MODULE1

SOCIETYSTATEANDPOLITYININDIA

 StateinAncientIndia:EvolutionaryTheory, ForceTheory,Mystical
Theory Contract Theory
 StagesofStateFormationinAncientIndia
 Kingship
 CouncilofMinistersAdministration
 PoliticalIdealsinAncientIndiaConditions‘oftheWelfareof
Societies
 TheSevenLimbsoftheState
 SocietyinAncientIndia,Purusartha,VarnashramaSystem,Ashrama or
the Stages of Life
 Marriage
 UnderstandingGenderasasocialcategory
 TherepresentationofWomeninHistoricaltraditions
 ChallengesfacedbyWomen
 Four-classClassification
 Slavery.

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MODULE1

SOCIETYSTATEANDPOLITYININDIA

TheconceptofIndiansociety
There are thousands of communities living in India including all major religions of the world. They speak
different languages and dialects; they have their own food habits, professions, industries, handicrafts,
traditions and cultural aspects. On the same line Jawaharlal Nehru too had said that Indian society being
multilingual and multicultural nation had a bundle of contradictions held together by strong but invisible
threads. In fact, India is a nation in which we find unity in diversity; people from different caste and creed,
religion and region, beliefs and assumptions live together happily. Indians have developed common traits,
thoughts and feelings. Inspite of repeated foreign invasions, and the enormous growth in population, Indians
have professed remarkable personality.

Indian Society also comprises it start, languages and culture on one side and its social, economic and
political life on the other hand. Hinduism is a vast sea of rituals, customs, beliefs and thoughts of profound
nature and it also has certain superstitions.

If one peeps into longest and broadest Indian mythology, one will find that there were religious thoughts
prevalent among Hindus amidst foreign invasions. People were driven to eternal values, ideals and principles
of Lord Rama. There were many religious movements headed by different- saints during the period, right
from twelfth century onwards, people had the benefit of witnessing revival of Hinduism and at the same time
Muslims, Sikhs and Sufis also appeared on the scene with host of other religious saints. Their solitary
purpose was to awaken the people with the message of love, harmony, non-violence, brotherhood and amity
among all people and states. These saints were not only religious in outlook but they had a social message
too. They were secular in outlook and carried the torch of universal love and brotherhood.

Traditional Indian society is also considered as of the largest Hindu society as it consists of many religions,
regions, languages, castes, villages, families, dialects and cultures.
The life of Indian Society, its art, language, its social, economical and political life, encompasses religious
and spiritual beliefs of people in totality. Art, culture and literature are nothing but society. Literature is a
mirror to the society because it reflects the changing spectrum of society.

The era of globalization and democracy of the twenty-first century are adding new features to Indian society.
Westernization also brought the change about in Indian society and cultures as a consequence of over One
Hundred Fifty years of British rule. It was a social change that covered changes in new technology, social
institutions, social ideologies and social values. In this way some castes began to accept a westernized life-
style, western values of equality and individualism. During the same period there was another way of social
change available to the avama communities and that was to adopt Christianity.

The social changes in modern India can be observed as, ―Modern India is changing very rapid and society
today resents some fascinating as well as contradictory trends. One of the most important changes in India is
economic change. Already during the colonial period the new means of transportation and communication
and the development of cities had brought in a degree of economic and social change. People began to
migrate to the cities in search of work and modem education. The barriers of caste began to break down
gradually and started becoming more flexible. Children were no longer compelled to follow the occupation
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of their parents; they could aspire for different and better work. Such change was, indeed, revolutionary in
the context of Indian society.ǁ

SourcesofStudyofPoliticalIdeasinAncientIndia
The important sources, inchronologicalorder, arethe great epics, the Mahabharata, and the Ramayana. The
great bodyof literature generally called smriti, giving instruction in the sacred law, is very important in this
connection.

The earliest and most important textbook specifically devoted to statecraft is the Arthashastra, which is
attributed to Kautilya or Chanakya, the famous minister of Chandragupta Maurya. The Arthashastra gives
verydetailed instructionson various issues likethe management ofthe state,theorganisation of the national
economy and the conduct of war and it is the most precious sourcebook for many aspects of ancient Indian
life.

FromtheGuptaperiod and theMiddle Agesa number ofpoliticaltexts survive, the most important ofwhich are
the Nitisara (Essence of Politics) of Kamandaka which was written during the Gupta period, the
Nitivakyamrta (Nectar of Aphorisms of Politics) of Somadeva Suri, a Jaina writer of tenth century, and the
Nitisara (Treatise on Politics) attributed to the ancient sage Shukra, but evidently of later medieval origin.
Besides these sources, there is a tremendous amount of Brahmin, Jaina and Buddhist literature which deals
on occasions with the politics of the time.

State inAncient India

Statehas beenthekey concept inpoliticalscience sincetheperiod ofgrand thinkers likePlato and Aristotle. To
look into the origin and evolution of the state has been one of the greatest issues in Political Science. In
ancient India also thinkers like Bhisma, Narada, Brihaspati, Kautilya, Kamandaka have looked at the
problem. On the basis of the writings of these thinkers we can detect four important theories regarding the
origin of the state in ancient India, namely—
1) EvolutionaryTheory
2) ForceTheory
3) MysticalTheory
4) ContractTheory

1) Theory of Evolutionary Origin

Evolution is a process ofchange throughtime. It is the process bywhich modernorganisms have descended
fromancient organisms. It is the unifying principle for allthe biologicalsciences. It provides anexplanation
for the differences in structure, function and behavior among life forms. It included the change in
characteristics of populations through generations. Thus existing life forms have evolved from earlier life
forms.
This is the oldest theory of the origin of the state in India and has been mentioned in the Atharva Veda.
According to this theory the state is the result of evolutionary progress and it didn‘t originate at a fixed
time. The tenth hymn of the eighth chapter of the Atharva Veda gives a picture of the evolutionary origin of
the state. On the basis of Atharva Veda several stages of the evolution of the state can be traced.

The hymns of the AtharvaVedastatethattheearliestphaseofhumanlifewasthestageofvairajyaor stateless state.

It was a state of complete anarchy.But subsequently, with the emergence of agriculture, stable life became
possible. To fulfill the needs of agricultural society the family emerged and the head of the 4
family became the first wielder of authority. Further, the need of co-operation in the different realms of
society led to the emergence of sabha and samiti. Sabha was the organisation of elderly people and samiti
was the general assembly of common people.With the emergence of sabha and samiti organised political life
began which finally culminated in the emergence of the state.

The dominantideal thatmoved the king in ancient India was the attainmentof dharma, artha and kama. If the
artha is taken in the sense of enjoyment of property, the kama in the sense of enjoyment of family lifeand
dharma in the sense of maintenance ofthe legal system, it would be clear that in the trivarga ideal also,
principles of property, family and caste dominated.

2) Force Theory
It is also known as “The State was born of Force”. This theorystates that when one person or one small
group claims control over an area theyforced all citizens living within it tosubmit to this group rule. When
established all the basic elements of a state exist: Population, Territory, Sovereignty and Government.
Though ancient Indian political thinkers did not propound force theory in a systematic way, force was
considered to bean important factor intheevolutionof thestatein India. Earliest Aryanclans fought among
themselves for pet animals (especially for the cow), pastureland, settlements and sources of drinking water.
Only a strong and able warrior could lead the clan in such wars. So he was given special status and the
members of clan started obeying him. This tendency continued in the days of peace also and subsequently
the leader became king.
Citing examples from the Vedas(Rig Vedaand SamaVeda) and theBrahmanas (Aitareya, Shatapatha) John
Spellman also opines that the king in ancient India was primarily a military leader. But it should be clearly
mentioned that none of the politicalcommentatorsgive a systematic and well knitted explanation ofthe role of
force in the emergence of the state in ancient India.

3) TheoryofMysticalOrigin
It is also known as The Divine Right Theory. Medieval beliefthat God givespowerto theking; therefore his
actions are sanctioned by God. The theory of the Divine Right of Kings aimed at instilling obedience by
explaining why all social ranks were religiously and morally obliged to obey their government. The belief
that God created the state and that God had given those of royal birth ―divine powerǁ to rule. The people
were bound to obey their ruler as they would God. To disobey the ―divine right of kingsǁ was considered
both treason and a moral sin. The divine right theory holds that God created the state, making it sovereign.
The government is made up of those chosen by God to rule a certain territory. The population must obey
their ruler.

This was the most popular theoryoforigin of the state in ancient India. Kingship was given divine sanction
and the king was considered not to be the representative of God but himself a God who contained thepowers
of important Gods like Indra, Varuna and Agni.
Even before the days of Buddha, the king was exalted far above ordinary mortals, through the magical
powers of the great royal sacrifices.

The king was evidently the fellow of the God. Kings referred to their divine status in their titles and
panegyrics, and theywere regularlyaddressed bytheir courtiers as deva, or God. The Chola kings and some
others were even worshipped as God in the temples.

Itwasthemysticaltheoryofkingshipwhich carriedmostweightwithsucceedinggenerations.Theauthorof
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the Arthashastra had no illusions about the king‘s human nature, and seems to have had little time for
mysticism, but he recognised that legends about the origin of kingship had propaganda value. In the
Arthashastra he states that the people should be told that, the king fulfils the functions ofthe God Indra (the
king ofGods) and Yama (the God of death) upon earth, all who slight him will be punished not only by the
secular arm, but also by heaven. Ashoka and other Mauryan kings took the title ―Beloved of the Godsǁ
(devanampiya), and, though they seem not to have claimed wholly divine status, they were no doubt looked
upon as superior semi-divine beings.

4) ContractTheory
Before societywe were in the StateofNature. Anindividualdictated what he/she could/could not do? There
was ―Survivalofthe Fittestǁ. When we came into contact withother people we entereda Society. Whenwe
created State and government we entered a Social Contract.
Contract theory is the most extensively discussed theory of the origin of the state in ancient India. A social
contract isan act bywhich individual’s agreeto formagovernment. According to theSocialContract theory,
governments are established by the people who combine to achieve some goal.

In Western political tradition three philosophers Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau who are jointly known as
contractualists formulated the social contract theory regarding the origin of the state. All of them claimed
that thestateis not a naturalinstitution but iscreated byacontract whichsuggeststhat thepolitical authority is the
result of mutual consent among individuals. But the three contractualist philosophers differ in their
descriptionofcontract andvarious issuesrelatedto it. Contractualist philosophersstarttheirdescriptionwith the
depiction of human nature. Based on this human nature they make a description of the state of nature which
is a stage prior to the creation of the state.

Thomas Hobbes(1588-1679)
Hobbes published his book, the Leviathan, in 1651.In this book he gave a striking exposition ofthe theory of
Social Contract.He arguesin favor of absolutemonarchy.His object was to defend the absolute power of the
monarch and he used the doctrine of the Social Contract to support it.

He believed that life in the state of nature is ―solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and shortǁ. He believed that
humans are inherently bad because everyone is self-interested. Man not at all social, indeed “nothing but
grief in the company of his fellows”- all being almost equally selfish, self- seeking, egoistic, brutal and
aggressive.

According to Hobbes human nature is basically selfish. Self interest is the mainspring of human actions.
Individuals are creatures of desire, seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. Therefore, Hobbes contended that
human life was nothing but a perpetualand relentless desire and pursuit ofpower. Duetothis selfish human
nature the state of nature is a state of continuous conflict based on the principle of ―might is rightǁ. In the
state of nature every individual is free to do everything which means no one is free to do anything in actual
practice.Therewascompleteabsenceoforder and peacein suchastate.InHobbes‘sclassic phrase,lifewas
―solitary, poor,nasty, brutishandshortǁ.

Hobbes further formulates that individuals have a general tendency of self-preservation. But in the state
ofnature survival or self-preservation is threatened. Therefore, individuals enter into a contract through
which theysurrender their right to do everything to the Leviathan or the state. Individuals agreed to surrender
their naturalrights into the hands of common superior and to obeyhis commands.Theyonlyretain withthemthe
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right to self-preservation (or right to life). The specific feature of this Hobbessian contract is that the
Leviathan is not a partytothe contract but he is the productof the contract. This means that state power has no
limitation except the limitation to protect the individual‘s right to self- preservation.

JohnLocke(1632-1704)
Locke argues in favor of representational democracy. He is an English Political philosopher, advocates of
limited Monarchy in England. The theory of John Locke is found in his Two Treaties on Civil Government
published in 1690 defended the ultimate right of the people to depose the monarch from his authority if he
ever deprived them of their ―liberties and properties.ǁ He wrote Two Treatises on Government. The
firsttreatise is concerned almost exclusively with refuting the argument of Robert Filmer‘s Patriarcha, that
politicalauthoritywasderived fromreligiousauthority, also knownbythedescriptionof theDivine Right of
Kings. The secondtreatise contains Locke‘s own constructive view of the aims and justification for civil
government.

Locke explained human nature in termsofessentialsocial virtues. Human beings are by nature peace loving
and rational. Man was not aggressive, neither selfish and nor self- seeking. Men were equal and free to act
they thought fit, but within the bounds of the law of nature. Therefore, in the state of nature peace and
goodwill prevailed. In the state of nature life of the individual was governed by ‗natural law‘ which
suggestedthat―don‘tdotootherswhatyoudon‘twantotherstodotoyouǁ.Inthestateofnatureindividuals possessed
three ‗natural rights‘. Men were having three natural rights:

1. Righttolife,
2. Righttoliberty,
3. Righttoproperty.

Locke believed that people entered into society to protect their ―life, liberty, and propertyǁ. The
government‘s main job isto protect the citizen‘sproperty.Ifthe government isnot providing the protection of
the property, people have the right to revolt.

But eventually individuals experienced some inconveniences in the state of nature. Firstly, there was noclear
definition of natural law. Secondly, there was no sufficient authorityto enforcethemand thirdly, there was no
common arbiter having authorityto decide disputes in agreement with the law of nature.

Due to these inconveniences individuals entered into a contract to establish the state. By this contract each
individualsurrendered hisor herrightofinterpretingand enforcingthe lawofnature.Theydidnot surrender their
other natural rights. By a second act, the majority having the whole power of the community in them,
decided to set up a government to carryout the provisions of the first contract.

The socialcontract wasno morethana transfer ofcertainrightsand powerssothat man‘sremaining rights would
be protected and preserved. Sovereignty belonged to the communityand government was only a
trustee.Thecommunityandthepeople hadaninalienableright todismissthegovernment ifit provedfalse to the
trust reposed in it.

DifferencebetweenLockeanandHobbessianContract
Lockean contract is different from Hobbessian contract in many ways. In Hobbessian contract, individuals
surrender all rights except the right to self-preservation whereas in Lockean contract individuals retain their7
natural rights. They only surrender their right to interpret and enforce natural law. Similarly, in Lockean
contract this right was given to the community as a whole and not to a particular body like Leviathan as it
was in the Hobbessian contract.

JeanJacquesRousseau(1632-1704)
Rousseau argues in favor of direct democracy. He is the great French writer of the 18th century, elaborated
his theory in his famous work ―The Social Contractǁ published in 1762. His most famous works are
Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality Among Men (AKA The Second Discourse) & The
Social Contract.

Rousseaudepictedthe individualasnoble savageinthe stateofnature.Hecoinedthe term―NobelSavageǁ

who ledalifeofprimitivesimplicityandidyllichappiness.
According to Rousseau human nature is basically good, sympathetic and simple. The state of nature was a
state of perfect equality and liberty— a stage of idyllic happiness. He believed thatman was born free, and he
is everywhere in chains. He also believed that humans are born inherently good. He was independent,
contented, self- sufficient, healthy, and fearless and without need of his fellows or desire to harm them. It
was a type of ―golden ageǁ.

Allmenare made by natureto be equals, thereforeno one has a naturalright to governothers, and therefore the
only justified authority is the authority that is generated out of agreements or covenants. Rousseau advocates
the strictest form of Direct Democracy.

