RESEARCH:

Research can be defined as a systematic and rigorous inquiry process to uncover new knowledge, understanding,
or insights and gathering evidence to inform professional practice about a certain issue or phenomenon. It involves
the application of a wide variety of methods. The researcher’s adherence to values of objectivity and bias control
are key to it. Research is integral for testing new theories, understanding guiding principles, and contributing to the
advancement of many professions.
The process being applied:
 is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies (your philosophical orientation may stem
from one of the several paradigms and approaches in research, for example, positivist and the academic
discipline in which you have been trained).;
 uses procedures, methods, and techniques that have been tested for their validity and reliability (the
concept of validity can be applied to any aspect of the research process. It ensures that in a research study,
correct procedures have been applied to find answers to a question. Reliability refers to the quality of a
measurement procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy);
 is designed to be unbiased and objective (unbiased and objective means that you have taken each step
in an unbiased manner and drawn each conclusion to the best of your ability and without introducing your
vested interest).
Research is a process for collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions. But to qualify as
research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be:
● controlled (In exploring causality in relation to two variables, you set up your study in a way that minimizes
the effects of other factors affecting the relationship),
● rigorous (You must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to questions
are relevant, appropriate and justified),
● systematic (This implies that the procedures adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain logical
sequence. The different steps must follow others.
● valid and verifiable ( you conclude on the basis of your findings is correct and can be verified by you and
others),
● empirical (Any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from information collected
from real-life experiences or observations)
● and critical (Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a research
enquiry).

Research in education informs teaching methods, curriculum development, and educational policies. Educators
rely on research to understand effective instructional strategies, assess student learning outcomes, and address
issues such as student motivation and classroom management. For instance, educational research may explore

1
 the impact of technology on learning outcomes or the effectiveness of different teaching approaches for students
with diverse learning needs.

TYPES OF RESEARCH:
From the application perspective there are two broad categories: pure and applied research. Pure research
involves research conducted for the sake of increasing knowledge and understanding without immediate practical
application. Most of the research in the social sciences is applied. In other words, research aimed at solving
practical problems or addressing specific issues. If you examine a research study from the perspective of its
objectives, it can be classified as descriptive, correlation, explanatory or exploratory.
● A research study classified as a descriptive study attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem,
phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information or describes attitudes towards an issue.
● The main emphasis in a correlational study is to discover or establish the existence of a
relationship/association/interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation.
● Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two aspects of a
situation or phenomenon.
● Exploratory research the main emphasis is to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the
possibilities of undertaking a particular research study.

The importance of the literature review:

The literature review is an integral part of the research process and makes a valuable contribution to almost every
operational step. It has value even before the first step; that is, when you are merely thinking about a research
question that you may want to find answers to through your research journey.
 In the initial stages of research it helps you to establish the theoretical roots of your study, clarify your ideas
and develop your research methodology. It provides a theoretical background to your study.
 Later in the process, the literature review serves to enhance and consolidate your own knowledge base and
helps you to integrate your findings with the existing body of knowledge. It helps you establish the links
between what you are proposing to examine and what has already been studied. It enables you to show
how your findings have contributed to the existing body of knowledge in your profession. During the write-
up of your report. The higher the academic level of your research, the more important a thorough
integration of your findings with existing literature becomes.
In relation to your own study, the literature review can help in four ways. It can: 1. bring clarity and focus to
your research problem; 2. improve your research methodology; 3. broaden your knowledge base in your research
area; and 4. contextualize your findings.

Research problem:
The formulation of a research problem is the first and most important step of the research process.The research
problem serves as the foundation of a research study: if it is well formulated, you can expect a good study to
2
 follow.The formulation of a problem is like the ‘input’ to a study, and the ‘output’ – the quality of the contents of
the research report and the validity of the associations or causation established – is entirely dependent upon it.
Most research in the humanities revolves around four Ps: people; problems; programmes; phenomena.
For formulating a ‘good’ research problem, you need to know how to review the literature, formulate a research
problem, deal with variables and their measurement, and construct hypotheses. Hence, under this step, there are
four chapters. Hypotheses are stated in the context of variables, operational definitions and conditions. All of this
is done on a base of relevant theory and existing knowledge.

