K.G.

ENGINEERING
BISHNUPUR, BANKURA

INSTITUTE 722122

 REPORT NAME: - SOLAR ENERGY

 NAME: - MILON BAGDI
 SL. NO.: - 11
 DEPARTMENT: - ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING
 CLASS: - 3RD YEAR
 SEMESTER: - 6TH
 SESSION: - 2024
TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………01
INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………...02
HISTORY……………………………………………………………………………………03
PRINCIPLES OF SOLAR ENERGY………………………………………………………..04
SOLAR ENERGY OVERVIEW…………………………………………………………….05
SOLAR TOWER……………………………………………………………………………..07
SOLAR PANEL……………………………………………………………………………...08
ENERGY STORAGE METHODS…………………………………………………………..09
ADVANTAGES……………………………………………………………………………...11
DISADVANTAGE…………………………………………………………………………..
12
CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………13
REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………….14
TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Circuit Diagram of Solar

Energy…………………………………………………...02
Figure 2: Working of Solar Energy…………………………………………………………..04
Figure 3: Overview of Solar
Energy…………………………………………………………..06
Figure 4: Solar
Tower………………………………………………………………………...07
Figure 5: Working of PV
Cell………………………………………………………………...08
Figure 6: Constructions of PV
Cells…………………………………………………………..09
ABSTRACT

Solar energy, a pivotal renewable resource, has seen significant advancements and
innovations in recent years, contributing to its increased adoption and efficiency. This
abstract provides an overview of the latest developments in solar energy technology,
emphasizing photovoltaic (PV) systems, solar thermal energy, and emerging trends such as
perovskite solar cells and bifacial panels.

The progress in photovoltaic technology, particularly the enhancement of silicon-based solar

cells, has led to higher conversion efficiencies and lower production costs. Innovations in
materials science, like the development of perovskite solar cells, have shown potential for
even greater efficiency gains and flexible applications, although stability remains a challenge.

Solar thermal technologies have also evolved, with improvements in concentrated solar
power (CSP) systems that use mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight. These systems now
incorporate advanced thermal storage solutions, enabling energy production even during non-
sunny periods, thus addressing intermittency issues.

Furthermore, bifacial solar panels, which capture sunlight on both sides, are gaining
popularity due to their ability to generate more electricity from the same surface area
compared to traditional panels. This is particularly beneficial in environments with high
albedo surfaces.

Emerging trends such as solar energy integration with smart grids, advancements in energy
storage systems, and the rise of building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are also
highlighted. These innovations are paving the way for more efficient and versatile solar
energy applications, contributing significantly to the global transition towards sustainable
energy systems.

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INTRODUCTION

Every day, the sun radiates (sends out) an enormous amount of energy called solar energy. It
radiates more energy in one second than the world has used since time began. This energy
comes from within the sun itself.
Like most stars, the sun is a big gas ball made up mostly of hydrogen and gas. The sun makes
energy in its inner core in a process called nuclear fusion. Only a small part of the solar
energy that the sun radiates into space ever reaches the earth, but that is more than enough to
supply all our energy needs. Every day enough solar energy reaches the earth to supply our
nation's energy needs for a year!
Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient
times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar radiation, along with secondary
solar-powered resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and biomass,
account for most of the available renewable energy on earth. Only a minuscule fraction of the
available solar energy is used. Solar powered electrical generation relies on heat engines and
photovoltaics. Solar energy's uses are limited only by haran ingenuity. A partial list of solar
applications includes space heating and cooling through solar architecture, potable water via
distillation and disinfection, daylighting, solar hot water. solar cooking, and high temperature
process heat for industrial purposes. To harvest the solar energy, the most common way is to
use solar panels.

Fig.1: Circuit Diagram of Solar Energy

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending
on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques inchade
the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive
solar techniques include orienting a buikling to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable
thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

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HISTORY

The history of solar panels is a fascinating journey of scientific discovery and technological
advancement that has spanned over a century. Here, we outline the key milestones in the
development of solar panel technology.

1970s - Oil Crisis and Renewed Interest:

The oil crisis of the 1970s spurred interest in alternative energy sources, including solar
power. During this period, research and development efforts focused on reducing the cost and
improving the efficiency of solar cells.