But the growth of population and consequent economic development created tension in the state of nature.
The growing economic advancement gave rise to the system of property. The notion of property made
individuals think in terms of mine and thine. This marked the dawn of reason. Human nature which was
previously simple now became increasingly complex. Hostility and conflict appeared in the state of nature.
The need ofself-preservation impelled individuals to forma civil societybycontract. Individuals with many
possessionssaw that it would be intheir best interest to createa government to protect their possessions. By
contract,eachindividualputhispersonandallhispowersincommonunderthesupremedirectionofthe
‗GeneralWill‘.

ComparisonofHobbes,LockeandRousseau
A general overview of the three contractualist philosophers suggests that they reached different conclusions
on the basis of their social contract theories. Hobbes became a supporter of absolutism. Locke justified
constitutional government whereas Rousseau supported popular sovereignty and direct democracy. Locke
emphasised on the natural rights of the individuals. Individuals are born with certain rights which are
inalienable fromthe individual. Ifthe government isunableto protect theserights, individuals havetheright to
revolt against the government. On the other hand Hobbes accepts only one right of theindividual that is the
right to self-preservation. Individuals do not have anything called naturalrights. Rousseau also does not
accept natural rights of the individual. According to Rousseau the General Will is always right. Therefore,
the individual must abide by the commands of the General Will.
Effectsofthesocialcontract
Hobbes: People will live in peace but without rights except for the right to self-defense
Lock: The three natural rights which exist in the State of Nature will be easier to enforce by the government.
Those who have given express consent will be bound by the contract; those who have given tacit consent
can opt out and leave.
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Rousseau: Life will be fair for all if we employ the general will and set aside our personal interests.

StagesofStateFormationinAncientIndia
Six main stages in the history of ancient Indian polity can be identified.

The earliest stage was that of tribal military democracy in which tribal assemblies, which had some place
for women were mainlypre-occupied with war. The age of Rig Veda was primarily a period of assemblies.
Thesecondstagesawthebreak-upofthetribalpolityunderthestressofconstantconflicts between
the rajanyakshatriya and the ordinary businessman called the vis. The chiefs were helped by the priesthood
called the brahmins. This stage saw the beginning of taxes and classes or varnas which came to be firmly
established in the third stage.
The third stage was marked by the formation of the full-fledged state. There arose large territorial
monarchies of Kosala and Magadha and tribal oligarchies in North-Western India and at the foot of the
Himalayas. Forthe first time we hear oflarge standing armies and organised machineryfor the collection of
land revenue.
The fourth or the Maurya phase saw bureaucratic centralisation based on the expanding economic
activities of the state. The state with the help of its bureaucracy controlled various aspects of the life of its
subjects.
The fifth stage was marked by the process of decentralised administration in which towns, feudatories and
military elements came to the forefront in both the Deccan and North India. This was partly neutralised by
the emphasis on the divinity of the king.
The last stage, identical with the Gupta period, may be called the period of proto-feudal polity. Land grants
now played an important part in the formation of the political structure and those made by the Gupta
feudatories conferred fiscal and administrative privileges on priestly beneficiaries.

Kingship
The king was the most important figure inthe bodypolitic. Inthe Saptangatheoryofthestate, developed by
Kautilya, the king has been described as the head or the most important organ of the state.

The king performed multi-dimensional functions. The king‘s functions involved the protection not only of
his kingdom against external aggression, but also of life, property and traditional custom against internal
foes. He protected the purity of class and caste by ensuring that those who challenged the system were
excommunicated. He protected the family system by punishing adultery and ensuring the fair inheritance of
family property. He protected widows and orphans by making them his wards. He protected the rich against
the poor by suppressing robbery, and he protected the poor against the rich by punishing extortion and
oppression. Religion was protected by liberal grants to learned brahmins and temples and frequently to
heterodox sects also. He also adjusted disputes between different parties. He paid fullest attention to local
and religious law and be able to enforce it upon the community.

The ideal set before the king was one of energetic beneficence. Ashoka was not the only king of India to
proclaim that all men were his children, or to take pride in his ceaseless activity for the welfare of his
subjects.

The Arthashastra, despite its advocacy of every dishonest expedient for the acquisition and maintenance of
power, puts forward the kingly duty in simple and forceful language, setting an ideal which few ancient
civilisations can boast of.
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Inallsourcestheking istoldthat he must beprompt intheadministrationofjusticeandalwaysaccessibleto his
people. The swarms of guards, ushers, and other officials who surrounded the king‘s person must often have
demanded bribes, and otherwise haveobstructed theaccess ofthesubject to his sovereign. But the best of
Indian kings at all times have made the public audience, or darbar, an important instrument of government.

The idealbeforetheking inancient Indiawasthat of beinga chakravarti meaningakingwho ruledoverthe united

vast territory of the Indian subcontinent extending from Kashmir to Kanyakumari.

The position, powers and privileges ofthe king have varied fromage to age. When inthe prehistoric period,
the king was only the senior-most member in the council of peers, when he often owed his position to an
election, either real or formal, when there was a popular council (samiti)to actively supervise his
administration, his position was often insecure and powers were limited. After 500 B.C.E. theoffice ofking
was elevated to new heights. During this period the king became the effective head of the executive
administration and there was no popular assembly like samiti to check him. He controlled both the treasury
and the military forces, though commander-in-chief and treasurer were under him.
Ministers were selected by the king and held office at his pleasure. The king presided over the council of
ministers and its decisions had to receive royal assent.

Councils of Ministers Administration

Ministers or councilofadvisors have been regarded by ancient Indian politicalthinkers as a very vitalorgan of
the body politic. The Mahabharata observes at one place that the king is as vitally dependent upon ministers
as animals are upon clouds, Brahmins on the Vedas and women upon their husbands.
Manusmriti points out that evena simple thing appears as difficult ifone is to do it single handed; whythen
attempt to run the complex machinery of the administration without the assistance of ministers.
The size ofthis mantriparishad or council of ministers varied, and the authorities suggested figures ranging
fromseven to thirty-seven. It seems that the bodywas divided into two parts mantrina and mantriparishad.
Mantriparishad was the large body resembling a modern council of ministers. It consisted of all the
ministers. Mantrina was a smaller bodyor acoreorganisationwithinthe mantriparishad largelyresembling the
modern cabinet. It included the few most important ministers like the purohita (priest), senapati (supreme
commander of army) and yuvaraja (the crown prince).

The council's purpose was primarily to advise the king, and not to govern, but it was no mere rubber
stamping body. For all authorities stress that councillors should speak freely and openly and that the king
should give full consideration to their advice. In fact, the council often exerted great powers. It might
transact business in the king's absence, and it might take minor decisions without consulting him. The
councilofministerswas not merelyarecording body, for veryoftenit usedto suggest amendmentsto king's
orders or even recommended their total reversal.

Administration
With the advent of the Mauryas on the political stage of India, bureaucracy developed as a well organised,
hierarchical, cadre-basedadministrativesystem. If werelyonthe Arthashastra ofKautilyatheestablishment of a
large and complex bureaucracy was a remarkable feature of the Mauryan government.
The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions 18 tirthas who are probably called mahamatras or
highfunctionaries.AlthoughthetermmahamatraisusedonlyonafewoccasionsintheArthashastra ,its real

10
counterpart being amatya it is familiar enough in Ashokan inscriptions. In addition to the 18 trithas,Kautilya
provides in some detail accounts of 27 superintendents (adhyaksas)concerned mostly with economic
functions and some military duties though social functions are not ignored.

The Mauryas developed a well organised bureaucracy. With the help of this centralised bureaucratic
structurenotonlydidthegovernment regulatethe economic lifeofthecountry, but it also tookanimportant part in
it. All mines including pearl beds, fisheries and salt pans, were owned by the state, and were either worked
directly with the labour of criminals or serfs, or let out toentrepreneurs, from whom the king claimed a
percentage oftheir output as royalty. There was no question of laissez-faire in ancient India.

PoliticalIdealsinAncientIndia
Political ideals like liberty, justice, fraternity and nationalism are a product of the modern age. If viewed
strictly fromthe lens ofthe contemporaryperiod, we can't find any systematic expression ofthese ideals, in
ancient India. But seen from a different perspective, ancient Indians did have these ideals in a rudimentary
form.
Showing the importance of freedom the Vedas state that independence is necessary for mankind and those
who are not independent are worsethandead. In varnashrma institutiontoo, an independent living has been
kept in mind. Aman lived independently during Grihasthaashrama and when hewas likelyto be dependent
ontheoffspring coming ofage, there istheprovisionofthe older peopleresorting to Vanprastha and thento
Sanyasa, again living freely in the solitude of hills and dales rather than living as dependent on theirchildren.
For disposal of justice the Mauryan state had a system of judiciary.Dharmasthiya was the civil court and
kantakashodhana was organised to deal with a large number of economic crimes. The Ramayana extols this
country as a karmabhumi, the land ofpious acts. This shows the belongingness of people to land and their
fellow beings. The early seeds of nationalism can be traced in this instance. Similarly, the idealof ancient
Indian thinkers was vasudhaivakutumbakam (treating the whole world like a family). This was the concept
of universal brotherhood or fraternity.
From the days of Plato and Aristotle, European thought has turned its attention to such questions as the
origin of the state, the ideal form of government, and the basis of law and the politics has long been looked
on as a branch of philosophy. From the above discussion, itis clear that ancient India also thoughtabout such
questions, but she had no schools of political philosophy in the Western sense.

TheSevenLimbsoftheStateorTheSaptangaTheory
Saptanga theory of state was given by Kautilya in Arthashastra. Kautilya has first time defined the state in
Arthashastra.
Theword―Saptangǁindicatessevenlimbs,constituentsorelements.Together,theyconstitutetheStateas
anorganism,―likeachariotcomposedofsevenpartsfittedandsubservienttooneanotherǁ.
SevenAngas, Prakritis, or elementswereenumeratedandelucidatedbyKautilya for describing ―thenature of
the Stateǁ in its totality. The seven limbs of a state are Swami (The King), Amatya (The Council of
Ministers), Janapada (The People and The Territory), Durga (Fortification), Kosa (Treasure), Danda
(Coercive authority) and Mitra (The Allies).
Accordingto Kautilya, anareacannot beastateunlesstherearenot peopleandrulerstocontrolthat state. A state
consists of different cities, people, military, treasury and tax-system. Kautilya used the word'Raja' which
according to Spellman, corresponds to the English word ' State'. The state is defined for the first time in the
Arthashastra of Kautilya as consisting of seven elements a definition which becomes an axion in the later
sources.

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According to Kautilya the state and kingship were based on popular good will. The king was their lader as
wellas head ofthe state and government. Inthe Vedas, the state wasconsidered to be a source ofpeace, law
and order, security and justice. In Kautilya eyes, the state and king are indispensable: the later is such an
essential part of society.

1) Swami(TheKing)
Kautilya assignto the king the highest place inthe bodypolitic. King or swamiwasthe consuminationofall
other elements in state and he represented the legal and moral authority, constitutionally king was the chief
executive head and commander-in-chief of the army. The king was the very life of thestate. According to the
Arthashastra, the king was the defender of the Dharma.
According to Kautilya, the king and his king are the primary elements of thestate. The king or swami was
the head of the state and occupies an exalted position his polity. For Kautilya, the king is the main pillar of
state, and the master ofthe techniques ofstate craft. The king must be a scholar of high merit.
In the state the kings are responsible for maintain peace and order to encourage, moral, religious
andmaterialprogressand provide a sense ofsecurityto his subjects. InKautilya Arthashastra, king wasthe head
ofthe state. King were vested executive, legislative, Judicialand financialpowers. An idealking isone who has
the highest qualities of leadership, intellect, energy and personal attributes. The qualities of leadership
are:birthina noble family, goodfortune, powers,associationwithelders, beingrighteous, truthful, resolute,
enthusiastic and disciplined, not breaking his promise, showing gratitude, having lofty aims, dilatory, being
stronger than neighbouring kind and having ministers of high quality.
Kautilyapreferredakingwho is a nativeoftheterritory, who followstheteachingsofthe Arthashastra, who is free
from disease and is strong and of noble birth. The king was the head of the state and in him were vested
executive, legislative, judicial and financial powers. Kautilya has given extensive power to the king by those
powers are meant for the welfare ofthem subject. According to Kautilya the happiness of the king lies in the
happiness and welfare of the people. It is not the interest of self that is dear to the king but the interest of the
people that is dear to him.
The king was to regard himself as an agent of people and the foremost duty of a king is protection of the
people. Kautilya says iftheking isenergetic, hissubjectswillbeequallyenergetic. Hencethekingorswami should
himself always be energetic.
The king or swami has been accorded the pride of place, as the prime mover of the ship of the state. As the
king occupies the central position in the theory of Arthashastra, most of the activities of state are controlled
by him.

2) Amatya(TheCouncilsofMinisters)
Amatya constitutes the second elements of the state. But Kautiya refers to Amatya in different sense. In its
narrow sense, the term Amatya or Mantrin is used for the minister of the high grade. Amatya generally
means the council of ministers. In the Arthashastra the amatya constitute a regular cadre ofthe service from
which all high officers such as chief priest, ministers, collectors, officers, envoys and the Superintendents of
various departments are to be recruited.
Kautilya says kingship is possible only with assistance. Therefore, there was the need of minister‘s
connection. InArthashastrathreewordsMantri, Amatyaandsachivause fortheministersbyamatya israther a
general word for higher bureaucracy.
Thehighestcategory of theamatyais themantrins. The kingdeliberates over the policy of state with three or
four ministers. The council of ministers is largely responsible for shaping thepolicy of the government.
Thekingandministersconstitutedthecentralgovernment,whichexercisedthesovereignpowers.The Arthashastra
reminds the king that he can succeed only if he assisted by competentcouncillors. One wheel 12
alone does not move the carage. The king and ministers are the two essential and most important wheels of
the state. The King cannot rule the king dom alone.
According to Kautilya a single wheel cannot move. There should be ministers to be help him. But ministers
should be menofwisdom, intergritybravelyand loyality. The integrityofthe ministers can betested in four
ways viz. loyality.
The council of minister actually managed the whole state administration. Every chief executive had to
dependonhiscouncilofministersforgoodadministration.Thesizeofthecouncilofministersshould be neither too
big nor too small. The ministerial appointment should purelydepend on qualifications.
Kautilya says in council of ministers, Foremost in importance in administration were the mantris (Prime
Minister) the purohita, the senapati and the Yuvraj. Mantris formed the topmost part of the administrative
pyramid and were appointed by the king. The ministers were chosen on the basis ofhigh merit, the qualities
most prized being proven loyalty and noble birth. But the king occupied the centre position in the
administration.
Accordingto Kautilyathe numberofministers should not be fixed, but thenumber depends onrequirement.
Kautilya mentions that one of the strong points of kingship is the strength of the council of parisad.

3) Janpad(ThePeopleandTheTerritory)
Janpad forms the third elements ofthe state. This unique element ofSaptanga is the symbol ofState, which
standsfora―territorialsocietyǁ.Here,‗Jana‘denotespeople and‗Pada‘isasymbolofterritorywherethese
inhabitants permanently reside. The implication of Janpad defined in the Arthashastra implies both territory
and population of because without the territory and the population a state cannot exist. The territory should
contain fertile lands, mines, timber, pasture grounds, forests and water ways etc. The Janpad should be
prosperousand its lands fertile. The people should include menwithgoodcharacterand loyality, intelligent,
wise mastersandslaves. Kautilya envisagedethnic different amongthepeople. Inthe beginningonlypeople of
common ethnic origin inhabited the land but with conquest and migration more than one ethnic people were
included inthe Janpad. Kautilya advised the king to induce people fromother countries to migrate and settle
in new village on old sites or new sites or cause people from thickly populated areas of his own kingdom to
settle down in such village with a view to securing that each village should consist of not less than one
hundred and not more than five hundred families and contain a sufficient number of sudra cultivators. The
king was to protect agriculture and industrywas also the responsibilityof the king.
Kautilyaprescribesthe followingrequisites ofa prosperousJanapada intermsofterritory:(i)
accommodate and support people; (ii) defend the state against enemies; (iii) find occupation
of people; (iv) have manageable neighbours; (v) provide pastures; (vi) have arable land,
mines, forest and (vii) provide good internal communication, i.e. rivers, roads, and outlet to
sea.

