B.1.

1 CARBOHYDRATES AND LIPIDS

B1.1.1. Chemical properties of the carbon atom

Carbon forms the basis of all organic compounds due to its ability to form large and complex
molecules via covalent bonding.
● Carbon atoms can form four covalent bonds, with bonds between carbon atoms being
particularly stable
● This allows carbon to form a wide variety of structures, including compounds consisting
of branched or unbranched chains and single or multiple rings

B1.1.2. Production of macromolecules by condensation reactions that link

monomers to form polymers.

Condensation reaction: reaction that combines two molecules while removing a small
molecule. (usually water)
● During condensation a new covalent bond is formed and a molecule of water is
produced.
Monosaccharides may be linked together via condensation reactions.
● Two monosaccharide monomers may be joined via a glycosidic linkage to form a
disaccharide
● Many monosaccharide monomers may be joined via glycosidic linkages to form
polysaccharides (carbohydrate polymers comprised of many monosaccharides
monomers).
○ Three polysaccharides can be formed from glucose alone:
■ Cellulose, starch, glycogen.
B1.1.3. Digestion of polymers into monomers by hydrolysis reactions.
Hydrolysis reaction: the reverse of condensation and involves water molecules acting as a
reactant and breaking a covalent bond.
For example, when two monosaccharides combine to form a disaccharide, a molecule is formed
as a product, so this is a condensation reaction.

B1.1.4. Form and function of monosaccharides

Largest group of organic compounds found in living things. Sugars, cellulose and starch.
● Monosaccharides: simple sugars. Glucose with six carbon atoms.
TYPES OF MONOSACCHARIDES
● 5 carbons (pentose) or 6 carbons (hexose)
○ Pentose sugar is ribose.
○ Hexose sugar is glucose.

FUNCTION OF MONOSACCHARIDES.
The primary role is to function as a source of energy for the cell.
Glucose most common monosaccharide to be used as energy thanks to its various chemical
properties.
● Solubility: glucose is a polar molecule, so it will dissolve in water.
● Stability: very stable molecule.
● Transportability: because glucose is stable and soluble, it is easier to transport with
aqueous solutions.
● Potential energy: glucose has many high energy electrons which can be released via
oxidation.
B1.1.5. Polysaccharides as energy storage compounds.
Polysaccharides are carbohydrate polymers comprised of many monosaccharide polymers
● Three key polysaccharides can be produced from glucose alone – cellulose, starch
and glycogen
○ Cellulose: found in the cell walls of plants. Rigidity and strength to the walls.
Exists as linear chains of glucose units.
○ Starch: primary energy storage polysaccharide in plants. Long-term energy
storage. Consists of two types of glucose: as linear strands or branched chains.
○ Glycogen: equivalent of starch in animals, serving as a short-term energy
storage. Can be quickly broken down into glucose when energy is needed.
● Polymers of ⍺-glucose are used in energy storage – glycogen is used in animals and
starch is used in plants
○ Glucose monomers can be added or subtracted by condensation or hydrolysis.
■ Starch can exist as linear strands or be branched
■ Glycogen is a more highly branched molecule.
● Branching causes the polysaccharides to adopt a more compact structure, but their large
molecular size renders them insoluble in water.
○ This means that glycogen and starch are efficient storage molecules but not
suitable from transport within aqueous solutions
○ However the carbohydrates can be readily digested to release monomers or
dimers for transport to other tissues.

B1.1.6. Structure of cellulose related to its function as a structural polysaccharide

in plants.
STRUCTURE:
Polymers of ß-glucose are used to form cellular structures – cellulose is a component of plant
cell walls
● Cellulose is composed of ß-glucose subunits in an alternating arrangement (every second
glucose is inverted)
● This allows cellulose to create straight linear chains that can be grouped as bundles and
be cross-linked with hydrogen bonds. These increase the structural integrity and
mechanical stability.
B1.1.7. Role of glycoproteins in cell-cell recognition.
Carbohydrates can be attached to proteins via the process of glycosylation to form glycoproteins
(‘glyco’ = sugar)

● When carbohydrates are attached to membrane proteins they can perform key roles in
cell–cell recognition

Human red blood cells can be categorised into different blood groups based on the structure of a
surface glycoprotein

● Individuals with blood group A possess type A glycoproteins, while individuals with
blood group B possess type B glycoproteins
● Additionally, individuals may possess both types of glycoproteins (AB blood) or no
glycoproteins (O blood)

The glycoproteins function as identification tags to allow the immune system to recognise the
cells as ‘self'

● This is why blood transfusions are not compatible between individuals with different
blood groups
○ The exception is AB blood which can accept any blood type (AB individuals
possess both glycoproteins)

B1.1.8. Hydrophobic properties of lipids

Lipids are a class of organic molecule composed primarily of hydrocarbon chains (fatty
acids) or rings (steroids) . Fats, oils, waxes and steroids.

