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 Contents

Preface
About the Web Study Guide
Acknowledgments
Credits

Part I Introduction to Motor Development

Fundamental Concepts
Defining Motor Development
Constraints: A Model for Studying Motor
Development
How Do We Know It Is Change?
A Developmental Paradox: Universality Versus
Variability
Summary and Synthesis
Theoretical Perspectives in Motor Development
Maturational Perspective
Information Processing Perspective
Ecological Perspective
Current Interests
Summary and Synthesis
Principles of Motion and Stability
Understanding the Principles of Motion and Stability
Using the Principles of Motion and Stability to Detect
and Correct
Errors
Summary and Synthesis

Part II Development of Motor Skills Across the

Life Span

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5

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Early Motor Development
How Do Infants Move?
Why Do Infants Move? The Purpose of Reflexes
Motor Milestones: The Pathway to Voluntary
Movements
Development of Postural Control and Balance in
Infancy
Summary and Synthesis
Development of Human Locomotion
The First Voluntary Locomotor Efforts: Creeping and
Crawling
Walking Across the Life Span
Running Across the Life Span
Other Locomotor Skills
Summary and Synthesis
Development of Ballistic Skills
Overarm Throwing
Kicking
Punting
Sidearm Striking
Overarm Striking
Interventions
Summary and Synthesis
Development of Manipulative Skills
Grasping and Reaching
Catching
Anticipation
Summary and Synthesis

Part III Physical Growth and Aging

Physical Growth, Maturation, and Aging
Prenatal Development
Postnatal Development
Summary and Synthesis
Development and Aging of Body Systems
Systems Development During the Prenatal Period
Systems Development During Childhood and
Adolescence
Systems Development During Adulthood and Older
Adulthood

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Summary and Synthesis

Part IV Development of Physical Fitness

Development of Cardiorespiratory Endurance
Physiological Responses to Short-Term Exercise
Physiological Responses to Prolonged Exercise
Summary and Synthesis
Development of Strength and Flexibility
Muscle Mass and Strength
Development of Strength
Development of Flexibility
Summary and Synthesis
Weight Status, Fitness, and Motor Competence
A Model of Interrelationships
Body Composition
Obesity
Motor Competence, Activity, Fitness, and Body
Composition
Summary and Synthesis

Part V Perceptual-Motor Development

Sensory-Perceptual Development
Visual Development
Kinesthetic Development
Auditory Development
Intermodal Perception
Summary and Synthesis
Perception and Action in Development
The Role of Action in Perception
Postural Control and Balance
Summary and Synthesis

Part VI Functional Constraints in Motor

Development

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Social and Cultural Constraints in Motor
Development
Social and Cultural Influences as Environmental
Constraints
Other Sociocultural Constraints: Race, Ethnicity, and
Socioeconomic
Status
Summary and Synthesis
Psychosocial Constraints in Motor Development
Self-Esteem
The Link Between Perceived and Actual Motor
Competence
Motivation
Summary and Synthesis
Developmental Motor Learning
Unpacking the Definition of Motor Learning
Stages of Learning and the Development of
Expertise
Practice and Motor Learning
Augmented Feedback and Motor Learning
Other Factors That Influence Motor Learning
Summary and Synthesis
Conclusion: Interactions Among Constraints
Using Constraints to Enhance Learning in Physical
Activity Settings
Interacting Constraints: Case Studies
Summary and Synthesis

Appendix: Skinfold, Body Mass Index, and Head

Circumference Charts
References
Index
About the Authors
 Introduction to Motor Development

When you begin to learn any new area of study, you

must start out
by deciphering the lingo used by the field’s
professionals. In motor
development, the professionals include physical
educators, athletic
trainers, coaches, physical and occupational
therapists, and
professors. This is quite a variety! It may not surprise
you, then, that
the first part of this text is dedicated to providing a
sound base of
information—terms, theories, concepts, and
important historical
notes—on which you can build your knowledge of
motor
development. You must learn basic terms so you
can read about
motor development and converse with others about
this field of
study. You must learn the scope of the field and how
it goes about
researching the developmental aspects of motor
behavior. It benefits
you to learn how information is pictured or presented
within the field
of study. All these topics are addressed in chapter 1.
You also need to know the various perspectives that
professionals
in the field of motor development have adopted to
view motor
behavior and interpret studies of that behavior.
Often, what is known
within a discipline of study is a function of the
perspectives adopted
by those studying in the field. Chapter 2 introduces
you to these
perspectives.
In chapter 3, you will learn about the principles of
motion and
stability that influence all your movements at all
times.