4) Durga(Fortification)
For everystate it is necessaryto have safetyand protectionsystem. Therefore, Kautilya considered the forts as
one of the main components of a state. He considers forts as powerful as people and land. Internal and
external securities both are important for state. Without external security, no state can be stable. We can
protect the state from external attacks by forts and fortification. The security of the treasury and army
depends of fortification.

Fortificationshouldbedoneforthepurposeofsecurityfromtheattacks.Kautilyaadvocatesthatthere
shouldbefortsatallthefourcornersofthestatesothesecurityfromallthesidescanbeensured.Fort 13
shouldbe solid and there shouldbe proper arrangementfor ration and ammunition for the army.Kautilya has
classifiedforts in four types. Firstly the Audak fort,where there shouldbetrenches alwaysfilled with water.
Secondly Parvat Fort which should surrounded with high mountains and rocks. Thirdly Dhanvan fort which
should surrounded with deserts and there should be no oasis nearby. It is almostimpossible to reach such
forts. Fourthly Van Fort, which are builtin denseforest.Itis very difficultto reach there. Such forts are very
important fromthe point ofsafety. Also they are very important for the security of the state and its people.
Audak and Pavat forts are most important when the state is going attack an enemy country. In case theneed
arises, thekind could hide themin such fortto protect themfromoutside attack. Thesecurityofthe treasuryand
the army depends on these forts. And battle can also be controlled fromthese forts effectively.
Themaintenance of army and thewelcomeceremony of theforeign delegates are alsodoneintheseforts. They
are also used to keep off the forest tribe and wild animals.

5) Kosha(TheTreasury)
Kosha or Treasuryis an extremely important resource. It is the backbone ofany business. Astrong and well
managed treasury is the heart of any organization. Kosha or Treasury constitutes the fifth elements of
Kautilya‘s state. Kosha or Treasury is necessary for the protection and maintenance of thestate in general
and army in particular. The treasury should be filled with gems,gold, jewels etc and should have the capacity
to sustain the calamities for long time. Kautilya says that all undertakings depend upon Kosha, Treasury was
the backbone of the state finances were well looked after. Income of the state wasderived from taxes like
export taxes, sales tax, village tax, etc. In his Arthashastra Kautilya has given utmost importance to public
finance. Without treasury even a family cannot run. He has described three aspects of finance at the time of
war and peace. The need of money is different in both the cases. Therefore public finance has been divided
in two parts-public finance during peace and public finance during war. But the basic principle for both
finances was same. It is the duty of a king to keep the treasury full and prosperous. The king should reward
the well behaved subjects and should punish the thieves. The king should collect taxes and fill the treasury.
According to Kautilya, the treasury should be collected and maintained honestly and religiously. The
treasure should be such full that itmay be helpful in the time of difficulty for a long time.

6) Danda(TheArmyorTheForce)
Without a sound defence systemthere cannot be the existence ofstate. And for the defence ofthe statethere
should be a strong army. Therefore, it is very necessary that he constitute a strong army and use it for the
internal and external threats.
Kautilya has described the army as sixth aspect of the state. He has used ‗force‘ word for army. ‗Force‘
means army and army is very compulsory for the defence of the state. Army is used to control anti-social
elements in the society and disloyal people. Army is also useful in defending the state from outside attacks.
Accepting the army as the most important part of a state, Kautilya, in order to constitute the army, has
described the six components of the army, First, is the clan army in which the son of soldiers becomes a
soldier. Second, is the hired soldiers (hired troops). Third, is the army constituted by the corporations.
Fourth, is the army formed with help of friendlycountries. Fifth, is the army formed with POW(Prisoner of
War) i.e. soldiers of enemy country caught during war. The sixth type of army can be formed with tribal
people.
Accordingto Kautilya, the statearmyshould begiventhe best training andtheyshould be provided with the best
weapons. Soldiers should be fully satisfies especially when they are fighting in the field. For this purpose the
king should try his best effort to meetsoldier‘s needs. Army played an important role in the state.A
goodsoldiershouldbeloyal,adventurous,courageous,brave,wellversedinmilitaryscience,etc.
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According to Kautilya, it consists of hereditary and hired soldiers comprising infantry, chariots, elephants
and cavalry. Kautiya says the Kshatriyas constitute the main part of the army. But unlike Manu, Kautilya
allows even the lower castes to join the army if emergency arises. But according to Kautilya, the best army
should be strong, obediently and happy officers in the army should have more of these qualities. Kautilya
gives a good description of the organization of the army and military science.

7) Mitra(TheAllies)
Having realized that ―political isolation means deathǁ, Kautilya proceeded to consider the Mitra or the ally
as a vital factor. Kautilya‘s concept of Mitra (ally) is based more an ethical considerations. The real ally
should be hereditaryand not artificial. It should be one with whomthere is no possibilityofruptureand one
who is ready to come to help when occasion demands it. But on the other hand, one is to be treated as an
enemy who is greedy, possessed with disloyal subjects, loose character, addicted to mean pleasure,powerless
and impotent. The ideal ally is one who has the following qualities, a friend of the family for a long time,
constant, amenable to control, powerful in his support, sharing a common interest, able to mobilise quickly
and not a man who double crosses his friends.
Kautilya realizes that every nation acts to maximize its own interests and power. Alliances are only good so
long as theyappear in the best interest ofboth parties. However as soon as the balance ofpower shifts allies
and enemies may becomes enemies. Sine this is thenatural order and to beexpected. It is only responsibleof
the king to maintain his own kingdom‘s best interest at heart when dealing with foreign powers, be the king
must be to destroy his enemies and protect his own people, to bring his subjects the three goals of life,
material gain, spiritual goal and pleasure.
Kautilya says if one shall make an alliance with a king who is stronger than one‘s neighbouring enemy, in
the absence of such a king one should in agurate one self with one‘s neighbouring enemy, either by
supplying money of army and by keeping one self aloof, for there can be no greater evil to kings than
alliance with a king of considerable power, unless one is actually attacked byone‘s enemy.
Kautilya recognizes two kinds of allies, namely Sahaja and Kritrima. The Sahaja or natural ally is the one
whose friendship is derived fromthe times of King‘s father and grandfather and who is situated close to the
territoryofthe immediately neighbouring enemy. Onthe other hand, the Kritrima or the acquired ally is the
one whose friendship is specially resorted to for the protection of wealth and life. Kautilya, however,
preferred an ally who is traditional, permanent, disciplined, and enthusiastic and from whom the possibility
of opposition or rebellion is minimum.

Society inAncient India

Society in ancient India had several distinguishing features. It was arranged in the form of four varnas. The
life of individualwas divided into four stagesor ashramas. There were rules regarding marriage, familyetc.
The purpose of life was to attain four goals called purusarthas.

Purusartha
TheconceptofpurusarthasisthefundamentalprincipleofIndiansocialethics.Thewordpurusarthameans
―attainmentsǁor―lifepurposesǁ.TheliteralmeaningofPurusarthais‗objectofhumanpursuit‘.Theyare4 in
number. They represent 4 fundamental goals or objectives of human life. The aim of every person is to attain
the four noble ends or purusartha. These four purusarthas are:-
1) Dharma:Righteousness,Duty,MoralValues
2) Artha:Wealth,EconomicValues
3) Kama:Desire
4) Moksha:Liberation,SpiritualValues
15
RigVedaput forward3fundamentalobjectivesofhumanlife inthe formofKama, ArthaandDharma. They were
referred as ‗trivarga‘ or the 3 fundamental human pursuits. During the later Vedic age Moksha added to
them and as a result of that, 4 Purusarthas emerged.

Dharma
Dharma or the principle of righteousness is considered to be the supreme of the purusarthas. Dharma in
Indian tradition is different from the Western concept of religion. The word religion has been derived from
the latinroot religare which means ―to connectǁ. Inthis sense religion is a set ofprinciples which connects
human beings with God. Therefore, religion essentially has some notion of God or some other supernatural
entity. It is a particular way of worshipping. On the other hand derived from the Sanskrit root dhr, which
connotesto sustain, support or uphold, dharma hasawiderangeofmeaning: it is theessential foundationof
somethingorofthingsin general,and thussignifies‗truth‘;it isthat whichisestablished,customary, proper
andtherefore,means‗traditional‘orceremonial;itisone‘sduty,responsibility,imperativeandthereby
‗moralobligation‘;itisthatwhichisright,virtuous,meritorious,andaccordingly‗ethical;anditisthat
whichisrequired,precepted,orpermittedthroughreligiousauthority, andthuslegal.
Therefore, dharma in ancient India was a code of conduct for members of the society. P.V. Kane alsodefines
dharma in terms of privileges, duties and obligations of a person. In the words of Kane, ―the word dharma
passed through severaltransitions of meaning and ultimately it‘s most prominent significance came to be the
privileges, duties and obligations of man ofthe castes, as a person in a particular stage of lifeǁ. We find
various forms of dharma in the sense of duty in ancient India like-

1. Samanya Dharma— Some general rules which are universal in nature like truth, non-violence and non-
stealing.
2. RajDharma—Dutiesoftheking
3. StreeDharma—Dutiesofwoman
4. DampatyaDharma—Dutiesofhusbandand wife
5. VarnaDharma—Dutiesofvarnas
6. AshramaDharma—Dutiesinthedifferent stagesoflife
7. ApadDharma—Dutiesduringthecrisisperiod

Artha
Artha is the second purusartha. The term artha refers to worldly prosperity or wealth. It includes all the
material means of life. Kautilya maintains that wealth is the basis of human requirements and that social
well-beingdependsultimatelyonmaterialprosperity. Indianthinkers hadrecognisedthepursuit ofwealthas a
legitimate human aspiration. But artha must be acquired by right means.

Kama
Kama means worldly pleasures or sensual pleasures. It refers to some of the innate desires and urges in
human beings. In the narrow sense kama means sexual pleasure but in the wider sense it involves sexual,
emotional and aesthetic life all together.
Kama is fulfilling one‘s desires. Desires may come in various forms — to be wealthy, powerful, affinity
needs, for recognition, etc. The Kama Purushartha advocates that one‘s desires need to be fulfilled in their
lifetime, albeit in a state of awareness and without harming anyone in the process. For a person to evolve
spiritually and to reach the ultimate destination, the barrier of their desires needs to be crossed. This can be
done either by fulfilling the desires or by sublimating or transcending them.

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Moksha
Itistheultimatepurusartha. Mokshameanssalvationorliberationfromthecycleofbirthanddeath. Itisthe
summumbonumofhumanexistence.
Moksha means liberation, the realizationofthe Self, and is the ultimate destinationofthis human birth. It is the
stage of inner realization that the individual self is the same as the Supreme Self. Moksha is the experience
of the cosmos within one‘s self. It is the experience of the flow and fusion of the Shiva andShakti energies in
one‘s self. The experience of union, oneness or Ekatvam with one‘s Higher Self isMoksha

VarnashramaSystem
Various texts talk of varnashrmadharma or the dharma of different classes and dharma in the different
stages of life. In ancient India there was a common dharma for all members of society which must be
followed by all equally. But at the same time there were different codes of conduct for different classes or
varnas called varna-dharma. Similarly, it was desired to follow different dharma at the different stages or
āshrama of life called āshrama-dharma.

Varnas
First reference ofvarna isseen inthe Rig Veda. Varna systemwasthe basisofsocialstratificationduring the
Vedic age. The tenth chapter of RigVeda called Purusasukta mentions the organic theory of the origin of
varnas according to which varnas originated from the different organs of the Prajapati or the creator. God
created various varnas from his various organs. He created brahmins from his mouth, kshatriyas from his
arms, vaishyas from his thighs and shudras from his legs. Though logically this explanation cannot be
accepted but this clearly points out the varying significance ofvarious varnas. A much significant feature of
this varna systemwas that the top three varnas— brahmins, kshatriyas and vaishyas were described as dvija
ortwice born. Their first birthwas naturalbirth. But theywere considered to be bornagain at the time ofthe
pious yajnopavita samskara when they were invested with the sacred thread and included into the Aryan
society as its full fledged member.

Brahmins
Brahmins were at the top of varna hierarchy. They were believed to possess great spiritual powers. Thusthey
had a divine existence. In law, they claimed great privileges. Normally brahmins were exempt from
execution, torture and corporal punishment. The main functions prescribed for brahmins were learning,
teaching and priesthood.

Kshatriya
The second class was the ruling class described as kshatriya or rajanya. Kshatriyas represented heroism,
courage and strength. They constituted the warrior class. The duty of kshatriyas was protection which had
both internal and external aspects. External protection meant to protect the society from external invasion
where as internal protection meant governance in peace and protection from anarchy. Kshatriyas had the
right to possess arms.

Vaishyas
Vaishyasrepresentedthetradingandcommercialclass.Thoughtheywereentitledtotheservicesofthe priesthood
and to the ceremony of yajnopavita, theywere third in the social hierarchy. The main task ofthe
vaishyawastokeepandmaintaincattle.Butitseemsthatlateronvaishyasbecameeconomicallyavery 17
important class of society. The ideal vaishya possessed the expert knowledge of jewels, metals, cloth,
threads, spices, perfumes etc. In this sense vaishyas were the ancient Indian businessmen. In brahmanic
literature, vaishyas are given few rights and humble status but Buddhist and Jaina literature mention many
wealthy merchants living a luxurious life.

Shudras
Shudras were at the bottom of the social hierarchy. They pursued the task of serving the other three varnas.
They were not twice born. They were deprived of various rights. Theywere in fact second class citizens, on
the fringes of Aryan society.
A.L. Basham maintains that shudras were of two types— ‗not excluded‘ or anirvasita and ‗excluded‘ or
nirvasita. The distinction was made on the basis of the customs of the shudra group and the profession
followed by the members of the group. Anirvasita shudras were the part of Indian varna system where as
nirvasita shudras were quite outside the pale ofHindu societyand virtually indistinguishable fromthe strata of
people known as untouchables.
Manuprescribesthesamepenanceforkillingashudrabyabrahminas forkillingacatordog.

Untouchables
Alargenumber ofpeopleweredeprived ofall humanrights. Having any contact withthemmight lead tothe fall
from grace by a normal Hindu. They were untouchables. Sometimes they are regarded as the excluded
shudras whereas sometimes they are called the ‗fifth class‘ (pancham varna). Probably, they were the
aboriginaltribes who were defeated by the Aryans. Most important ofthese groups was the Chandala. They
were not allowed to live in the Aryan towns or villages. Their chief means of livelihood were the carrying
and cremation of corpses and execution of criminals who were awarded the death penalty.
According to the law books of ancient India, Chandalas should be dressed in the garments of the corpses
they cremated, should eat his food from broken vessels and should wear only those ornaments which were
madeofiron. Lateronthe fourvarnasweredivided into varioussubcategoriescalled caste. Thecastesystem is
governed by two important rules:-
First, endogamy or marriage within the members ofsame caste and Second, the observance ofcertain rules
ofcommensality whereby food was to be received fromand consumed in the presence ofeither members of
the same casteorofa higher caste but could not be consumed together withthe members ofthe lower caste.

AshramaortheStagesof Life
The ashrama system denotes the Hindu scheme of life according to which different stages in the life of an
individual are well ordered. The average life span of an individual is considered to be 100 years and it is
divided into four stages each stage having a time span of25 years. These four ashramas are:

1. Brahmacharyashrama or the Stage of Studentship — This is the first stage of life. It is meant for
acquiring knowledge, developing discipline and moulding character. This stage starts with the ceremony
called upanayanama or investiture with the sacred thread. Now the person became abrahmacharina,leading
a celibate and austere life as a student at the home of his teacher

2. Grihasthashrama or the Stage of Householder — This stage starts at marriage when the student has
completed his studentship and is ready to take up the duties and responsibilities of household life. In this
stage the individual gets married, earns money and begets children. The individual pursues wealth (artha)
and pleasure (kāma) within the limits of the moral law (dharma).