1980s - Cost Reduction and Efficiency Improvements:

Advances in manufacturing processes and materials led to significant reductions in the cost of
solar cells. Thin-film technologies and improved silicon cells pushed efficiency higher while
making solar power more affordable.

Modern Era (21st Century)

2000s - Growth of Solar Industry:

The early 2000s saw rapid growth in the solar industry, driven by government incentives,
environmental awareness, and technological advancements. Solar panels became more
common in residential, commercial, and utility-scale applications.

2010s - Breakthroughs in Efficiency:

Research in new materials, such as perovskites, and the development of bifacial solar panels,
which capture light on both sides, further increased efficiency. Solar panel costs continued to
decline, making solar power more competitive with traditional energy sources.

2020s - Integration and Innovation:

The integration of solar power with energy storage systems, smart grids, and building-
integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) became more prevalent. Innovations aimed at improving
durability, efficiency, and adaptability of solar panels continued to emerge.

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PRINCIPLES OF SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy is created by light and heat which is emitted by the sun, in the form of
electromagnetic radiation.
With today's technology, we are able to capture this radiation and turn it into usable forms of
solar energy such as heating or electricity.
Although one could go into technical dissertations on the subject of electromagnetic
radiation, how it is converted into solar energy, and the exact qualities of its electromagnetic
rays, this is not something the average person needs or wants to know.

Fig.2: Working of Solar Energy

But in order to be able to benefit from the use of solar energy, there are a few facts you
should know. Knowing these facts can assist you to make a sound decisions, when looking at
the use of solar power as a clean energy source for your home, RV, or whatever the case may
be.
1. The first and the foremost advantage of utilizing wind energy is of course that it is not
harmful for the environment as nothing is burned to attain the electricity from moving air.
Even solid biofuels ke sawdust, wood, charcoal, manure and all the others give out polluting
gases and particulates that are unhealthy for the environment, but wind energy solves that
problem quite effectively.
2. As mentioned before, the main function of wind energy or any other form of renewable
source of energy is to reduce the pressure of global demand on fossil fuels that is shortening
their already limited life. If the areas that are suitable for harvesting wind energy start to rely
on it instead of relying on traditional sources of electricity, then this goal can be achieved
effectively.
3. A very significant advartage that windmills have over the traditional power stations is the
fact that they require much lesser area to set up. Not only does this advantage make it cheaper
to set the mill up as one would require less land, but one must also not forget that the area
around the windmill can then be used for setting up adjacent farms also, which in fact is offen
the case at places like this.

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4. Just as with harvesting solar energy, earlier it used to be quite costly to effectively utilize
the power of wind. Even then, the total energy that was successfully converted to electricity
was hardly enough. In other words, the wind energy conversion rates were poor, but as
technology have improved over the years, it has now become possible to utilize and convert
wind energy at a much lower cost and a significantly higher conversion ratio.
5. To set up a power station to supply electricity in remote and secluded places at higher
altitudes is not an easy job. It would require a lot of money as well as effort and even then it
may take quite some time before it can even be successfully operated. This is where the
utility of wind turbines are fully realized. Mountainous localities usually have an atmosphere
where the wind is very strong as well being reliably consistent. Setting up a wind turbine big
enough to serve the electrical needs of the entire locality would not only be cheaper in this
case, but it will be much faster and perhaps even more useful as well.
6. The similarity between solar energy and wind energy is that both of them are renewable
and free sources of energy, what is more interesting is that it is possible to install a system
that will make both the alternative sources of energy work together to offer an even more
reliable and powerful energy source. The use of such a hybrid system is not only limited to
underdeveloped areas, because even in the developed areas where traditional power stations
are already well set up, it could save a lot of money and non-renewable energy.
7. It is hard to believe and may even come as a surprise to someone who does not have the
knowledge, but the cost of producing wind energy has become almost 80% cheaper than what
it used to be twenty or thirty years ago. As the technology is still developing to make the
wind more productive and less costly, can almost assume that the prices will come down
further and someday it might even be the cheapest alternative for electricity production in the
market.
8. It is no secret that petroleum is chiefly saturated in certain geographical areas which come
within the national borders of the countries that are located in that particular geographic area.
This has created a certain kind of monopoly and has also raised the price of fuel quite
significantly in all the countries that are dependent on it. Wind energy is something that
cannot be monopolized in this way as it is free and can not be confined within the
geographical boundaries of a country either. Therefore, if in the near future, wind energy can
be made more usable and more efficient, we can also hope to reduce the hiked up oil prices as
well.