Considerations in selecting a research problem:

When selecting a research problem/topic there are a number of considerations:
 Interest: should be the most important consideration in selecting a research problem as research is time
consuming and involves hard work.
 Magnitude: you should have sufficient knowledge about the research process to be able to visualize the
work involved in completing the proposed study. It helps to narrow the topic down to something
manageable, specific and clear. (time and resources).
 Measurement of concepts: if you are using a concept in your study, you should make sure you are clear
about its indicators and their measurement, do not use concepts that you are not sure how to measure
(effectiveness of a health promotion).
 Level of expertise: You should have an adequate level of expertise for the task you are proposing.
 Relevance: you should select a topic that is of relevance to you as a professional, adding to the existing
body of knowledge.
 Availability of data: you should make sure that the data is available and in the format you want.
 Ethical issues: you should thoroughly examine how ethical issues can affect the study population and how
ethical problems can be overcome at the problem-formulation stage.

Steps in formulating a research problem:

- Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.
- Dissect the broad area into subareas and select what is of most interest to you.
- Raise research questions.
- Formulate objectives.
- Assess your objectives.
- Double-check.

Researchable and non-researchable questions

Broadly speaking, any question that you want answered and any assumption or assertion that you want to challenge
or investigate can become a research problem or a research topic for your study. However, it is important to

3
remember that not all questions can be transformed into research problems and some may prove to be extremely
difficult to study.

Hypotheses: A hypothesis in research refers to a conjecture or proposition made about the solution to a problem,
the relationship between variables, or the nature of a phenomenon.It serves as a statement that can be tested and
either proven or disproven using valid and reliable data. A hypothesis is formulated based on existing theories,
evidence, or hunches about the outcome of a research problem. It provides direction and focus to a study, allowing
researchers to make specific predictions and design experiments or data collection methods accordingly.
Hypotheses are not essential for a study. You can conduct a valid investigation without constructing a single formal
hypothesis. On the other hand, within the context of a research study, you can construct as many hypotheses as
you consider to be appropriate.

What are the characteristics of hypotheses? There should be a definite reason for the hypotheses, either from the
theory or from some evidence that this is a useful and valuable hypothesis. A hypothesis should state a relationship
or effect between variables in a concise and unambiguous manner, making it easy to understand and interpret. A
hypothesis should be formulated in a way that allows it to be tested empirically. A hypothesis should be
operationalisable. It should be possible to collect data and conduct experiments to determine whether the
hypothesis is supported or refuted.

Null Hypotheses: When you construct a hypothesis stipulating that there is no difference between two situations,
groups, outcomes, or the prevalence of a condition or phenomenon, this is called a null hypothesis and is usually
written as H0.

Variables:
By itself, the statement of the problem usually provides only general direction for the research study. A constant is
a characteristic or condition that is the same for all individuals in a study. A variable, on the other hand, is a
characteristic that takes on different values or conditions for different individuals.
Types of variables: Most of the variables in a research study can be identified as independent or dependent
variables.
 Dependent variables are the outcome variables and are the variables for which we calculate statistics. – the
outcome or change(s) brought about by introduction of an independent variable.
 Independent variables – the cause supposed to be responsible for bringing about change(s) in a phenomenon
or situation.
In the context of educational research, dependent variables are frequently termed as outcome variables. This is
because they embody the outcomes or results that the research is designed to quantify. The dependent variables
are subjected to statistical analysis to ascertain the influence of the independent variables or interventions.

4
 Therefore, the examination of dependent variables allows researchers to measure the efficacy of the independent
variables or interventions on these outcome metrics.
A control variable is an independent variable that is not the main focus of the study, but its effects are deliberately
determined by the researcher. It is included in the analysis to provide a clearer understanding of the effects of the
primary independent variable. By controlling for other variables, researchers can more accurately attribute any
observed effects to the primary independent variable of interest.