18
3. Vanaprasthasharma or the Stage of Retirement from Active Life — After discharging all the duties
and obligations as a householder, the individual enters into the Vanaprastha stage. It consists of the third
quarterofperson‘s life. In this phase, after retiring fromactive life, the individual dedicates himself to a life
ofspiritual contemplation. He leaves his home and goes to the forest to become a hermit.

4. Sanyasashrama or the Stage of Renunciation or Wandering Mystic — This is the last stage of life.
Now the individual leaves his hermitage and becomes a homeless wanderer(sanyasin) with all his earthly
ties broken. The sanyasin aspires and acts to attain liberation only.

Marriage
The institution of marriage as known today emerged during the Vedic Age (1500 BC to 600BC).Marriageor
vivaha was a very important sanskara in ancient India. It was considered a sacrament (sacred ritual) during
ancient times. Hindu marriage is still considered a sacrament.
Marriage is the beginning—the beginning ofthe family—and is a life-long commitment. It also provides an
opportunity to grow in selflessness as you serve your wife and children. Marriage is more than a physical
union; it is also a spiritual and emotional union. This union mirrors the one between God and His Worship
place.
The purpose of marriages can be varied, but one could say that the purpose of marriage today is simply to
make a commitment to the person you love.
The marriage ofDushyanta and Shakuntala was an example ofthis marriage. As the Vedic religion evolved
into classicalorthodoxHinduism, the social ideas advanced by Manugained prominence, and large sections of
Indian society moved towards patriarchy and caste-based rules.
Arranged marriagesarebelievedtohaveinitiallyrisentoprominenceinthe Indian subcontinentwhen the
historicalVedic religion gradually gave way to classical Hinduism, substantially displacing other
alternatives that were once more prominent.
Marriageinancient Indiahadthree mainpurposes:
1) Promotionofreligionbyperformanceofhouseholdsacrifices.
2) Progencyorthehappyafterlifeoffatherandhisancestorsandcontinuationoffamilylineorkula.
3) Ratior sexualpleasure.

Theeightformsofmarriage are:
1) Brahma Vivaha: This is considered to be the purest form of marriage. In this form of marriage the
father of the bride offers his daughter to a man of character and learning. The daughter who isdecked
with ornaments and richly dressed is given as a gift to a man of good character and high learning of
the same class. This was the most favoured form.
2) Daiva Vivaha: In the daiva formof marriage the father offers her daughter as a dakshina (sacrificial
fee) to a young priest who officiates the yajna which is arranged by him.
3) Arsa Vivaha: In arsa vivahafather of the bride gives his daughter to the bridegroomafter receivinga
cow and a bull or two pairs of these animals from the bridegroom.
4) Prajapatya Vivaha: In this type of marriage, the father offers the girl to the bridegroom. But neither
does he offer any dowry nor does he demand bride-price.
5) Asura Vivaha: This is a formofmarriagebypurchase inwhichthe bridegroomhasto give moneyto the
father or kinsman of the bride.
6) GandharvaVivaha: Thiswasa marriage byconsent oftheboyandthe girl. Mutualloveandconsent of the
bride and bridegroom was the only condition required to bring about the union.
19
 7) Rakshasa Vivaha: This wasmarriageby capturein which the girl wasforcibly abductedfrom her
home, crying and weeping and her kinsmen have been stained and their houses broken.
8) Paishacha Vivaha: Paishacha formofmarriage is one inwhich the man seduces by forcea girlwho is
sleeping or intoxicated or mentally disordered.

Outoftheseeight formsofmarriagethe first fourhave beendescribedas prashasta or approvedor desirable

marriage whereas the rest of the four forms have been considered to be aprashasta or disapproved or
undesirable marriages.
There were manyconditionsattached with marriage. One important conditionwasthat the bride should be a
virgin and the importance ofthisrule lies in the fact that it rendersthe remarriage ofwidowsdifficult. Inthe Rig
Veda there is some indication that a woman might re-marry if her husband had disappeared and could not be
found or heard of.Atharva Veda mentions that a woman married twice may be united in the next world with
her second, not her first, husband. But generally it was not hailed.

UnderstandingGenderasasocialcategory
Gender rolescan bedefined as the behaviors, values, and attitudes that a society considers appropriate for
both male and female. Traditionally, men and women had completelyopposing roles, men were seen as the
provider for the family and women were seen as the caretakers of boththe home and the family.
Gender issues includeallaspectsandconcernsrelatedtowomen'sand men's livesandsituationinsociety, to the
way they interrelate, their differences in access to and use of resources, their activities, and how they react to
changes, interventions and policies.
Our conception ofwhat women and men are and what theyare supposed to be is produced by the society in
whichwe live. Thus manypeople saythat gender is ―sociallyconstructedǁ.
Though sex categorization is based on biological sex, it is maintained as a categorythrough socially
constructed displays ofgender. Institutions also create normative conceptions of gender. InIndia,
discriminatory attitudes towards either sex have existed for generations and affect the lives of both sexes.
Although the constitution ofIndiagrants men and womenequal rights, gender disparities remain. But there
has been gender discrimination mostly in favor of men in many realms.
Asinotherancient societies,womenwereundertheguardianshipofmales: father,husbandandson.Whena woman
married, it was regarded as her second birth, with a new name. In successful religious rituals, the wife was to
be present to utilize her fertility powers.
Froman early age, Indiangirls are told that their proper place is in the home, fulfilling domestic duties and
attending to the needs of men, whereas males learn that they are superior to women and must exercise
authority over them.

TheRepresentationofWomeninHistoricalTraditions
The status of women in India has been subject to great many changes over the past few millennia. From a
largely unknown status in ancient times through the low point of the medieval period, to the promotion of
equal right by many reformers, the history of women in India has been eventful.
Inancient Indiawomen in manyplacesoccupied anequalpositionto men. Many Hindu religious books like
theVedas; Ramayana, etc., have mentioned the namesofseveral womenwho weregreat scholars, poetsand
philosophers of the time.
According to ancient Hindu scriptures, a man without his wife cannot participate in any essential religious
rites. Married men along with their wives are allowed to perform sacred rites on the occasion of various
important festivals. Wives are thus befittingly called 'Ardhangini'.

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Ancient India
Some scholars believe that in ancient India, the women enjoyed equal status with men in all fields of life.
However, some others hold contrasting views. Works of ancient Indian grammarians, such as Patanjali and
Katyana, suggest that women were educated in the early Vedic period. Rig Vedic verses suggest that the
womenmarriedatamatureageandwereprobablyfreetoselecttheirhusband.Scriptures such as Rig Veda and
Upanishad mention several women sages and seers, notably Gargi and Maitrey.
Some kingdoms in the ancient India had traditions such as nagarvadhu ("bride of the city"). Women
competed to win the coveted title of the Nagarvadhu. Amarpaliis the most famous example of a nagarvadhu.

According to studies, women enjoyed equal status and rights during the early Vedic period. However, later
(approximately 500 B.C), the status of women began to decline with the Smritis (esp. Manusmiriti) and
other religious texts curtailing women's freedom and rights.

Women in the Vedic and the post Vedic Periods:

The Indian cultural tradition begins with the Vedas. It is generally believed that the Vedic period is spread
over from 300 BC to 600 B.C. The degree of freedom given to ancient women to take part in public
activities indicates the nature of the status enjoyed by women during Vedic period. Women neverobserved
―purdahǁ.Theyenjoyedfreedomandeventheyenjoyedfreedominselectingtheirmalepartner.
TraditionalWoman
Inancienttimes,the womenwereconsideredwithrespectanddignity.Duringthisperiod,there werewomenrishis,
and they were held in high esteem. In royal households, womenwere given respect and theyeven rendered a
significant contribution in the making of decisions and administrative functions.
Inmanysocieties, women'sprimaryrolerevolvedaroundmotherhoodandmanagingahousehold. Whilewomen in
many different places and at different times had this in common, there were significant differences in how
women performed these roles depending on kinship relations.

No doubt the Rig Vedic Women inIndia enjoyed high status in society and their condition was good. Even
the womenwereprovidedopportunitytoattainhighintellectualandspiritualstandard.Inrecentyears the role and
Status of women has undergone some drastic changes due to globalization and commercialism.
Recognizing the achievements of women in all facets of life – science, community, government, literature,
art, sports, medicine – has a huge impact onthe development of self-respect and new opportunities for girls
and young women.

ChallengesfacedbyWomeninIndia
Inthe medievalperiod, thestatusofwomenwent downconsiderable. Womenwereconsidered to be inferior to
men. Many historians have called this age as the 'dark age' the' woman's position became very miserable.
Customs of purdah (a black cloth worn by women to cover their face), Sati (burning of widows), child
marriage, restrictions on widow marriage, and the prevalence of joint family systems have been the factors
responsible for the injustice done towards women. Women were deprived of their rights of equality with
men.
The Muslim influence on India caused considerably deterioration in the status of women. They were
deprived oftheir rightsofequalitywith men. Thepracticeofchild marriages isbelieved to havestartedfrom
around sixth century.
Earlier women inIndiawere facing problems like child marriage, sati pratha, parda pratha, restriction to
widow remarriage, widow exploitation, devadasi system, etc. However, almost all such old practices have
almost vanished. But that doesn't mean an end to the challenges women face.
21
WomeninIndiahave to facea lot of issues. They have to go through gender discrimination, harassment,
sexual abuse, lack of education, dowry-related harassment, gender pay gap and much more.
The patriarchy dictates a woman's life unjustly. Moreover, there is also a lack of female education and the
genderpaygap. Women inruralareasare stilldeniededucationfor beinga female. Similarly, womendo not get
equal pay as men for doing the same work.
Inthepast,thewomenweremoreaccustomedtoworking inhomes andtakingcareofchildren, etc. Whenin
theearlydays,thereweresevereissuesliketheSatisystem,nowidowremarriage,devadasisystemandmore.
Whilemostofthemarenotprevalentnow,therearenewissuesthatwomenface.Theymaybenotthesamebut
theyarestillassevereastheearlyones.Theyhinderthegrowthofacountryandmakethewomenfeelinferior.

It canbe concludedthat womenaretreated interms ofstereotyped impressions ofbeing the lowest class and
greaterevidencecanbefoundthattherearelargedisparitiesbetweenthewomenandthemen'sclass.Itcanbe seen that
women are more likely to play casual roles as they are most likely to take seasonal and part time work so
that theycan work according to their needs.

Slavery
Slavery was prevalent during the Vedic age. Women slaves were used in household activities. During the
Mauryan period, slaves were of 9 types as informed by Arthashastra. Ashokan inscriptions also mention
existence of practice of slavery during the Mauryan age.
Megasthenes denied the existence of slavery in India because he could not differentiate between slaves and
free men as slaves were treated quite well in India.
During the Gupta age, slaves were oftypes as informed as Narada Smriti. Most slaves were captured during
wars. Some people used to become slave to earn merit (Punya) in order to get heaven after death. At times,
people used to sellthemselves due to economic hardship. A slave was liberated immediately if he/she saved
the life of his/her master.
While a member of any varna could become slave, Brahmana slaves were rare. Buying and selling of
Brahmana women were prohibited.

22
 MODULE2

INDIANLITERATURE,CULTURE,TRADITION,AND
PRACTICES

 EvolutionofscriptandlanguagesinIndia:HarappanScriptand
Brahmi Script.
 TheVedas,theUpanishadsandthePuranas
 TheRamayana
 TheMahabharata
 BuddhistAndJainLiteratureinPali
 PrakritAndSanskrit
 Kautilya‘sArthashastra
 FamousSanskritAuthors,TeluguLiterature, KannadaLiterature,
Malayalam Literature, Sangama Literature
 NorthernIndianLanguages& Literature
 PersianAndUrdu
 HindiLiterature

2
 MODULE1
INDIANLITERATURE,CULTURE,TRADITION,ANDPRACTICES

EVOLUTIONOFSCRIPTANDLANGUAGESININDIA: HARAPPANSCRIPTANDBRAHMISCRIPT
DifferencebetweenLanguageandScript
Alanguageusuallyreferstothespoken language, a methodofcommunication. Ascript referstoacollection
ofcharacters used to write one or more languages. A language is a method of communication. Scripts are
writing systems that allow the transcription of a language, via alphabet sets.

Indusscript(Harappanscript)
After the pictographic and petroglyph representations of early man, the first evidence of a writing systemcan
be seen in the Indus valley civilization.The earliest evidence of which is found on the pottery and pot shreds
of Rahman Dheriandthese potter‘s marks, engraved or painted, are strikingly similar to those appearing in
the Mature Indus symbol system.
Later the writing system can be seen on the seals and sealings of Harappan period. Most inscriptions
containing these symbols are extremely short (5 symbols), making it difficult to judge whether or not these
symbols constituted a script used to record a language, or even symbolize a writing system.
The long inscriptionsare found inGujarat particularlyDholavirawherewe find slabsofstone inscribedwith
inscriptions which might represent name plates of the houses with 24 to 34 symbols.
The characters are largelypictorial but include many abstract signs. The inscriptions are thought to havebeen
written mostly fromright-to-left (because there are several instances of the symbols being compressed on the
left side, as if the writeris running out of space at the end of the row there), but they sometimes follow a
boustrophedonic (sarphalekhana) style. The number of principal signs is about 400. Since that is considered
too large a number for each character to be a phonogram, the script is generally believed to instead be logo-
syllabic.
There were arguments that the Indusscript is nonlinguistic, which symbolise families, clans, gods, and
religious concepts and are similar to totem poles. Based on the extreme brevity of the inscriptions, the
existence of too many rare signs and the lack of the random-looking sign repetition that is typical of
language.
Butothershavearguedthatitisalinguisticsystem andthedebateshiftedtowhetheritisthepredecessor of Dravidian
script or the Brahmi script.
Some scholars have argued that the Brahmi script has some connection with the Indus system, but others,
such asIravatham Mahadevan, have argued that the script had a relation to a Dravidian language.This debate
has been further fuelled bythe argumentsofwho werethe initialand original inhabitantsofIndia the Aryan‘s or
the Dravidian‘s.

Brahmiscript
Brahmi is the originator of most of the present Indian scripts, including Devanagari, Bengali, Tamil,
andMalayalametc.Itdevelopedintotwobroad typesinNorthern andSouthernIndia,intheNorthernonebeing more
angular and the Southern one being more circular. It was deciphered in 1838 by James Prinsep.The best-
known Brahmi inscriptions are therock-cut edicts of Ashoka in north-central India, dated to 250–232 BCE.
ManyscholarssupportthatBrahmiprobablyderivesfromAramaicinfluenceandotherssupportthatthe Brahmi
language can have some Indus script influence.

3
TheBrahmiscriptconfirmstothesyllabicwritingsystemandwasusedmoreforwritingPrakrit,the language spoken by
ordinarypeople initially and later Sanskrit also was written in this script.
Accordingtothe epigraphers-All Indianscriptsarederivedfrom Brahmi.Thereare twomainfamilies of scripts:
1) Devanagari,whichisthebasisofthelanguagesofnorthernandwesternIndia:Hindi,Gujarati, Bengali,
Marathi, Dogri, Panjabi, etc.
2) Dravidian,whichshowstheformatsofGranthaandVatteluttu.