SOLAR ENERGY OVERVIEW

Solar energy is all about harnessing the power of the sun to produce energy. The sun rains
enough solar energy on the Earth in one day to power the entire energy needs of the world for
one year. Solar energy is considered a renewable energy source because it will exist for as
long as our sun does, estimated to be another 4.5 billion years. Solar energy is also
considered a clean energy because it does not produce pollutants or byproducts harmful to the
environment.
Solar energy was the first energy source used by mankind. Of course, the use was limited to
drying things and heating caused by direct contact, but it was a use. In modern times, solar
energy has been power source since the early 1950s, but was not widespread due to
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technological issues which rendered it an ineffective and expensive energy source. Wah
technology advancements, solar energy is moving to the forefront as a potential alternative to
fossil fuck.

Fig.3: Overview of Solar Energy

The future is indeed bright for solar energy as new solar nanotechnology is close to creating
solar platforms that boggle the mind. For instance, a few companies are trying to create solar
quantum dots, which will be mixed in the paint you use for your home. Yes, you will actually
paint on solar energy panels that will power your home.
Currently, solar energy is produced primarily through the use of solar cells, also known as
photovoltaic cells. The process works by placing the cells in direct sunlight. Sun hits the cells
causing a chemical reaction that creates an electric current. The current is then turned into
electricity. The problem with these cells, however, is they are only about 15 percent efficient.
Solar energy is typically classified in two ways, passive solar and active solar.
Passive solar is exactly what it sounds like. It does not involve panel systems or other moving
mechanisms to produce solar energy. Instead, passive solar involves planning a structure in
such a way as to capture the power of the sun with windows, tanks and so on. These systems
can be used to heat homes, water and so on.
Active solar energy systems typically involve some form of solar panels. The panels are
oriented to maximize exposure to the sun. Depending on the system, the panels will then
either directly convert sunlight to electricity, which is then transformed from direct current
electricity to alternate current electricity and stored in batteries or fed into the grid system of
the local utility. Active systems are more expensive and complex.
Solar energy has numerous advantages over other energy platforms. It is produces no
pollution, requires little maintenance and comes with significant financial incentives in the
form of tax deductions, tux credits and rebates from manufactures. In a majority of states,
solar energy can also be sold back to utilities per a concept known as net metering. This
reduces the need for batteries and significantly cuts utility bills.

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Unfortunately, solar energy has some disadvantages as well. The initial cost of purchase and
installation can be expensive. Second, areas with limited sunlight are problematic. Third,
solar energy obviously can't be produced at night. Despite these disadvantages, solar energy
is a booming energy platform.
The largest producers of solar energy in the world are Germany, Japan and the United States.
California has recently introduces a solar initiative devoting over three billion dollars to
promoting solar energy use by residents in the state. As this overview demonstrates, the solar
energy platform is coming on strong.
SOLAR TOWER:
A solar tower, in the context of astronomy, is a structure used to support equipment for
studying the sun, and is typically part of solar telescope designs. Generically, the term solar
tower has many more uses especially for a type of power production using Earth's Sun. Solar
tower observatories are also called vacuum tower telescopes,
Solar towers are used to raise the observation equipment above the atmospheric disturbances
caused by solar heating of the ground and the radiation of the heat into the atmosphere.
Traditional observatories do not have to be placed high above ground level, as they do most
of their observation at night, when ground radiation is at a minimum.
The horizontal Snow solar observatory was built on Mount Wilson in 1904. It was soon
found that heat radiation was disrupting observations. Almost as soon as the Snow
Observatory opened, plans were started for a 60-foot-tall (18 m) tower that opened in 1908
followed by a 150-foot (46 m) tower in 1912. The 60-foot (18 m) tower is currently used to
study helioseismology, while the 150-foot (46 m) tower is active in UCLA's Solar Cycle
Program.