Differences between quantitative and qualitative study designs

STEP QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

Formu is the first operational step in the research Formulating a research problem Formulating a research problem
lating a process. To formulate a ‘good’ research typically involves identifying a often involves exploring complex
research problem, specific, measurable research phenomena, understanding
problem I believe you need to know how to review the question that can be answered experiences, and interpreting
literature, formulate a research problem, deal through numerical data analysis. meanings generating descriptive data
with The focus is on testing to gain insights into the research
variables and their measurement, and hypotheses and establishing topic. Focus on understanding
construct hypotheses. causal relationships. Focus on experiences and perceptions through
measurable variables and participants' voices. Emphasis on
hypotheses. Often deductive. exploring and clarifying situations.
Often inductive.

Conceptu This step The research design is typically The research design is often flexible
alizing a is to decide how to go about it. This includes structured, with a focus on and emergent, emphasizing
research deciding on an overall plan and selecting control, measurement, and understanding and interpretation.
design procedures statistical analysis. Approaches like phenomenology,
and methods that you propose to use during Experimental, quasi- grounded theory, or ethnography are
your research journey. The details of your experimental, or survey designs used to explore meanings and
plan, are commonly used to test contexts. Flexible and evolving
procedures and methods become the core of hypotheses and generalize designs. Less structured and more
your study design. findings. Structured, rigid, and emergent. Overlap between study
predetermined designs. A clear designs and data collection methods.
distinction between study Emphasis on depth of understanding
designs and data collection and context.
methods. Emphasis on control
and manipulation of variables.
Designs aim for replicability and
generalizability.

Construct The construction of a research instrument is Instruments for data collection Data collection instruments are more
ing an the first practical step in operationalising your are often structured, open-ended and flexible, focusing on
instrume study. It is an important aspect of your standardized, and aimed at capturing rich, detailed narratives
nt for research as it constitutes the input; the obtaining numerical data. and perspectives. Methods like
data quality of your output (the findings and Questionnaires, surveys, and interviews, observations, and focus
collectio conclusions) is entirely dependent upon the scales are commonly used to groups are used to gather in-depth
n quality and appropriateness of your input – gather data for statistical qualitative data. Emphasis on
the research instrument. Items in a research analysis. Emphasis on developing instruments that capture
instrument are questions asked of standardized measurement rich, detailed data. Use of open-
respondents. Responses to these questions procedures. Use of closed- ended questions, interviews, and
become the raw data that is processed to find ended questions, scales, and observations. Instruments focus on
answers to your research questions. statistical tools. Instruments depth of understanding and context.
As a part of this operational step, you need to focus on reliability and validity. Instruments aim for richness and
decide what questions to ask of your Instruments aim for replicability diversity of perspectives

5
 respondents, the wording you are going to and generalizability.
use and the order in which the questions will
be asked

Selecting The underlying premise in sampling is that a In quantitative research, sample In qualitative research, sample
a sample small number of units, if selected correctly, selection is often based on selection is purposeful, aiming for
can provide, to a sufficiently high degree of randomization, information-rich cases rather than
probability, reasonably accurate insight into representativeness, and statistical representativeness.
what is happening in the study population. generalizability. Large sample Smaller sample sizes are common to
Sampling theory, in quantitative research, is sizes are preferred to ensure delve deeply into the experiences
thus guided by statistical power and validity of and perspectives of participants.
two principles: findings. Emphasis on Emphasis on purposeful and
1. the avoidance of bias in the selection of a representative and random theoretical sampling. Sample size
sample; sampling techniques. Sample determined by data saturation. Focus
2. the attainment of maximum precision for a size calculations based on on depth of understanding rather
given outlay of resources. In qualitative statistical power. Focus on than generalizability. Samples aim for
research, your aim is not to select a random generalizability and external richness, diversity, and relevance to
or unbiased sample but one that can provide validity. Samples aim to be the research question.
you, as far as possible, with the detailed, representative of the
accurate, and complete information that you population.
are looking for.