34

Understanding these principles will help you see

patterns in the way
motor skills change over time (addressed in the
chapters that follow).
The goal of chapter 3 is to help you understand in a
general way
how these principles work.
Most importantly, part I introduces you to a model
that will guide
your study of motor development: Newell’s model of
constraints
(Newell, 1986). Chapter 1 describes the model’s
parts and what it
depicts. Newell’s model gives you a way of
organizing new pieces of
information. Right now, the most important notion
you can gain from
this model is that motor development does not focus
only on the
individual; it also examines the importance of the
environment in
which an individual moves and the task the
individual is trying to
accomplish. Moreover, the model gives you a way to
analyze and
think about issues and problems in motor
development. Thus it will
be useful not only in the short term of your study of
motor
development but also in the long term, as you move
into a
professional position or interact with family and
friends regarding
their motor skills.
Motor Development in the Real World
The Up Series
In 1964, director Paul Almond filmed a group of 14
British
children, all 7 years old, from diverse socioeconomic
backgrounds and created a documentary about their
lives titled
7 Up! In 1971, Michael Apted followed up with 7 Plus
Seven,
and he brought out a new installment of the series
every 7
years, following these same individuals through
childhood and
adolescence, into adulthood, and then into middle
age. Apted
hoped to explore the influence of the British class
system over
time and see if the Jesuit motto “Give me a child
until he is
seven and I will give you the man” held true. The
latest
installment, 56 Up, premiered on British television on
May 14,
2012, and was released in the United States in
January 2013. In
total, the Up series showed the lives of the
participants over the
course of 49 years, from childhood into middle
adulthood, thus
providing a window into the group and individual
development.

If we developed a series of documentaries

addressing motor
development, who might watch? Many professionals
might be
interested. Educators, especially physical and early
childhood
educators, might be interested in which practices
work best and
whether they are developmentally appropriate.
Therapists would
want to know the factors that affect movement
abilities. Engineers
and designers might be interested in changes
throughout adulthood
in order to make appropriately sized and arranged
living spaces,
control panels, work equipment, sport gear, and
vehicles. Health
care providers might want to determine how
movement and exercise
early in life affect health status later on. Clearly,
then, motor

38

development interests many people for many

reasons. Indeed, we
can learn a great deal by examining change in
movement patterns—
and why it occurs—from birth until old age.
Movement is an integral
part of our lives, and its change is inevitable.
Defining Motor Development
Our imaginary documentary series might give you a
rough idea of
what motor development is. Let’s now be more exact
and give the
field some boundaries, much as a producer would
do in order to
decide which segments are appropriate for the
motor development
film and which are not.
Development is defined by several characteristics.
First, it is a
continuous process of change in functional capacity.
Think of
functional capacity as the capability to exist—to live,
move, and work
—in the real world. This is a cumulative process.
Living organisms
are always developing, but the amount of change
may be more
noticeable, or less noticeable, at various points in
the life span.
Second, development is related to (but not
dependent on) age. As
age advances, development proceeds. However,
development can
be faster or slower at different times, and rates of
development can
differ among individuals of the same age. Individuals
do not
necessarily advance in age and advance in
development at the
same rate. Further, development does not stop at a
particular age
but rather continues throughout life.
Third, development involves sequential change. One
step leads to
the next step in an orderly and irreversible fashion.
This change
results from interactions both within the individual
and between the
individual and the environment. All individuals of a
species undergo
predictable patterns of development, but the result of
development is
always a group of unique individuals.
Individuals function in a variety of arenas, including
the physical,
social, cognitive, and psychological. Hence, we use
terms such as
cognitive development or social development to
address the

39

process of change in particular arenas. Social

scientists often
specialize in the study of one aspect of
development.
We use the term motor development to refer to the
development
of movement abilities. Those who study motor
development explore
developmental changes in movements as well as
the factors
underlying those changes. Such study addresses
both the process
of change and the resultant movement outcome. Not
all change in
movement constitutes development. For example, if
a tennis teacher
elicits a change in a student’s forehand stroke by
changing the
student’s grip on the racket, we do not view the
change as motor
development. Rather, we use the term motor
learning, which refers
to movement changes that are relatively permanent
but related to
experience or practice rather than age. We use the
term motor
behavior when we prefer not to distinguish between
motor learning
and motor development or when we want to include
both.

Motor development refers to the continuous, age-

related process of
change in movement as well as the interacting
constraints (or factors)
in the individual, environment, and task that drive
these changes.

Motor learning refers to the relatively permanent

gains in motor skill
capability associated with practice or experience
(Schmidt & Lee,
2014).