TheevolutionofvariousscriptsofIndiafromBrahmiScript
Kharosthi Script
It is the sister script and contemporary of Brahmi. It was written from right to left. It was used in the
Gandhara culture of North-Western India and is sometimes also called the Gandhari Script. Its inscriptions
have been found in the form of Buddhist Texts from present day Afghanistan and Pakistan.
GuptaScript
It is alsoknown as the Late Brahmi script. Itwas usedfor writing Sanskritin the Gupta period. It gave rise
totheNagari, SaradaandSiddhamatrika scriptswhich inturngaverisetothemost important scriptsofIndia such as
Devanagari, Bengali etc.
NagariScript
It wasanEasternvariant ofthe Gupta script. It is anearly formofthe Devanagariscript. It branched offinto many
other scripts such as Devanagari. It was used to write both Prakrit and Sanskrit.
It is the main script at present to write standard Hindi and Nepali. It is also used presently to write Sanskrit
and is one ofthe most used writing systems in the world. It is composed of Deva meaning, God and Nagari
meaning city, which meant that it, was both religious and urbane or sophisticated.
It is written from left to right, has a strong preference for symmetrical rounded shapes within squared
outlines, and is recognisable by a horizontal line that runs along the top of full letters.In a cursory look, the
Devanagariscript appears different fromother Indic scriptssuchasBangla, Oriyaor Gurmukhi, but a closer
examination reveals they are very similar except for angles and structural emphasis.
SaradaScript
TheSaradaor Sharadascript oftheBrahmic familyofscripts, developed around the8thcentury. It wasused
forwriting Sanskrit and Kashmiri. Originally more widespread, its use became later restricted to Kashmir,
and it is now rarely used except by the Kashmiri Pandit community for ceremonial purposes. Sarada is
another name for Saraswati, the goddess of learning.
Siddhamatrikascript(Kutila)
This scriptwas prominentineastern India in 6th century ADleadingtosubsequentevolutionof Gaudi
script.ThisEasternNagariscript orBengali-Assamesescript definestheunifiedusageofBengali script
andAssamese script thought minor variations within. Its usage is associated with the two main languages
Bengali and Assamese.

WesternIndia
Landa script
TheLaṇḍascripts, meaning ―without atailǁ, is aPunjabiword usedto refer to scripts inNorthIndia.Landa is a
script that evolved from theSarada script during the 10th century. It was used to write Punjabi, Hindi, Sindhi,
Saraiki, Balochi, Kashmiri, Pashto and various Punjabi dialects.
Gurmukhiscript

4
Gurmukhiis analphabetic developedfrom the Landascriptsand was standardized during the 16th century
byGuru Angad, the second guru ofSikhism. Thewhole of the Guru Granth Sahib is written in this script, and
it is the script most commonly used by Sikhs and Hindus for writing the Punjabi language.
Modi script
Modiisascriptusedtowritethe Marathilanguage,whichistheprimarylanguagespokeninthestate ofMaharashtra
inwestern India. Modi was an official script used to write Marathi until the 20th century when the
Balbodhstyle of the Devanagari script was promoted as the standard writing systemfor Marathi. Although
Modi was primarily used to write Marathi.
Gujarati script
The Gujaratiscript,whichlikeallNagariwritingsystemisatypeofalphabet,isusedtowrite the Gujaratiand
Kutchilanguages.ItisavariantofDevanagariscriptdifferentiatedbythelossof the characteristic horizontal line
running above the lettersand by a small number of modifications in the remaining characters. The Gujarati
script is also often used to write Sanskrit and Hindi.

South India
GranthaScript
It is one ofthe earliest Southern scriptsto originate fromBrahmi. It branched off into Tamiland Malayalam
scripts, which are still used to write those languages.
It is also the predecessor of the Sinhala script used in Sri Lanka. A variant of Grantha called Pallava was
taken by Indian merchants in Indonesia, where itled to the developmentof many South-East Asian scripts.It
was used in Tamil Nadu to write the Sanskrit Granthas and hence, was named Grantha.
The Granthascript waswidely-usedbetweenthesixthcenturyandthe20thcenturiesbyTamilspeakers inSouth
India, particularly inTamil Nadu and Kerala, to write Sanskrit, and is still in restricted use in
traditionalVedicschools. Itisa Brahmicscript,havingevolvedfromthe Brahmiscript inTamilNadu. The
Malayalam script is a direct descendant of Grantha.
VatteluttuScript
It was a script derivedfrom the Brahmi and was usedin the Southern part of India. It was used to write
TamilandMalayalam. It removedthosesigns fromBrahmi, whichwere not needed for writingthe Southern
languages.Presently,bothTamilandMalayalamhavemovedontotheirownGranthaderived scripts. Vatteluttu is
one of the three main alphabet systems developed byTamil peopleto write the Proto- Tamil language,
alongside the ancient Granthi or Pallava alphabet and the Tamil script.
KadambaScript
It is a descendantof Brahmi and marks the birth of the dedicated Kannada script. It led to the developmentof
modern Kannada and Telugu scripts. It was used to write Sanskrit, Konkani, Kannada and Marathi. The
Kadamba script was developed during the reign of the Kadamba dynastyin the 4th-6th centuries. The
Kadamba script is also known asPre-Old-Kannada script. This script later became popular in what is today
the state of Goa and was used to write Sanskrit, Kannada, Konkani and Marathi.
TamilScript
It is the script used to write the Tamil language in India and Sri Lanka. It evolved from Grantha, theSouthern
formofBrahmi. It is a syllabic language and not alphabetic. It is written from left to right.
Kannadascript
Kannadascriptiswidelyusedforwriting Sanskrit textsinKarnataka.Severalminorlanguages,such asTulu,
Konkani, Kodava, Sanketiand Beary, also usealphabets basedonthe Kannadascript. TheKannada and Telugu
scriptsshare high mutual intellegibilitywith each other, and are often considered to be regional variants of
single script.
Teluguscript
5
TheBrahmi script used byMauryankings eventuallyreached the Krishna River delta and would give rise to
theBhattiprolu script found on an urn purported to contain Lord Buddha‘s relics. The Bhattiprolu Brahmi
script evolved into the Telugu script by 5th century C.E.
Malayalamscript
TheMalayalam script, also known as Kairali script is aBrahmic script used commonly to writeMalayalam,
which is the principal language ofKerala, India. Malayalam script is also widely used for writing Sanskrit
texts in Kerala.
Malayalam was first written in theVatteluttu alphabet, an ancient script ofTamil. However, the modern
Malayalam script evolved from theGrantha alphabet, which was originally used to writeSanskrit. Both
Vatteluttu and Grantha evolved from the Brahmi script, but independently.

MedievalandModernscripts Urdu
script
TheUrdualphabet istheright-to-left alphabet used for theUrdu language. It isa modificationofthe Persian
alphabet, which is itself a derivative of the Arabic alphabet.
ThestandardUrduscriptisamodifiedversionofthePerso-Arabicscript andhasitsoriginsin13th centuryIran. It is
closely related to the development of the Nastaliq style of Perso-Arabic script.
UrduscriptinitsextendedformisknownasShahmukhiscriptandisusedforwritingother Indo-Aryan languages of
North Indian subcontinent like Punjabi and Saraiki as well.
Santaliscript
Santaliis a language intheMundasubfamilyofAustroasiatic languages, related to HoandMundari. Tillthe
nineteenth century Santali remained an oral language.
A recentdevelopmenthasbeenthecreationofaseparate OlChikiscript forSantalibyPt.Raghunath Murmu in the
1970s which is used exclusively by the Santali speaking people of the Singhbhum Jharkhand and Odisha.

Conclusion
India has a long history of writing. While India has been a literate culture for millennia, it has also greatly
valued oral knowledge.
The ancient Hindu scriptures, the Vedas, the oldest of which dated to around 1500 BCE were memorized
verbatim for at least a thousand years, if not more, before being committed to writing.
Only a few yearsago, things did not seemto begoing well for India‘s variousalphabets, often knownasthe
Indic or Brahmic scripts after the historical Iron Age script that is the ancestor of modern South and
Southeast Asian writing systems.
Digitalization and the widespread proliferation of Roman-alphabet keyboards in India meant that Indian
users would often transcribe Indian languages using ad hoc Romanizations on the internet and via text.
Inshort,this isagoldenageforIndiclanguagescriptusage, duetotechnologyandincreasedliteracy.
The very nature of modernity, with its mass communication, advertisements,social platforms, and the spread
of information and entertainment to everyone with a smartphone, means that everyone willeventually gain
and utilize basic literacy.
AndmostofthisliteracyinIndiawillbeinlocallanguages.ThiswillbethefirsttimeinIndia‘srecorded
historythatitsscriptsarebeingusedsowidely.

6
THE VEDAS
Considered as the earliest literary records ofSanskrit Literature, the Vedascompiled byRishi Vyasa are
believed to be the oldest holy books in Hinduism (Sanatana Dharma). The Vedas are the large body of vast
knowledge and text; the religious and spiritual teachings of which encompasses all aspects of life.
Definition
Vedasimplymeans―Knowledgeǁ.ItisaSanskritwordfromtheroot―Vidǁ,whichmeansfinding,knowing,
acquiring, or understanding. What you acquire or understand is knowledge. The term Veda as a common
noun means ―knowledgeǁ.
The ideas, teachings, and practices described in the Vedas formed the basis for the six major schools of
Hindu philosophy – Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, and Vedanta.

The4 Vedas
There are four Vedas: Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda, and all of them together
are attributed to as ‗Chaturveda‘. The Rig Veda serves as the principalone and allthree but the Arthaveda
agree with one another in form, language, and content.
Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types –TheSamhitas, the most ancient layer oftext in
the Vedas, consisting of mantras, hymns, prayers, and benedictions which has in literary terms put together
or joined the other three texts; the Aranyakas which constitute the philosophy behind the ritual sacrifice, the
Brahmanas which inturn has the commentary on hymns of four Vedas and the Upasanas, the one that
focuses on worship.

TheRig Veda
Rig Veda, one ofthe oldest textsofthe Indo-AryanCivilizationstillextant, isanancient Indiancollectionof
Vedichymns.TwoSanskritwordsRigandVedaconstitutingittranslatesto„praiseorshine‟and
‗knowledge‘respectively. Acollectionof1,028 hymnsand 10,600 verses in all, organized into tendifferent
Mandalas (or the books; Sanskrit), it is the principal and oldest of the four Vedas.
The cultural-linguistic records; mainly the variation in form of Sanskrit used (from present-day) point outthe
origin of the Rig Veda to have been around 1600 BCE, though a wider approximation of 1700–1100
BCEhas also been given by experts. The initial written Rig Veda dates back to 1st millennium BCE
although the extant ones today date back only to somewhere between 11th and 14th centuries.
Rig Veda has beensub-classified into four major text types – theSamhitasor the hymns that sing the
praises ofthe Rig Vedic deities, some ofwhomare Indra, a heroic deity and the king ofthe highest heaven
calledSaudharmakalpawho slainhis enemyVatra, Agni-thesacrificialfire, Soma, thesacredportionorthe plant
which was a fundamental offering of the Vedic sacrifices and Ishwara, the supreme god-just tomention a
few; the Aranyakas which constitute the philosophy behind the ritual sacrifice, the Brahmanas which in-turn
has the commentary of the ancient sacred rituals and the Upasanas, the one that focuses on worship.
The Mandalas ofthe Rig Veda which are ten in number and were composed by poets fromdifferent priestly
groups over a period of several centuries is structured based on clear principles – the Veda begins with a
small book addressed to Agni, Indra, and other gods, singing the praises of the Lord.
Rigveda, in contemporary Hinduism, has been a reminder ofthe ancient cultural heritage and point ofpride
for Hindus, withsomehymnsstillinuseinmajorritesofpassageceremonies,buttosomeexperts,the 7
literal acceptance of most of the textual essence is long gone. Louis Renou wrote that the text is a distant
object,and ―eveninthemost orthodoxdomains,thereverencetotheVedashascometo beasimpleraising of the
hatǁ. Musicians and dance groups celebrate the text as a mark of Hindu heritage, and these have remained
popular among the Hindus for a long time. However, the contemporary Hindu beliefs are distant from the
precepts in the ancient layer of Rigveda Samhitas.

TheSamaVeda
The words of Rig Veda put to music, and are to be sung rather than to just be read or recited.Sama Veda,
also the Veda ofMelodiesand Chants, is thethird inthe seriesofthe four principle scripturesofHinduism –
Four Vedas. The Sama Veda, divided into two major parts, first to include the four melodycollections, or the
Saman, the songs and the latter the Arcika, or the verse books a collection (Samhita) of hymns, portions of
hymns, and detached verses. A liturgical text, relating to public worship, all but 75 verses of the total1875 is
derived from the Rig Veda.
Widelyreferred to asthe ‗Bookof Songs‘, it is derived fromtwo words, Saman, ofSanskrit, meaning Song
and Veda, meaning Knowledge. The Sama Veda has served as the principal roots of the classical Indian
music and dance tradition, and proudly the tradition boasts itself as the oldest in the world. The verses of
Sama Veda, as the tradition had followed, is sung using specifically indicated melodies called Samagana by
Udgatar priests at rituals dedicated to different diets.
As it is the words of Rig Veda put to music, no wonder, alike theRigveda, the early sections of Samaveda
typically begin withsinging the hymnsofRig Vedic deities, Indra, a heroic deityand the king ofthe highest
heavencalledSaudharmakalpawho slainhisenemyVatra, Agni- thesacrificialfire, Soma, thesacred potion or
the plant which was a fundamental offering of the Vedic sacrifices and Ishwara, the supreme god-just to
mention afew; butin thelatter part shifts to abstract speculations and philosophy, the nature and existence of
the universe and God himself are questioned and so are the social and religious duties of a man in the
society.

Such has been the influence of Sama- veda on Indian classical music and dance. The essence of classical
Indian music and dance tradition is rooted in the sonic and musical dimensions of the Sama-Veda itself. The
Samaveda, in addition to singing and chanting, mentions instruments and also the specific rules and
regulations of playing them, so as to preserve the sanctity of those ancient instruments. If one were to
summarize the significance of the Sama Veda in a single line, Sama Veda, in contemporary Hinduism, has
been a reminder of the majestic ancient cultural heritage and a point of pride for Hindus; not to mention that
it still finds its usage in today‘s society.

The Yajur Veda

Yajur Veda, of Sanskrit origin, is composed of Yajus and Veda; the two words translate to prose mantras
dedicated to religious reverence or veneration‘and knowledge respectively. Third of the fourth canonical
texts of the Hindu dharma, this liturgical collection is famous as the book of rituals‘. Of the ancient Vedic
text, it is a compilation of ritual offering formulas or the prose mantras to be chanted or muttered repeatedly
by a priest while an individual performs the ascertained ritual actions before the sacrificial fire orthe Yajna.
It has been, since the Vedic times, the primary source of information about sacrifices and associated rituals,
more importantly; it has served as a practical guide book for the priest, or the Purohits, as referred to as in
Hindu dharma who execute the acts of ceremonial religion.
The scholarly consensus points out the bulk of Yajur Veda dating to 1200 or 1000 BCE, which when
analyzed is younger than Rig Veda, whose origin has been approximated around 1700 BCE, but is
contemporaneous to the hymns of Sama deva and Atharva Veda.
8
Also, common to the other three Vedas and as the tales tell, humans did not compose the revered
compositions of the Vedas, but that God taught the Vedic hymns to the sages, who then handed them down
through generations by word of mouth. Also, the followers of the Hindu dharma regard the Vedas as
apauruṣeya; meaning not of a man or impersonal and also, according to some traditions in Hindu dharma
suchastheVedantaandMimamsaschoolsofphilosophytheVedasareconsideredas Svatah Pramana(Sanskrit,
meaning ―self-evident means of knowledgeǁ). Some schoolsofthought even assert that the Vedas as of
eternal creation,mainly in the Mimosa tradition. In the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedasis credited to
Brahma, the Supreme Creator. However, the Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were skillfully created
by Rishis (sages), after inspired creativity.
The Yajurveda is broadly grouped into Krishna Yajurveda andShukla Yajurveda, also referred to as the
Black Yajurveda and the latter as the White. In reference to the verses of the Krishna Yajurveda being un-
arranged, unclear, and disparate or dissimilar, the collection is too often referred to as Black Yajurveda. In
contrast,thewell-arranged and impartingaparticular meaning, theShukla Yajurveda isknownasthe White
Yajurveda.
The earliest and most ancient layer ofYajur Veda, Samhita includesabout 1,875 verses, that are distinct yet
borrowed fromand built upon the foundation of verses in Rigveda. The middle layer includes the Satapatha
Brahmana, one ofthe largest Brahmana texts in the Vedic collection and The youngest layer of Yajur Veda
text includes the largest collection of primary Upanishads six in number, influential to various schools of
Hindu philosophy. These include the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, theIsha Upanishad, theTaittiriya
Upanishad, just to name a few.
Yajurveda, in contemporary Hinduism, has been a reminder of the ancient cultural heritage and point of
pride for Hindus. The text is a useful source of information about agriculture, economic, and social life
during the Vedic era. The verse, translated fromthe Shukla Yajurveda, for example, lists the types of crops
considered important in ancient India.