● Hydrocarbons are nonpolar and will not dissolve in polar substances like
water. Hence lipids are considered to be hydrophobic molecules (they are
water-repelling).
Biological consequences of hydrophobic properties of lipids:

● Waxes used to prevent water loss from leaves while birds coat their feather with oil to
make them waterproof.

Hydrophobic properties make them difficult to transport around the body:

● Digested fats are packaged within a protein coat to become water soluble lipoproteins.

B1.1.9. Formation of triglycerides and phospholipids by condensation reactions.

Unlike other biological macromolecules, lipids are not polymers as they do not contain
monomers (recurring subunits)

● However, most types of lipids (excluding steroids) contain at least one fatty acid chain in
their structure.

Fatty acids can be linked to the hydroxyl group of alcohols via condensation reactions
to produce an ester linkage

● Triglycerides are composed of three fatty acid chains linked to a single glycerol
molecule
● In phospholipids, one of the fatty acid chains is replaced by a polar phosphate group

Main Classes of Lipids

Lipids can be classified in a number of different ways, according to their chemical composition,
fatty acids and capacity to form soap.

● Three commonly recognised groups of lipids are simple lipids (waxes), compound
lipids (phospholipids) and derived lipids (cholesterol)

B1.1.10. Difference between saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated

fatty acids
Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chains that are found in most types of lipids
(excluding steroids)

● Fatty acids may differ in the length of the hydrocarbon chain, but most typically contain
between 4 – 24 carbons.

TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS:

Fatty acids can be classified according to the presence or absence of double bonds between the
carbon bounds.

● Saturated fatty acids: straight hydrocarbon chains with NO double bonds.

● Unsaturated fatty acids: they have double bonds. Mono-unsaturated (1 double bond)
poly-unsaturated (more than one double bond). Unsaturated fatty acids may occur in
two different structural organizations.
○ Cis: hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon double bond are on the same side,
making the carbohydrate chain to kink.
○ Trans: the hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon double bond are on different
sides, meaning it remains straight.

FATS VERSUS OILS

Living organism store their lipids as either fats or oils depending on the type of fatty acid
involved

● Fats (saturated): fatty acids have straight chains that make them more packed,
making them more efficient for energy storage. Higher melting points.
○ Solid at room temperature.
○ Found in animals as their higher body temperature can keep them liquid.
● Oils (unsaturated): Unsaturated (cis) fatty acids have kinked chains that cause them
to be more loosely packed. Less energy is required to separate them, so they have a lower
melting point.
○ Liquid at room temperature.
○ Found in plants as they cannot control their own internal temperature.

B1.1.11.Triglycerides in adipose tissues for energy storage and thermal insulation

ENERGY STORAGE:
Triglycerides in adipose tissues are used for long-term energy storage in animals.
● Triglycerides can store roughly twice as much energy per gram as carbohydrates.
● Triglycerides are more difficult to digest and more difficult to transport.

Consequently, triglycerides are more suitable for long-term energy storage whereas
carbohydrates (glycogen) are more suitable for short-term energy storage.

THERMAL INSULATION
Triglycerides have low thermal conductivity, meaning they have a limited capacity to
conduct heat and are effective thermal insulators

● Mammals living in cold or aquatic environments (such as the ringed seal) will possess
thick layers of subcutaneous fat to insulate their internal organs against cold exposure
● In humans, obese individuals tend to cool less rapidly, however the increased retention
of heat makes them more susceptible to heat stress

B1.1.12.Formation of phospholipid bilayers as a consequence of the hydrophobic

and hydrophilic regions

Structure
Phospholipids are one of the key structural components of all cell membranes that are
responsible for the formation of lipid bilayers.

● Phospholipids consist of a polar head (hydrophilic) and two nonpolar tails (hydrophobic)
● Because phospholipids contain both hydrophilic (water-loving) and lipophilic
(fat-loving) regions, they are classed as amphipathic

B1.1.13.Ability of non-polar steroids to pass through the phospholipid bilayer

Non-polar steroids have a unique advantage in passing through the phospholipid bilayer of cell
membranes due to their chemical characteristics. This ability is primarily attributed to their
hydrophobic (water-repelling) nature. They are lipophilic.