Motor control refers to the nervous system’s control

of the
muscles that permits skilled and coordinated
movements. In recent
years, researchers in motor development and in
motor control have
found much in common. Understanding how the
nervous system and
movement abilities change with age expands our
knowledge of
motor control, and we now see much overlap in
motor development
and control research.

Motor control is the study of the neural, physical,

and behavioral
aspects of movement (Schmidt & Lee, 2014).

40

Scan news websites such as MSNBC.com or

CNN.com for stories
related to motor development. What key words did
you search for
besides motor and development in order to focus in
on this
topic?
Undoubtedly, you have heard the term development
paired with
the term growth, as in “growth and development.”
Physical growth
is a quantitative increase in size or magnitude.
Living organisms
experience a period of growth in physical size. For
humans, this
growth period starts with conception and ends in late
adolescence or
the early 20s. Changes in the size of tissues after
the physical
growth period (e.g., an increase in muscle mass with
resistance
training) are described with other terms. Thus, the
phrase growth
and development includes change in both size and
functional
capacity.
Physical growth is an increase in size or body mass
resulting from an
increase in complete, already formed body parts
(Timiras, 1972).

The term maturation is also paired with the term

growth, but it is
not the same as development. Maturation connotes
progress
toward physical maturity, the state of optimal
functional integration of
an individual’s body systems and the ability to
reproduce.
Development continues long after physical maturity
is reached.

Physiological maturation is a qualitative advance in

biological makeup
and may refer to cell, organ, or system advancement
in biochemical
composition rather than to size alone (Teeple,
1978).
Physiological change does not stop at the end of the
physical
growth period. Rather, it can occur throughout life.
Physiological
change tends to be slower after the growth period
but nevertheless
remains prominent. The term aging can be used in a
broad sense to
refer to the process of growing older regardless of
chronological age;

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it can also refer specifically to changes that lead to a

loss of
adaptability or function and eventually to death
(Spirduso, Francis, &
MacRae, 2005).

Aging is the process, occurring with the passage of

time, that leads to
loss of adaptability or full function and eventually to
death (Spirduso,
Francis, & MacRae, 2005).

The physiological processes of growth and aging fall

on a
continuum of life span development. For many
years, researchers
examined motor development almost exclusively
from early
childhood through puberty. However, the population
across the globe
has aged. In many countries—including the United
States, China,
Russia, Australia, Canada, and the majority of the
European Union’s
nations—by 2030 at least 13% of the population will
be aged 65
years or older (Kinsella & Velkoff, 2001). This
change brings more
urgency to the need for better understanding of
motor development
in the later years. Although some motor
development students might
be particularly interested in one portion of the
continuum, motor
development as a field still concerns change in
movement across the
life span. Understanding what drives change in one
part of the life
span often helps us understand change in another
part. This process
of examining change is part of adopting a
developmental
perspective.
Constraints: A Model for Studying Motor
Development
It is useful to have a model or plan for studying the
change in
movement that occurs over the life span. A model
helps us include
all the relevant factors in our observation of motor
behavior. This is
particularly true as we think about the complexity of
motor skills and
how our skills change over the life span. For this
textbook, we
adopted a model associated with a contemporary
theoretical

42

approach known as the ecological perspective (see

chapter 2). We
find that this model helps us make sense of
developmental changes
by providing a framework for observing change. We
believe this
model—Newell’s constraints model—will help you
better understand
motor development across the life span.
Newell’s Model
Karl Newell (1986) suggested that movements arise
from the
interactions of the organism, the environment in
which the movement
occurs, and the task to be undertaken. If any of
these three factors
change, the resultant movement changes. We can
picture the three
factors as points on a triangle with a circle of arrows
representing
their interaction (figure 1.1). Because we are
concerned only with
human movement here, we use the term individual
instead of
organism. In short, to understand movement, we
must consider the
relationships between the characteristics of the
individual mover, his
surroundings, and his purpose or reasons for
moving. From the
interaction of all these characteristics, specific
movements emerge.
This model reminds us that we must consider all
three corners of the
triangle in order to understand motor development.
Picture the different ways in which individuals can
walk—for
example, a toddler taking her first steps, a child
walking in deep
sand, an adult moving across an icy patch, or an
older adult trying to
catch a bus. In each example, the individual must
modify his or her
walking pattern in some way. These examples
illustrate that
changing one of the factors often results in a change
in the
interaction with one or both of the other factors, and
a different way
of walking arises from the interaction. For example,
whether you are
barefoot or wearing rubber-soled shoes might not
make a difference
when you’re walking across a dry tile floor, but your
walk might
change notably if the floor were wet and slippery.
The interaction of
individual, task, and environment changes the
movement, and, over
time, patterns of interactions lead to changes in
motor development.

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