Fig.4: Solar Tower

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The term has also been used to refer to other structures used for experimental purposes. such
as the Solar Tower Atmospheric Cherenkov Effect Experiment (STACEE), which is being
used to study Cherenkov radiation, and the Weizmann Institute solar power tower.

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SOLAR PANEL:
A solar panel (photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a packaged interconnected
assembly of solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells. The solar panel can be used as a
component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in commercial
and residential applications.
Because a single solar panel can only produce a limited amount of power, many installations
contain several panels. A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of solar panels, an
inverter, may contain a battery and interconnection wiring.
Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through the
photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer- based crystalline silicon cells or thin-
film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon. The conducting wires that take the current
off the panels may contain silver, copper or other conductive (but generally not magnetic)
transition metals.
The cells must be connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system. Cells
must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most solar panels are rigid,
but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells. Electrical connections are made
in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in parallel to provide a desired current
capability.
Separate diodes may be needed to avoid reverse currents, in case of partial or total shading,
and at night. The p-n junctions of mono-crystalline silicon cells may have adequate reverse
current characteristics that these are not necessary. Reverse currents waste power and can
also lead to overheating of shaded cells. Solar cells become less efficient at higher
temperatures and installers try to provide good ventilation behind solar panels.
Some recent solar panel designs include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or
mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per unit
arca (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.

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 Fig.5: Working of PV Cell
Depending on construction, photovoltaic panels can produce electricity from a range of
frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range (specifically, ultraviolet,
infrared and low or diffused light). Hence much of the incident sunlight energy is wasted by
solar panels, and they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic
light. Therefore another design concept is to split the light into different wavelength ranges
and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges. This has been projected to be
capable of raising efficiency by 50%. The use of infrared photovoltaic cells has also been
proposed to increase efficiencies, and perhaps produce power at night, Sunlight conversion
rates (solar panel efficiencies) can vary from 5-18% in commercial products, typically lower
than the efficiencies of their cells in isolation. Panels with conversion rates around 18% are in
development incorporating innovations such as power generation on the front and back sides
les do The Energy Density of a solar panel is the efficiency described in terms of peak power
output per unit of surface area, commonly expressed in units of Watts per square foot (W/ft²).
The most efficient mass-produced solar panels have energy density values of greater than 13
W/ft³.

Fig.6: Constructions of PV Cells

ENERGY STORAGE METHODS

Solar energy is not available at night, and energy storage is an important issue because
modern energy systems usually assume continuous availability of energy.
Thermal mass systems can store solar energy in the form of heat at domestically useful
temperatures for daily or seasonal durations. Thermal storage systems generally use readily
available materials with high specific heat capacities such as water, earth and stone. Well-
designed systems can lower peak demand, shift time-of-use to off-peak hours and reduce
overall heating and cooling requirements.
Phase change materials such as paraffin wax and Glauber's salt are another thermal storage
media. These materials are inexpensive, readily available, and can deliver domestically useful

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temperatures (approximately 64 °C). The "Dover House" (in Dover, Massachusetts) was the
first to use a Glauber's salt beating system, in 1948.
Solar energy can be stored at high temperatures using molten salts. Salts are an effective
storage medium because they are low-cost, have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver
heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems. The Solar Two used this
method of energy storage, allowing it to store 1.44 TJ in its 68 m³ storage tank with an annual
storage efficiency of about off-grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries
to store excess electricity. With grid-tied systems, excess electricity can be sent to the
transmission grid, while standard grid electricity can be used to meet shortfalls. Net metering
programs give household systems a credit for any electricity they deliver to the grid. This is
often legally handled by 'rolling back' the meter whenever the home produces more electricity
than it consumes. If the net electricity use is below zero, the utility is required to pay for the
extra at the same rate as they charge consumers. Other legal approaches involve the use of
two meters, to measure electricity consumed vs. electricity produced. This is less common
due to the increased installation cost of the second meter. Pumped-storage hydroelectricity
stores energy in the form of water pumped when energy is available from a lower elevation
reservoir to a higher elevation one. The energy is recovered when demand is high by realizing
the water to run throw it hydroelectric generator.