TheAtharva Veda
The fourth and final of the revered text of the Hindu dharma, the Vedas, the Atharva Veda, in short, is
depicted as “knowledge storehouse ofAtharvaṇasǁ Atharvaṇas meaning, formulas, and spells intended to
counteract diseases and calamities, or ―the procedures for everyday lifeǁ. A late addition to the Vedic
scriptures, the word owes its roots to Sanskrit and the widely used epithet for the scripture is ‗the Veda of
Magic formulas‘. As itsides with popular culture and tradition of the day rather than preaching religious and
spiritual teachings,itis more often viewed not in connection with the three other Vedas, but asa discrete
scripture.
In popular context with being widelypopular as the Veda of Magic formulas, Atharva Veda is a mixture of
hymns, chants, spells, and prayers; and involves issues such as healing of illnesses, prolonging life, and as
some claim also the black magic and rituals for removing maladies and anxieties.
However, many books of the Atharva Veda are dedicated to rituals without magic and to theosophy, a
philosophy in itself asserting that the knowledge of God can be achieved through spiritual practice or
intuition.
It is a collection of 730 hymns with about 6,000 mantras, divided into 20 books, with three Upanishads
embedded to it; Mundaka Upanishad, Mandukya Upanishad, and Prashna Upanishad. As the tales have itand
alike other three Vedas, the believers of the Hindu dharma regard the Atharvaveda too as Apauruṣeya;
meaning, notofa manor impersonalandalso notbelongingto aparticularauthor.Thehymnsandtheverses were
written by the Rishis (or the Sages) and as the ardent believers of the Hindu dharma claim the revered Lord
himself taught the Vedic hymns to the sages, who then handed them down through generations byword of
mouth.
9
The Samhitas in the Atharva Veda have writtenaccountsofSurgical and medical speculations, it includes
mantras and verses for treating a variety of ailments. For instance, the verses in hymn 4.15 of the recently
discovered Paippalada version of the Atharvaveda, it discusses how to deal with an open fracture, and howto
wrapthewoundwithRohiniplant (FicusInfectoria, nativeto India). Andso havespeculations beenmade
aboutremedyfromherbalmedicines, onthenatureofman, life, goodandevilandevenspells andprayersto gain a
lover. And some hymns were even about peaceful prayers and philosophical speculations, the origin of the
universe, and the existence of God himself. It is indeed a collection of all sort of speculations that quite often
leaves us bewildered.
As mentioned earlier, the contents of the Atharvaveda quite contrast with the other Vedas andis often viewed
as a discrete scripture rather than in connection with the three Vedas. The 19th century German Indologist
and historian Albrecht Weber has best put it as, ―The spirit of the two collections [Rigveda, Atharvaveda]
is indeed widely different. In the Rigveda there breathes a lively natural feeling, a warm love for nature;
while in the Atharva there prevails, on the contrary, only an anxious dread of her evil spirits and their
magical powers. In the Rigveda we find the people in a state of free activity and independence; in the
Atharva we see it bound in the fetters of the hierarchy and superstition.ǁ
The Atharva Veda still finds its relevance in today‘s contemporary society as it has been a pioneer in
influencing modernmedicineand healthcare, cultureandreligiouscelebrations, andevenliterarytraditionin the
Indian sub-continent as it contains the oldest known mention of the Indic literary genre. The fourth and
finalof four Vedas still is one of the most cherished books for anyVedic scholar today.

THEUPANISHADS
Now,wediscusstotheconcludingpart oftheVedanamely‗the Upanishads. The Upanishadscome towards the
end of the Aranyakas. If the Samhita is likened to a tree, the Brahmanas are its flowers and the Aranyakas
are its fruit yet not ripened, the Upanishads are the ripe fruits.

NatureofUpanishads
The Vedas are generally considered to have two portions viz., Karma-Kanda (portion dealing with action or
rituals) and Jnana-Kanda (portion dealing with knowledge). The Samhita and the Brahmanas represent
mainly theKarma-Kanda or the ritual portion, while the Upanishads chiefly represent the Jnana-Kandaor the
knowledge portion. The Upanishads, however, are included in the Shruti. They are at present, the most
popular and extensively read Vedic texts.
The Upanishads are often called ‗Vedanta‗. Literally,Vedanta means the end of Veda, Vedasya antah, the
conclusion(Anta) as wellas the goal(Anta)ofthe Vedas. Chronologicallytheycame at the end ofthe Vedic
period. As Upanishads contain difficult discussions of ultimate philosophical problems, they were taught to
the pupils at about the end of their course. The chief reason why the Upanishads are called the ‗end of the
Veda‘is that they represent the central aim of the Veda and contain the highest and ultimate goal of the Veda
as they deal with Moksha or Supreme Bliss.

Meaningofthe word„Upanishad‟
Theword‗Upanishad‘hasbeenderivedfromtherootSad(tosit),towhichareaddedtwo prefixes:UpaandNi. The
prefixUpadenotes nearness andNitotality. Thus, this word means ‗sittingnear bydevotedly‘. This no doubt
refersto thepupil‘ssitting downnear histeacher at thetimeofinstruction. The word incourse oftime gathered
round it the sense ofsecret teaching or secret doctrine (Rahasya) whichwas imparted at such sittings.
Upanishads are frequently spoken of as Rahasya (secret) or Guhya(mystery) also.
WefindinUpanishads,thatduetosecrecyandmysteryoftheteachings,ateacherrefusestoimpart
instructiontoapupilwhohasnotprovedhisworthinesstoreceivetheinstruction.Throughanother 10
definition, the word primarilysignifies knowledge, yet by implication it also refers to the bookthat contains
that knowledge.

NumberoftheUpanishads
There is a good dealofspeculationconcerning the number ofUpanishads. Traditionally, the old Upanishads
had their place in the Brahmanas and Aranyakas. There is only one instance of a Samhita containing
Upanishad – the Vajasaneyi Samhita comprises the Ishavasya Upanishad forming the 40th Book.
In later times, the Upanishads obtained a more independent position but still they professed to belong more
particularly to one or the other of the four Vedas.
It is difficult to ascertain the exact number that should be regarded as authentic Upanishads. A religious
system is considered valid in India onlywhen it is supported byShruti, hence the founders ofreligious sects
have sometimes written books and called them Upanishads in order to give their views scriptural authority.
The AllahUpanishad, for instance was composed in the sixteenth century, at the time of Emperor Akbar.
Different estimates oftheir number have beengiven byscholars and theyhave beenput bysome scholars at as
many as 200.
One hundred and eight Upanishads are enumerated in the Muktikopanishad and a popular edition contains
them. However, among these Upanishads, ten Upanishads, the names of which have been mentioned in the
Muktikopanishad, are considered the most important Upanishads from the point of view of Vedantic
Philosophy.
TenPrincipalUpanishadsknownas‗Dashopanishad‘are: Isha,Kena,Katha,Prashna,Munda,Mandukya,
Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka.
Besides,Shvetashvatara,KaushitakiandMaitrayaniyaUpanishadsareoftenlisted inoldUpanishads.

Divisionofthe Upanishads
AccordingtotheMuktikopanishad108Upanishadsaredividedaccordingto fourVedasareasfollows: 10
Upanishads from the Rigveda
19 Upanishads from the Shukla-Yajurveda
32UpanishadsfromtheKrishna-Yajurveda 16
Upanishads from the Samaveda and
31Upanishads fromtheAtharvaveda.

ThePrincipalthirteenUpanishads,relatedtotheVedasare:
(A) UpanishadsoftheRigveda:
(1) AitareyaUpanishad,
(2) KaushitakiUpanishad
(B) UpanishadsoftheShukla-Yajurveda:
(3) BrihadaranyakaUpanishad,
(4) IshaUpanishad
(C) UpanishadsoftheKrishna-Yajurveda:
(5) TaittiriyaUpanishad,
(6) KathaUpanishad,
(7) ShvetashvataraUpanishad,
(8) MaitrayaniyaUpanishad
(D) UpanishadsoftheSamaveda:
(9) ChandogyaUpanishad,
(10) KenaUpanishad
11
(E) UpanishadsoftheAtharvaveda:
(11) MundakaUpanishad,
(12) MandukyaUpanishad,
(13) PrashnaUpanishad.

ThirteenknownUpanishadswerecomposedfromthemiddleofthe5thcenturythroughthe2nd century BCE.

The first five ofthese—Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Taittiriya,Aitareya, andKaushitaki—were composed in
prose interspersed with verse.
Themiddlefive—Kena,Katha,Isa,Svetasvatara,andMundaka—werecomposedprimarilyinverse. The last
three—Prasna, Mandukya, and Maitri—were composed in prose.

MajorThemeoftheUpanishads
The Upanishads are religious and philosophical treatises. They constitute the last phase of the Vedic
revelation. They represent the knowledge of Brahman (Brahma-Vidya). What is this world? Who am I?What
becomes of me after death? – Such questions are asked and answered in these Upanishads. The essential
theme of the Upanshads is the nature of the world and God. Already in the hymns of the Rigveda, we notice
here and there a shift of emphasis from the innumerable gods to the one Infinite as in the famous passage.
‗Ekamsadviprabahudha vadanti‗. This becomes morepronounced intheUpanishadsand is very well
illustrated here. The doctrine of true knowledge and salvation are major subjects of the Upanishadic
philosophy. These treatises mark the culmination of the earlier line of investigation into the nature of
ultimate reality.
Inthe Upanishads, we get an intelligible bodyofverified and verifiable spiritual insights mixed with a mass of
myths and legends and cosmological speculations relating to the nature and origin of universe. Besides,
Brahman and His creation, are also discussed in these texts.. The principal contents of the Upanishads are
philosophical speculations. Thespirit oftheir contents isanti-ritualistic. Althoughthesubject-matterofmost of
the Upanishads is almost the same, yet each Upanishad has its own unique idea or ideas and its own method
of enquiry.

ImportanceoftheUpanishads
1) The Upanishads occupy a unique place in the development of Indian philosophical thought. They
contain the highest authority on which the various systems of philosophy in India rest. So Vedanta
Philosophy is directly related to the Upanishads. Not only the Vedanta philosopher professes hisfaith
in the ends and objects of the Veda, but the Sankhya, the Vaisheshika, the Nyaya and Yoga
philosophers, all pretend to find in the Upanishads some warranty for their tenets.
2) The Upanishads are associated with the Vedas and make the entire range of Vedic knowledge as
complete. ‗The Upanishadsgenerally mentionthe Vedasand their studywith respect. Certain verses
from the Vedas, such as the Gayatri, form the subject of meditation here.
3) Brahmavidya or the knowledge of Brahman, the Supreme Reality is the great kingdom of the
principal Upanishads. They give importance to ‗Knowledge‘ alone. Anyone having knowledge may
be Guru or Acarya. Even kings approached to them for the attainment of knowledge. The story of
Satyakama Jabala, who though unable to give his father‘s name, was yet initiated into spiritual life,
shows this fact. In the Chandogya Upanishad (4.1-3) Raikva a Brahmana not by caste but by his
knowledge, instructed king Janashruti. In the same Upanishad (5.3), the king Pravahana instructedthe
Brahmana Gautama in the new doctrine of transmigration. This story together with the one in which
king Ashvapati kaikeya instructed five Brahmanas in the doctrine of Atman (Chan. Up. 5.11)
12
 shows that for Upanishads knowledgeable person is the most important and not the Brahmana,
Kshatriya or anyone else.
4) Each of the Vedas has manyMahavakyasor great sayings. But four Mahavakyasfound in the
Upanishads related to four Vedas are very important, thought-provoking and powerful. These spell
out the non-duality of the Jiva and the Brahman-Prajnanam Brahma- –Rigveda Aham Brahmasm –
Yajurveda Tattvamasi –- Samveda Ayamatma Brahma –Aharvaveda
5) Without understanding the Upanishads, it is impossible to get an insight into Indian history and
culture. Everysubsequent development ofphilosophy and religion in India has drawn heavily on the
Upanishads.

THE RAMAYANA
The Ramayana by the sage Valmiki is one of the great epics of the Sanskrit language, and is dated to
approximately 200 B.C.E. There are many version of Ramayana in Indian language beside Buddhist, Sikh,
and Jain adaptation. There are also Cambodian, Indonesian, Filipino, Thai, Lao, Burmese and Malaysian
version of tale.
Ramayan one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Mahabharata. Ramayan
narrates the life of Rama, Prince of legendary kingdom of kosala. Ramayana is one of the largest ancient
epics in world literature. It consistsof nearly24000verses. InHindu traditionRamayana is consideredto be
―AdiKavyaǁwhichmeansfirstpoem.

Origin
The original Ramayana writtenbythe Sage Valmikicomprised ofseven ―kandasǁ or books. Manyscholars
question the authorship of the certain passages from the first book (Bala Kanda) and question theauthenticity
of the last book (Uttara Kanda) for various reasons.
1) BalaKanda:―TheBookoftheYouth,ǁtheboyhoodandadolescenceofRama.
2) Ayodhya Kanda: ―The Book of Ayodhya,ǁ the court ofDasaratha and the scenes that set the stage
for the unfolding of the story, including the exchange between Dasaratha and Kaikeyi andthe exile of
Rama
3) AranyaKanda:―TheBookoftheForest,ǁlifeintheforestduringthefourteenyearexileandthe
abductionofSitabyRavana
4) KishkindhyaKanda:―TheBookofTheEmpireofHolyMokeys,ǁRama‘sresidencein
Kishkindhya,thequestforSita,andtheslayingofBali
5) SundaraKanda:―TheBookoftheBeautiful(Hanuman),ǁsundarameansbeautiful,andthisportion of the
book has passages of lyrical beauty; description of the landscapes over which Rama roams,and the
arrival of Rama and his allies in Lanka
6) YuddhaKanda:“TheBookofWar,ǁthedefeatofRavana,therecoveryofSita,thereturnto
Ayodhya, andthecoronationofRamaand
7) Uttara Kanda: ―The Book Beyond,ǁ the ―later sectionǁ, detailing Rama‘s life in Ayodhya, the
banishment of Sita, the birth of Lava and Kusa, the reconciliation of Rama and Sita, her death or
return to the earth, and Rama‘s ascent into heaven.

Ramayana:Lessonstheepictaughtus
This Hindu epic has given us number of lessons that we must not forget. These lessons help us better
ourselves and emerge as refined and reformed human beings with each passing day.

