, it interferes with the transport of neurotransmitter and
dopamine.
(iv) Hallucinogens are products obtained from Atropa belladona and Datura species which are
hallucinogenic. LSD is obtained from a fungus.
(v) Tobacco contains mainly nicotine, which is a stimulant and toxin. Nicotine stimulates the adrenal
gland to release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline, which increase the blood pressure and heart rate and
also causes oral cancer on chewing.
(vi) Alcohol is a depressant. It affects the central nervous system. Alcohol acts as a sedative, analgesic and
anesthetic.
• Addiction is a psychological attachment to certain effects such as Euphorbia and a temporary
feeling of well-being associated with drugs and alcohol.
• Dependence is the tendency of the body to manifest a characteristic and unpleasant withdrawal
syndrome, if the regular dose of drugs/alcohol is abruptly discontinued.

Effects of Drug/Alcohol Abuse

The common warning signals of drug/alcohol addiction are

 Reckless behaviour, vandalism and violence.

 Drop in academic performance.
 Isolation from family and friends.
 Lack of interest in personal hygiene.
 Aggressive and rebellious behaviour.

Prevention and Control : The preventive measures are

 Avoid undue peer pressure.

 Accept failures and disappointments as part of life.
 Seek help from parents and peers.
 Seek professional and medical help for addiction.
 Look for danger signs.

Adolescence

The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines adolescence as the period of life between 12 and 19 yrs of
age. Adolescence is the formative period of both physical and psychological health and is the preparatory
phase for the adult life. That's why a healthy adolescence is a critical juncture for a healthy adulthood.

Adolescence is accompanied by several biological and behavioural changes. Curiosity, need for
adventure, excitement and experimentation may constitute the common causes, which motivate
adolescents to start taking drugs and alcohol. Other causes include peer pressure, family history, etc

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