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ADVANTAGES
1.SOLAR ENERGY IS A RENEWABLE RESOURCE
You will never run out of solar energy. Sure, the sun sets at night, and on those dark and
gloomy days it may not always be visible, but you can be sure that it will return. Oil on the
other hand, is limited, and once you run out, it is gone forever. Although the amount of power
the sun can generate is limited to the amount of sunlight you get, it is possible to generate
electricity even on cloudy days.
2. SOLAR POWER IS NON-POLLUTING
Unlike oil, solar power does not emit any sort of toxic gases into the environment. It is a
completely environmentally friendly approach to generating electricity. There is even work
being done to make the recycling of solar panels more effective.
3. LIGHT FROM THE SUN IS FREE
After the initial costs involved in setting up the solar panels and solar lights ete, you will
never have to pay to run them
4. SOLAR POWER IS QUITE FLEXIBLE
You can have an array of solar panels on your roof to generate power from your home. You.
can also have smaller solar cells on garden lights or anything else outside that only needs a
small amount of electricity. Not having to run a wire can be a huge time saver.
5. SOLAR CELLS REQUIRE MINIMAL MAINTENANCE
Once the solar cells are set up, they require very little maintenance, mainly because there are
no moving parts that have to be maintained. Solar cells can last a lifetime and is very easy to
install.
6. SOLAR POWER IS SILENT
The methods that are used to find and extract oil are very noisy. Even wind power can create
a lot of noise. Solar power is completely silent.

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DISADVANTAGE
1. One of the main disadvantages is the initial cost of the equipment used to harness the suns
energy. Solar energy technologies still remain a costly alternative to the use of readily
available fossil fuel technologies. As the price of solar panels decreases, we are likely to
see an increase in the use of solar cells to generate electricity.
2. A solar energy installation requires a large area for the system to be efficient in providing
a source of electricity. This may be a disadvantage in areas where space is short, or
expensive (such as inner cities).
3. Pollution can be a disadvantage to solar panels, as pollution can degrade the efficiency of
photovoltaic cells. Clouds also provide the same effect, as they can reduce the energy of
the suns rays. This certain disadvantage is more of an issue with older solar components,
as newer designs integrate technologies to overcome the worst of these effects.
4. Solar energy is only useful when the sun is shining. During the night, your expensive
solar equipment will be useless, however the use of solar battery
5. chargers can help to reduce the effects of this disadvantage. The location of solar panels
can affect performance, due to possible obstructions from the surrounding buildings or
landscape.

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CONCLUSION

Solar cells are long lasting sources of energy which can be used almost anywhere
particularly useful where there is no national grid and also where there are no people such
as remote site water pumping or in space, provide cost effective solutions to energy
problems in places where there is no mains electricity. Moreover, they are totally silent
and non-polluting. They have no moving parts they require little maintenance and have a
long lifetime when compared to other renewable sources they also possess many
advantages; wind and water power rely on turbines which are noisy, expensive and liable
to breaking down. We are living in a society where there is a tremendous pollution with
the scarcity of fossil fuels and resources To overcome those problems we need to change
our life styles. Since the solar energy is abundant and is free of cost, we can utilize the
solar power to give a rebirth to mankind.

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REFERENCES

BOOKS:

1. Dufo-López, R. and J. L. Bernal-Agustin (2005). "Design and control strategies of PV-

Diesel systems using genetic algorithms." Solar Energy 79(1): 33-46.
2. Abouzahr, 1. and R. Ramakumar (1991). "Loss of power supply probability of stand-
alone photovoltaic systems: a closed form solution approach." Energy Conversion, IEEE
Transactions on 6(1): 1-11.
3. Borowy, B. S. and Z. M. Salameh (1996). "Methodology for optimally sizing the
combination of a battery bank and PV array in a wind/PV hybrid system." Energy
Conversion, IEEE Transactions on 11(2): 367-375.

WEBSITES:

1.https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy
2.https://www.seia.org/initiatives/about-solar-energy
3.https://byjus.com/physics/solar-energy-project/

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