1) TruthTriumphs
13
 The basic teaching ofRamayana is that no matterhow powerfulevil is, it will always be defeated by
Good.Truth always wins, no matter how vicious or poisonous lie is because even bitter truth oozes
with positivity and the sweetest lie has the darkest agenda behind it. The win of good over evil is a
universal fate. A person should always have a noble heart and good values. That is how Lord Rama
defeated the most knowledgeable person in history Ravana.
2) Respecteldersandbedutyboundtowardsparents
Ram left for vanvas after his step-mother expressed her desire to see biological son Bharath as the
future king of Ayodhya.
3) Remainunitedwithsiblingsevenduringthetoughestoftimes
Bharatrefusedtoacceptthethroneafterhisfather‘sdemiseandwaitedforRamtoreturnfromhis
vanvas.LakshmanaccompaniedhisbrotherRamforthe14-year-long vanvas.
4) Bedeeplycommittedtoyourduty
Besides being Sita‘s husband, Ram was also the King of Ayodhya. And the duty of the king is to
keep his subjects happy. And hence, he had to abandon his wife for the sake ofthe masses after they
questioned her chastity. As a husband, he was duty bound towards his wife. But as a King, he had to
think of his subjects‘ wishes ahead of his personal ones.
5) Choosethepathofrighteousness
Vibhishana, younger brother of Ravana chose to not support his sibling in the war against Ram. He
knew his brother had committed a sin by abducted someone—a married lady.
6) Remainhumblenomatterhowpowerfulyoubecome
Hanuman could have easily rescued Sita fromRavana‘s Ashoka Vatika. He had the power to single-
handedly fight against Ravana‘s army. But he chose to surrender to Lord Ram‘s divinityand let him
do the needful.
7) Neverconsideranyoneinferior
Mightyprince Ram took the help ofVanar sena (monkey army) to build a bridge (RamSetu) so that he
could reachLanka to free Sita. The little monkeysnot just helped himbuild the setu but also took part
in the war against Ravana.
8) Allthatglittersisnotgold
Sita got attracted to a spotted deer that looked incredibly beautiful. She wanted Ram to get the deer
for her fromthe jungle. Actually, it wasn‘t a deer, but Mareech, Ravana‘s accomplice in disguise of
the animal.
9) Embraceallirrespectiveofcaste,creedorcolour
PrinceRamatefruitsthat werealreadytasted byShabri, apoorold womanwho had nothing muchto offer
but pure love.
10) Beloyaltoyourspouse
Ravana tried to lure Sita after abducting her. But Sita never let him succeed in his attempts. Ram
didn‘t remarryafterSitawasforcefullyabandoned byhimevenafterconductingthe‗AgniPariksha‘. Being
a King, he enjoyed the privilege of having many queens, but he chose to remain loyal to his beloved
wife – Sita.
11) Abandonthefollowing
Kama (lust), Krodha (anger), Moha (desire), Lobha (greed), Mada (pride), Ahankar (ego), Irshya
(jealousy), Jaddata (insensitivity), Ghrina (hatred), Bhaya (fear).

Summary
TheRamayanais an all-popularepicin South andSoutheastAsia.Itis thestory of KingRamawhomust save his
kidnappedwife, Sita. Along theway, it teachesHindu life lessons. The Ramayana is toldandretold 14
orally, through literature (and comic books!), plays, movies and is reference in manyother forms ofpopular
culture today.

Story
Rama was the eldest son of the great king Dasharatha. The gods had declared that he was born for the
specific purpose of defeating the demon-king Ravana. He is considered to be the seventh incarnation of the
great god, Vishnu.
Rama wonthehandof his wifeSitainanarchery contest, in whichhe wastheonlycontenderabletobenda bow that
had once belonged to Shiva. Sita had been born of a furrow in the earth (this is what her name means). The
two were extremely happy together, and returned to live in Rama's home, in Ayodhya.
Rama's stepmother, Kaikeyi, wanted to promote her son Bharata as heir to the throne of her husband,
Dasharatha; Rama was eldest, and the honor rightly was due him. Kaikeyi called in several favors her
husband had promised her, and forced Dasharatha, who could not go back on his promises to his wife—-to
exile Rama for fourteen years. Rama's brother Lakshman and his wife insisted on accompanying him, and
theyleft together. Dasharatha died of grief, and Bharata attempted to persuade hisbrotherto return. Rama,
also bound not to go back on his word, refused. Bharata pledged to rule in Rama's name until his return.
Rama,Sita, andLakshman wanderedintheforestuntilRamawas seenbyanevilspirit, whofellinlove with him.
Rama rejected her and she attacked with her allies, only to meet defeat at the hands of Lakshman and Rama.
She appealed to her brother Ravana, the strongest and most dangerous demon on earth at that time, for
help. Ravana decided to kidnap Sita, the wife of Rama.
Ravana devised a plan to abduct Sita after hearing about her incomparable beauty. He sent one of his
demonsdisguisedasamagicalgoldendeertoenticeSita. Topleaseher, RamaandLakshmana went tohunt the
deerdown. Before theydid though, theydrewa protective circlearound Sita and told herthat she would be safe
for as long as she did not step outside the circle. After Rama and Lakshmana left, Ravana appeared as a
holy man begging alms. The moment Sita stepped outside the circle to give him food, Ravana grabbed her
and carried her to his kingdom in Lanka.
Upon returning and finding Sita gone, Rama despaired. Accompanied by his brother, he went in search of
her. On the way the two killed a demon whose liberated spirit told them to seek the help of Sugriva, the
monkey-king. Rama then sought the help of a band of monkeys offer to help him find Sita. Hanuman, the
general of the monkey band can fly since his father is the wind. He flew to Lanka and, finding Sita in the
grove, comforted her and told her Rama would come to save her soon. Ravana’s men captured Hanuman,
and Ravana ordered them to wrap Hanuman's tail in cloth and to set it on fire. With his tail burning,
Hanuman escaped and hopped from house-top to house-top, setting Lanka on fire. He then flew back to
Rama to tell him where Sita was.
Rama, Lakshmanaand the monkey armybuilt a causeway from the tip of Indiato Lanka and crossed overto
Lanka where a cosmic battle ensued. Rama killed several of Ravana’s brothers and eventually confrontedthe
ten-headed Ravana. He killed Ravana, freed Sita and after Sita proved here purity, they returned to Ayodhya
where Bharata returned the crown to him.
Manyversionsof theRamayana end thus with return of Sita and Ramato theirkingdom afterfourteen years of
exile, and the commencement of RamRajya, the glorious time of therule of Ram. Other versions, such as that
by Valmiki, end with the questioning of Sita's loyalty during the time of her kidnapping, when she spent so
much time in another man's home. In such versions, Sita returned to her husband only to be put to a fire test
to prove her loyalty. She passed this test, only to be questioned again later. She was then banished with her
two unborn twin sons. Later asked to return to the kingdom, she did so only to stand before theassembly,
calling on the earth (from which she was born) to take her back again if she had remained pure. The story
ends with her absorption into her mother, the earth, and her ultimate vindication.
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THEMAHABHARATA

Mahabharata, (Sanskrit: ―Great Epic of the Bharata Dynastyǁ) one of the two Sanskrit epic poemsof
ancient India (theotherbeingthe Ramayana).The Mahabharata isanimportantsource of information on
thedevelopmentofHinduismbetween400 BCE and200 CE andisregardedbyHindusasbothatext
aboutdharma(Hindumoral law) and a history (itihasa, literally ―that‘s what happenedǁ). Appearing in its
present form about 400 CE, the Mahabharata consists of a mass of mythological and didactic material
arranged around a central heroic narrative that tells of the struggle for sovereignty between two groups of
cousins, the Kauravas (sons of Dhritarashtra, the descendant of Kuru) and the Pandavas (sons of Pandu).

It is written by Ved Vyasa. The poem is made up ofalmost 100,000 couplets—about seven times the length
ofthe Iliad andtheOdyssey combined—dividedinto18 parvans,or sections,plusasupplement
titledHarivamsha(―Genealogy of the God Hariǁ; i.e., ofVishnu). Although it is unlikely that any single
personwrotethepoem, itsauthorship is traditionallyascribed to thesage Vyasa, who appears in the work as the
grandfather of the Kauravas and the Pandavas. The date and even thehistorical occurrence of the war that is
the central event of the Mahabharata are much debated.

Along with its basic plot and accounts of numerous myths, theMahabharata reveals the evolution of
Hinduism and its relations with other religions during its composition. The period during which the epictook
shape was one of transition from Vedic sacrifice to sectarian Hinduism, as well as a time of
interaction—sometimes friendly, sometimes hostile—withBuddhismandJainism. Different sections of the
poem express varying beliefs, often in creative tension. Some sections—such as the Narayaniya (a part of
book 13), the Bhagavadgita(book 6),the Anugita(book 14), and the Harivamsha—are important sourcesof
earlyVaishnavatheology,in which Krishna is an avatar of the god Vishnu.Above all,the Mahabharata is an
exposition of dharma (codes of conduct), including the proper conduct of a king, of a warrior, of an
individual living in times ofcalamity, and of a person seeking to attain moksha (freedom fromsamsara, or
rebirth). The poem repeatedly demonstrates that the conflicting codes ofdharmaare so ―subtleǁ that, in some
situations, the hero cannot help but violate them in some respect, no matter what choice he makes.

TheMahabharata story has been retoldin written and oral Sanskritand vernacular versions throughout South
and SoutheastAsia.Itsvariousincidentshavebeenportrayedinstone,not able in sculptured reliefs at Angkor Wat
and Angkor Thom in Cambodia, and in Indian miniature paintings.

Influence
In its scope, the Mahabharata is more than simply a storyofkings and princes, sages and wisemen, demons
and gods; its legendary author, Vyasa, said that one of its aims is elucidating the four Purusarthas (goals of
life): Kama(pleasure), artha (wealth), dharma(duty),and moksha(liberation).Thestoryculminates inmoksha,
believed by many Hindus to be the ultimate goal of human beings. Karmaand dharma also play an integral
role in the Mahabharata.

The Mahabharata includes large amounts of Hindu mythology, cosmological stories of the gods and
goddesses, and philosophical parables aimed at students of Hindu philosophy. Among the principal works
and stories that are a part of the Mahabharata are the following (often considered isolated as works in their
own right):
16
  Bhagavadgita(KrishnainstructsandteachesArjuna–Anusasanaparva)
 Damayanti(or NalaandDamayanti,alovestory–Aranyakaparva)
 Krishnavatara(thestoryofKrishna, the Krishna Leela, which iswoventhrough manychaptersofthe
story)
 Rama(anabbreviated versionoftheRamayana – Aranyakaparva)
 Rishyasringa(alsowrittenasRshyashrnga, thehornedboyandrishi–Aranyakaparva)
 Vishnusahasranama(themostfamoushymntoVishnu,whichdescribesHis1000names–
Anushasanaparva)

Summary

The epic employs the "tale-within-a-tale" structurepopular in many Indian religious and secular works. It is
recited to the King Janamejaya by Vaishampayana, a disciple of Vyasa.

The core storyofthe work is that ofa dynastic struggle for the throne ofHastinapura, the kingdomruled by the
Kuru clan. The two collateralbranchesofthe familythat participate in the struggle are the Kauravas, the elder
branch of the family, and the Pandavas, the younger branch.

The struggle culminates leading to the Great Battle of Kurukshetra, and the Pandavas are ultimately
victorious. The Mahabharata itself ends with the death of Krishna, and the subsequent end of his dynasty,
and ascent of the Pandava brothers to Heaven. It also marks the beginning of the Hindu age of Kali(Kali
Yuga), the fourthand finalage of mankind, where the great values and noble ideas have crumbled, and man is
speedily heading toward the complete dissolution of right action, morality, and virtue. Some of the most
nobleand revered figures in theMahabharataend up fighting onthe sideofthe Kauravas, dueto conflictsof their
dharma, or duty. For example, Bhishma had vowed to always protect theking ofHastinapura, whoever he
may be. Thus, he was required to fight on the side of evil knowing that his Pandavas would end up
victorious only with his death.

Moderninterpretations
In the late 1980s, the Mahabharata was televised and shown on India's national television (Doordarshan),
directed by B. R. Chopra and his son Ravi Chopra. It became the most popular Indian TV series in history.
When the Mahabharata was first broadcast in India, it shattered television records by reaching 97.8 percent
viewership there. It also entered the Guinness Book of World Records as having been watched by over 96
percent of the worldwide Indian population. It was also shown in the UK by the BBC, where it achieved
audience figures of5 million, unheard of for a subtitled series being aired in the afternoon.

In the West, the most acclaimed and well-known presentation of the epic is Peter Brook‘s nine-hour play
whichpremiered in Avignon in1985 and its five-hour movie version(1989), whichwas shownonother TV
networks, including PBS (through the "Great Performances" show) and Danmarks Radio (credited in the
movie's credits).
However, there have been film versions of the Mahabharata long before these two versions, the earliest of
which was shown in 1920.

17
Important Life Lessons From The MahabharataThat Are Relevant Even Today
The epic tale Mahabharata is something everyone should read at least once in their life. Even if you are not
into mythologyand religion, this bookwill still hold great value in your life. There are plentyof life lessons
one can learn from the Mahabharata.

1) Being kind,humble and generousisnotenoughtolivelife.

The way Karna‘slifemoved,werealised, more often than not,thattheworldisanevilplaceto
Survive in.Andto aceit,wemust understandhowit reallyworks.
2) Badcompanycanruinyourlifebeyondimagination.
We all hate Shakuni mama, don‘t we? He literally destroyed everything that the Kauravas owned,
and he influenced themto be negative. If it wasn‘t for him, the war wouldn‘t have happened at all.
3) Unconditionalsupportandloyalfriendscantakeyouplaces.
The Pandavas had Lord Krishna, and the Kauravas had Karna. Both of them always backed the two
parties, no matter what. In fact, Duryodhan was really weak without Karna.
4) Youneedtofightforwhat youthinkbelongstoyou.
The Pandavas never stopped fighting for what rightfully belonged to them. Their courage and
determination is definitely something to admire and learn from.
5) Beingtooemotionalcanbeabadidea.
Dhritrashtra‘s love for his son was blind. Throughout the epic, he remained torn between his
principles and keeping his son happy. Somehow this made Duryodhan even more evil than what he
already was, leading to awful consequences and the war.
6) Learningthroughoutlifeisthebestgiftyoucangiveyourself.
Arjungrasped whatever came hisway. Notonlydid he learnthebest ofmilitaryscience fromDrona, but
he was also interested in learning about divine weapons from Indra. He learnt aboutPashupatastra
fromMahadev as well. Additionally,he treated Yudhishter and Krishna as his mentors too, and
continued learning whatever they had to offer.
7) Sometimes,enemiescomeintheformoffriends.
Although the Kauravas were more in number, their supporters were not really in favour of them.
Bheeshma, Vidura and Drona secretly admired the Pandavas. Especially Vidura, who was the
ultimate guide in everything the Kauravas did.
8) RespectWoman
Draupadi had five husbands. They were strong and wealthy, but they all became helpless when she
was disgraced by multiple other men. They had everything, but failed to show courage. Draupadi‘s
anger and desire for revenge led to the war and downfall of the Kuru clan.
9) Halfknowledgecanbemoredangerousthannoknowledge
Abhimanyuwouldn‘thavedied.Althoughwerememberhimforhisbraveryandundyingcourage,
heultimatelylost hislife.
10) Youcannotbestoppedifyouarepassionateaboutwhatyoudo.
Most of us know that Arjun was the greatest archer in the world. But Eklavya was even better than
him.He hid himselfbehindthetreesandgraspedeverythingthat Dronataught Arjun.His passionfor
archery and hunger for knowledge made him even better than Arjun at archery.

11) A good strategy is whatyou need to sail your boat.

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 If Pandavasdidn‘t have Krishnaand his masterplan,they wouldn‘t have witnessed the victory they
did. Always have a plan.

Story
The story begins when the blindness of Dhritarashtra, the elder of two princes, causeshim to be passed over
in favour of his brother Pandu as king on their father’s death. A curse prevents Pandu from fathering
children, however, and his wife Kunti asks the gods to father children in Pandu’s name. As a result, the god
Dharma fathers Yudhishtira, the Wind fathers Bhima, IndrafathersArjuna, and the Ashvins (twins) father
Nakula and Sahadeva (also twins; born to Pandu’s second wife, Madri). The enmityand jealousy that
develops between the cousins forces the Pandavas to leave the kingdom when their father dies. During their
exile the five jointly marry Draupadi (who is born out of a sacrificial fire and whom Arjuna wins byshooting
an arrow through a row of targets) and meet their cousin Krishna, who remains their friend and companion
thereafter. Although the Pandavas return to the kingdom, they are again exiled to the forest, this time for 12
years, when Yudhishthira loses everything in a game of dice with Duryodhana, the eldest of the Kauravas.

The feud culminates in a series of great battles on the field of Kurukshetra (northofDelhi, in Haryana state).
All the Kauravas are annihilated, and, on the victorious side, only the five Pandava brothers and Krishna
survive. Krishna dies when a hunter, who mistakes him for a deer, shoots him in his onevulnerable spot—his
foot—and the five brothers, along with Draupadi and a dog who joins them (Dharma, Yudhisththira’s
father, in disguise), set out for Indra’s heaven. One by one they fall on the way, and Yudhisthira alone
reaches the gate of heaven. Afterfurther tests of his faithfulness and constancy, he is finally reunited with his
brothers and Draupadi, as well as with his enemies, the Kauravas, to enjoy perpetual bliss.
The central plot constituteslittle more than onefifth of the total work. The remainder of the poem addresses a
wide range of mythsand legends, including the romance of Damayanti and her husband Nala (who
gamblesawayhiskingdomjustas Yudhishthiragamblesawayhis) andthe legend ofSavitri, whosedevotion to her
dead husband persuades Yama, the god of death, to restore him to life. The poem also contains descriptions
of places of pilgrimages.