Writing a In this step is to put everything together in a l Research proposals in Research proposals in qualitative
research way that provides adequate information quantitative research typically research emphasize the research
proposal about your research study, for your research include clear hypotheses, context, the researcher's role, data
supervisor and others. This overall plan, research questions, and a collection methods, and data analysis
called a research proposal, tells a reader detailed methodology with a approaches. The focus is on
about your research problem and how you focus on measurement and capturing the richness and
are planning to investigate it. analysis techniques. Emphasis is complexity of the research topic.
what you are proposing to do; how you plan on rigor and replicability. Emphasis on the study's objectives,
to proceed; why you selected the proposed Detailed description of study context, and rationale. Description of
strategy. It should contain the following design, measurement the research design's flexibility and
information: a statement of the objectives of procedures, and sampling emergent nature. Focus on
the study; a list of hypotheses if you are strategy. Clear articulation of understanding rather than testing
testing any; the study design you are hypotheses and research hypotheses. Proposal highlights the
proposing to use; the setting for your study; questions. Emphasis on validity, dynamic nature of the study and the
the research instrument(s) you are planning reliability, and statistical importance of participant
to use; information on sample size and analysis. Proposal outlines perspectives.
sampling design; information on data specific methods and
processing procedures; an outline of the procedures
proposed chapters for the report; the study’s
problems and limitations; and the proposed
time-frame.

Collectin Having formulated a research problem, Data collection in quantitative Data collection in qualitative
g data developed a study design, constructed a research involves structured research focuses on capturing
research instrument, and selected a sample, methods to gather numerical detailed narratives, observations,
you then collect the data from which you will data for statistical analysis. and experiences to explore meanings
draw inferences and conclusions for your Surveys, experiments, and and contexts. Methods like
study. you might commence interviews, mail observations are commonly interviews, observations, and
out a questionnaire, conduct nominal/focus used to collect data efficiently document analysis are used to collect
group discussions, or make observations. and systematically. Systematic rich qualitative data. Interactive and
data collection using flexible data collection methods.
standardized procedures. Emphasis on understanding
Emphasis on minimizing bias participants' perspectives. Use of
and ensuring data quality. Use open-ended interviews,
of structured data collection observations, and field notes. Data
tools. Data collection follows a collection adapts to emerging
predetermined plan. insights and participant experiences.

6
Processin The way you analyse the information you Data processing in quantitative Data processing in qualitative
g and collected largely depends upon two things: research involves statistical and research involves thematic analysis,
displayin the type of information (descriptive, numerical analysis, hypothesis coding, and interpretation to identify
g data quantitative, qualitative or attitudinal); and testing, and numerical patterns, themes, and meanings in
the way you want to communicate your computations to derive patterns the data. Findings are presented
findings to your readers. and relationships from the data. through narratives, quotes, and
Results are typically presented thematic analysis. Emphasis on
using tables, charts, graphs and themes, patterns, and
statistical measures. Data interpretations. Data analysis aims
analysis focuses on quantifiable for depth, context, and participant
results and statistical perspectives.
significance.

Writing a There are two broad categories of reports: Research reports in quantitative Research reports in qualitative
research quantitative and qualitative but the research follow a structured research are often narrative-based,
report distinction is more academic than real as in format with sections on focusing on detailed descriptions,
most studies you need to combine introduction, methods, results, interpretations, and contextual
quantitative and qualitative skills. Writing the and discussion. Findings are understandings. Findings are
report is the last and, for many, the most presented using statistical presented through rich narratives.
difficult step of the research process. This tables, graphs, and Narrative presentation of findings,
report informs the world what you have interpretations based on interpretations, and implications.
done, what you have discovered and what statistical analysis. Structured Emphasis on rich descriptions and
conclusions you have drawn from your presentation of results, contextual understanding. Use of
findings. If you are clear about the whole discussion, and conclusions. quotes, stories, and thematic
process, you will also be clear about the way Emphasis on statistical analysis. Report captures the essence
you want to write your report. Your report significance and generalizability. of the study and the voices of
should be written in an academic style and be Use of tables, figures, and participants.
divided into different chapters and/or statistical language. Report
sections based upon the main themes of your follows a linear format.
study

Qualitative research is a methodological approach used to explore and understand phenomena in depth. It focuses
on understanding the meaning and interpretations of experiences, behaviors, and social interactions from the
perspective of the participants. Qualitative research often involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data,
such as interviews, observations, or textual analysis. Researchers aim to uncover patterns, themes, or insights
through open-ended inquiry, allowing for a rich and nuanced understanding of complex phenomena. Qualitative
research is particularly suited for exploring subjective experiences, cultural contexts, and social processes.
While on the other hand, Quantitative research is a methodological approach used to quantify and analyze
numerical data to test hypotheses, identify patterns, and make generalizations about populations. It involves
collecting structured data through standardized instruments, such as surveys, experiments, or observations, and
analyzing data using statistical techniques. Quantitative research aims to measure variables, establish relationships
between variables, and make predictions based on empirical evidence. It is characterized by its emphasis on
objectivity, replicability, and generalizability of findings. Quantitative research is widely used in disciplines such as
psychology, economics, epidemiology, and political science for studying phenomena that can be quantified and
measured.

Participant observation is another strategy for gathering information about a social interaction or a phenomenon.
This is usually done by developing a close interaction with members of a group or ‘living’ in the situation that is
7
being studied. Though predominantly a qualitative research design, it is also used in quantitative research,
depending on how the information has been generated and recorded. In qualitative research, an observation is
always recorded in a descriptive format whereas in quantitative research it is recorded either in categories or on a
scale. You as a researcher get involved in the activities of the group, create a rapport with group members and then,
having sought their consent, keenly observe the situation, interaction, site or phenomenon. The information can
also be collected through other methods such as informal interviewing, in-depth interviewing, group discussions,
previous documents, oral histories.

Participant-observer continuum:
The term participant observer represents a continuum of roles, ranging from being a complete observer who does
not participate in group activities and is publicly defined as a researcher, to being a covert/full participant who acts
just like other group members and does not disclose his or her research role. Many field researchers develop a role
between these extremes, publicly acknowledging being a researcher but participating in group activities.

Action research is a systematic, self-reflective process where teachers investigate and reflect on their own teaching
practices to bring about improvements and changes in the classroom. It involves identifying a problem, taking action
to address it, and reflecting on the outcomes to enhance teaching and learning. It is a flexible methodology that
adopts the social and political context in which it is employed, aiming to bring about critically informed changes in
practice.

Advantages and disadvantages of action research:

Advantages:
Contextual Relevance:
● Conducting action research within their own classrooms allows teachers to tailor interventions to the
specific conditions and needs of their teaching environments. This contextual approach ensures that the
strategies developed are directly applicable and immediately relevant, leading to more effective solutions.
Self-Reflective and Systematic Approach:
● Action research encourages teachers to adopt a self-reflective, critical, and systematic approach to
evaluating their teaching practices. This method helps educators identify and address specific issues or
dilemmas, leading to evidence-based improvements grounded in actual classroom experiences.
Personalized Insights:
● Teachers engaged in AR gain personalized insights into their teaching contexts. By becoming both the
investigator and participant, educators can explore their practice from a unique perspective, leading to
more meaningful and targeted interventions.
Immediate Application:

8
 ● The close alignment of research with daily teaching practices allows for the immediate application of
findings. Teachers can implement changes and assess their effectiveness in real-time, facilitating a practical
and iterative approach to problem-solving.

Disadvantages:
Limited Objectivity:
● Conducting research within one's own classroom can limit objectivity. Teachers may struggle to view their
practices from an unbiased perspective, which could affect the validity and reliability of the research
outcomes.
Increased Workload:
● Action research adds to teachers' existing workloads. Balancing full teaching responsibilities with research
activities requires additional time and effort, often without additional compensation or dedicated time for
research.
Resource and Support Limitations:
● Teachers may encounter challenges in accessing necessary resources, support, or facilities. Unlike academic
researchers with access to extensive libraries, research databases, and expert advisors, teachers might find
it difficult to gather and analyze data comprehensively.
Challenges of Change:
● Engaging in action research often involves making changes and experimenting with new strategies, which
can push teachers out of their comfort zones. The process can be intimidating and time-consuming, adding
to the perception of AR as a daunting task.