THE BHAGAVAD GITA

The Bhagavad Gita is one of the greatest Religious SpiritualBook. Considered to be a doctrineof universal
truth, it has long been influencing people not only of India but also overseas. As sage Ved Vyasa is known
for writing Mahabharata, Gita being part of it is also ascribed to him.
In the epic Mahabharata, when cousin brothers Pandava and Kaurava are about to fight among themselves
for the throne of Hastinapur, Pandava prince Arjuna feels weak in the battleground when he sees his
relatives, teachers and friends in the opposition. When the supreme personality of Godhead, Lord Krishna
sees himloosing strengthand willingnessto fight,he gives himwhat isknownas―Gita Gyanǁ.
Teachings of Bhagavad Gita are still applicable, even after about 5040 thousand years after it was written.
These teachings are considered to be ultimate. It encompasses each and every aspect of life. One surely can
lead a peaceful life if the teachings of Bhagavad Gita are followed.

Bhagavd Gita shows pathto the lost, answer to the confused and wisdomto all. It is considered to be one of
thegreatestspritualbookstheworldhaseverknown.The primary purpose of the Bhagavad-Gita is to

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Illuminate for all of humanity the realization of the true nature of divinity;for the highest spiritual conception
and the greatest material perfection is to attain love of God!
Some of the most popular and important teachings are listed below:

1. We should do our work without worrying about its result: Whenwework for getting fruitsor the
result froma particular action, we can‘t really be our best in it. It also gives us a lot ofworries about
theresult. We mayalso feeldisheartened ifourtaskoractiondoesnot yieldgoodoutputs.Therefore, just
doing our work without really thinking about its result should be our motive.

2. Soul is immortal and ourbody is perishable Our soul never dies: Our soul never dies. Even after
our death, it exists. It is immortal. It just changes bodies after the death of a person. Moreover, our
bodyis madeup of‗Agni‘(fire), ‗Jal‘(water),‘Vayu‘(wind), ‗Prithvi‘(earth) and it combineswith them
after the death. So we should not pay a lot of attention towards our outer body, but instead should
work for the inner soul, it‘s satisfaction.

3. World is perishable and whoever comes to this world surely has to go one day: Thisworld is not
immortal. One who takes birth dies one day andthatis the ultimate truth of this world. Nothing
existspermanently. One hasto leavethis world, eventhoughhewishes notto. Nomagiccanactually help
a personto stayforever. Everyone has their set life periods. They vanishafter completing them. No
matter how great one is or how power one posses, all have to die one day.

4. Whatever happened was good, whatever is happening is good and what all will happen in the
future will be good: We should not repent about our past or worryabout the future as the present is
going on. We should know that God has planned everything for us. He will not let anything bad
happen to us. Whatever happens is for our good only. We should be optimistic and should not stress
our selfwiththese baselessworriesofpast and future. Ifthingsare not favourable, theysurelywould be.
Just have faith in the supreme personality of Godhead.

5. Progress and development are the rules of this universe: Things may not be the same, the way
theyusedtobe.Thingsandcircumstanceschange.Weshouldneitherexpectpeople, nor surroundings, not
even societyto be same. Theyallchange withtime. We move ahead. Universe forgetsoldthings and
moves forwars, so do we.We should not stick ononepoint,thiswill makeour existence much more
problematic in this world.

6. We did not bring anything to this world, neither are we going to take anything: Wecame to this
world empty handed. We have made everything over here, be it relations, money, love or
respect.Wecannot takeanything with us whenwedie. Everything would be left over here. So weshould
not reallydo evilthingswhen it comesto thequestion ofour respect. Nor should we be really concerned
about making as much money as possible. We should be satisfied with what we have as everything
would be left over here in this material world, we won‘t be able to take anything with us.

7. Every action and deed of ours should be dedicated to Krishna: Whatever we do in the course of
our lifetime should be dedicated to the supreme personality of Godhead. This will always result in
giving us peace and satisfaction. One should consider remembering Krishna during their actions.This
makes us feelthat God would be there with us and our actions would turnout to be positive.

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 8. One should devote himself or herself to Krishna: The supreme personality of godhead is the
ultimate support of any human being. Our fellow humans may not care for us or support as or may
even leaveus in our bad times but Krishna isalways there for us. Theperson who knowsthistruth is
never really troubled by sadness or grief.

9. Krishna is the supreme: Krishna is the supreme personalityofGodhead. He is the originalcause of

all causes. He starts everything and ends everything too. He is there everywhere. He is omnipresent
and omnipotent. We are just puppets whomhe controls. He is divine and transcendental.

10. Desires come and go: Desires come and go, but you should remain a dispassionate witness, simply
watching and enjoying the show. Everyone experiences, desires but one should not be moved by
them. They should not bother a person. People sometimes undertake really evil actions because of
their desires. So one should not come under the chains of desires.

11. Money mind cannot meditate: Bhagavad Gitatalks a lot about meditation and it‘s importance.
Meditation is considered extremely helpful for inner peace and ‗sadhna‘. Moreover, a person who
thinks about making moneyallthetimecannot reallyengage in meditation. Whenaperson‘s mind is not
stable and he or she thinks onlyabout money, then meditationwould be a failed effort for sucha
person.

12. Thoughts about big or small, your or mine should be kept out: We should notthink about how big
or small we can really make things. All this is materialistic and engages people in tensions and
greedyactivities. It makes one profit oriented. Thinking about yours or mine also does the same. All
the life we make and collect things for ourselves. This really doesn‘t make a difference when we
leave this world. We all are turned into ashes after death.

THE PURANAS
Purana, (Sanskrit: ―Ancientǁ) in the sacred literatureofHinduism, any of a number of popular
encyclopaedic collections of myth,legend, and genealogy, varying greatly as to date and origin.
Purana is a Sanskrit word that means "ancient"or "old."It is a genre of ancient Indian literature found both
in Hinduism and Jainism. Puranas are encyclopedic texts that cover various topics such as cosmogony,
cosmology, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, humor, love
stories, theology and philosophy as well as the genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages and
demigods.

It is believed that the first puranas were composed between the 3rd and10th centuries C.E. The most famous
purana by far is the "Bhagavata Purana,"which outlines the childhood and early life of Krishna, the
incarnation ofthe Hindu god, Vishnu. There is a wealth of information about yoga contained within various
puranas. The "Bhagavata Purana" instructs the reader on Bhakti yoga practice, while other texts cover other
types of yoga and different branches of spiritual practice.

Traditionally, there are 18 main puranas and 18 minor puranas, which containover 400,000 verses. Puranas
typically cover five signs, or topics.
1) Cosmogony
2) Cosmology
3) Genealogyofthegods,sagesand kings
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 4) Cosmiccycles
5) Legendsduringthetimesofvariouskings
Someotherpuranas,likethe"BhagavataPurana,"addfivemorecharacteristics,expandingthelist to10:
6) Karmiclinksbetweenthedeities,sages,kingsandlivingbeings
7) Talesaboutgod(s)
8) Finaleorcessation
9) Spiritualliberation(moksha)
10) Refuge

The purpose of the puranas was to bring people closer to the gods. All of the purana texts are sectarian,
dedicated to certain deities -- some to gods, some to goddesses. Puranas also served to give the common
people access to and understanding ofthe essential teachings and complex yogic philosophies ofthe ancient
Vedic texts.
Puranas are the most revered and pertinent texts in the Bhaktiyoga tradition, where the devotionalaspect of
yoga is emphasized. This devotion is cultivated through the personification of the chosen deities in
entertaining myths and stories.
The "Bhagavata Purana" describes Bhakti yoga and outlines all the steps of its practice. Another text, the
"LingaPurana," covers the details aboutyama (disciplines), niyama(virtues) and pranayama (breathing
techniques). Meanwhile, the "Vayu Purana" contains information about pratyahara (withdrawal of the
senses), dharana (concentration) and dhyana (meditation).

Hinduism:ThePuranas

Puranas were written almost entirely in narrative couplets, in much the same easy flowing style as the two
great Sanskrit epic poems, theMahabharata and theRamayana. The earlyPuranas were probablycompiled by
upper-caste authors who appropriated popular beliefs and ideas from people of various castes. Later Puranas
reveal evidence of vernacular influences and the infusion of local religious traditions.
Traditionally, a Purana is said to treat five subjects, or “five signs”: the primary creation of the universe,
secondarycreation after periodic annihilation, the genealogyofgods and patriarchs, the reigns ofthe Manus
(thefirsthumans),andthehistoryofthesolarandlunardynasties.Creationanddissolution(sarga,
―emission,ǁandsamhara, ―gathering inǁ)occurwhenPrajapati,a creatorfigureoftheVedicage,emitsthe
universe and opens it, but everything is always in it, just alternately revealed (manifest) or concealed(latent);
sarga lets it out, and samhara pulls it back in.
Allthe Puranas are stronglysectarian—some devotedto Shiva, some to Vishnu, and some to agoddess. But
even those officially devoted to a particular god often pay considerable attention to other gods. By far the
mostpopularPuranaisthe Bhagavata-purana,withitseleganttreatmentofthechildhoodandearlylife ofKrishna.
There are also 18 ―lesserǁ Puranas, orupa-puranas, which treat similar material, and a large number
ofsthala-puranas (―local Puranasǁ) ormahatmyas (―magnificationsǁ), which glorify temples or sacred
places and are recited in the services at those temples.

Cosmogony
Puranic cosmogonygreatly expands upon the complex cosmogonies of the Brahmanas, Upanishads, and
epics.Accordingtooneofmanyversionsofthestory oftheoriginoftheuniverse,inthebeginningthe
godNarayana(identified with Vishnu) floated on the snake Ananta (―Endlessǁ) on the primeval waters.
FromNarayana‘snavelgrewalotus,inwhichthegodBrahmawasbornrecitingthefourVedaswithhis

22
fourmouthsandcreating the―Egg ofBrahma,ǁ whichcontainsallthe worlds.Otheraccountsrefertoother
demiurges,orcreators,likeManu(theprimordialancestorofhumankind).
The Vedasdo not seemto conceive ofan end to the world, but Puranic cosmogonyaccounts forthe periodic
destruction of the world at the close of an eon, when the Fire of Time will put an end to the universe.
Elsewhere the destruction is specifically attributed to the god Shiva, who dances the tandava dance of
doomsdayand destroystheworld. Yetthis is not anabsoluteend but atemporarysuspension(pralaya), after
which creation begins again in the same fashion.

Cosmology
The Puranas present an elaborate mythical cosmography. The old tripartite universe persists, but it is
modified. There are three levels—heaven, earth, and the netherworld—but the first and last are further
subdivided into vertical layers. Earthconsists ofsevencircular continents, the centralone surrounded bythe
saltyoceanand eachofthe other concentric continents byoceans ofother liquids. Inthe centre ofthe central
mainland stands the cosmic mountain Meru; the southernmost portion of this mainland is Bharatavarsa, the
oldnamefor India.Aboveearththerearesevenlayersin heaven,atthesummitofwhichistheworld
ofbrahman(brahma-loka); there are also seven layers below earth, the location of hells inhabited by serpents
and demons.

TheMahapuranas
Ofthe manytextsdesignated Puranasthe most important arethe Mahapuraṇas. Thesearealways said to be
eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six.
1) AgniPurana(15,400 verses)
2) Bhagavata Purana (18,000 verses). One ofthe most celebrated and popular ofthe Puranas, telling of
Vishnu's ten Avatars. Its tenth and longest canto narrates the deeds of Krishna, introducing his
childhood exploits, a theme later elaborated by many Bhakti movements.
3) BhavishyaPurana(14,500verses)
4) BrahmaPurana(24,000verses)
5) BrahmandaPurana(12,000verses;includesLalitaSahasranamam,atextsomeHindusreciteas prayer)
6) BrahmaVaivartaPurana(18,000verses)
7) GarudaPurana(19,000verses)
8) KurmaPurana(17,000verses)
9) LingaPurana(11,000 verses)
10) MarkandeyaPurana(9,000verses;includesDeviMahatmyam,animportanttextforShaktas)
11) MatsyaPurana(14,000verses)
12) NaradaPurana(25,000verses)
13) PadmaPurana(55,000 verses)
14) ShivaPurana(24,000 verses)
15) Skanda Purana (81,100 verses), the longest Purana, it is an extraordinarily meticulous pilgrimage
guide, containing geographical locations of pilgrimage centers in India, with related legends,
parables, hymns and stories. Many untraced quotes are attributed to this text.
16) VamanaPurana(10,000 verses)
17) VarahaPurana(10,000verses)
18) VishnuPurana(23,000 verses)

TheMahapuranasarefrequentlyclassifiedaccordingthethreeaspectsofthedivineTrimurti,
23
 1) Brahma Puranas:Brahma Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Markandeya
Purana, Bhavishya Purana,
The BrahmaPurana isoneoftheeighteenmajor PuranasgenreofHindu textsinSanskrit language. It is
listed as the first Maha-Purana in all the anthologies, and therefore also called Adi
Purana.Anothertitleforthistextis SauraPurana,becauseitincludesmanychaptersrelatedto Surya
ortheSungod.TheBrahmaPuranaisactuallyjustacompilationof geographical Mahatmya (travel guides)
and sections on diverse topics.
Outof245chapters,18chaptersofthe BrahmaPurana coverthe cosmology, mythology, genealogy,
manvantara (cosmic time cycles) and topics that are required to make a text belong to the Puranic
genre of literature. Other chapters cover Sanskara (rite of passage),
summaryofDharmasastra,itstheoriesonthegeographyofearth,summaryof Samkhya and Yogatheories
ofHindu philosophy, and other topics. While many chapters of the Brahma Purana praise templesand
pilgrimage, chapters 38-40 of the text, a part of embedded Saura Purana, present arguments that
arehighlycriticalofthetheistictheoriesanddevotionalworshipproposalsof13th-century Madhvacharya
and Dvaita Vedanta sub-school of Hindu philosophies.
TheBrahma Purana dedicates a majority of its chapter to describing the geography, temples and
scenes around the Godavari River and of Odisha.

2) Vishnu Puranas:Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Naradeya Purana, Garuda Purana, Padma
Purana, Varaha Purana, Vamana Purana, Kurma Purana, Matsya Purana
TheVishnuPurana isoneoftheeighteenMahapuranas,agenreofancientandmedievaltexts of Hinduism.
It is an important Pancharatra text in the Vaishnavism literature corpus.
TheVishnu Purana is among the shorter Puranatexts, with about 7,000 verses in extant versions. It
primarilycentersaroundtheHindugod Vishnu andhisavatarssuchas Krishna,butit praisesBrahmaand
ShivaandassertsthattheyareonewithVishnu.ThePurana,statesWilson, is pantheistic and the ideas in it,
like other Puranas, are premised on the Vedic beliefs and ideas.
VishnuPurana,likeallmajorPuranas,attributes itsauthortobesage VedaVyasa.

3) ShivaPuranas:ShivaPurana,LingaPurana,SkandaPurana,AgniPurana,VayuPurana
Shiva Puranais one of the eighteen major Puranas, agenre ofSanskrit texts inHinduism, and part
ofthe Shaivism literaturecorpus. ItprimarilycentersaroundtheHindugod Shiva and goddess Parvati,
but references and reveres all gods.
TheShiva Puranaassertsthat it once consisted of100,000 verses set out intwelve samhitas(books). It
was written by the Romaharshana, a disciple of Vyasa belonging to Suta class.
TheShivaPurana containschapterswithcosmology, mythology,relationshipbetweengods, ethics, Yoga,
Thirtha(pilgrimage)sites, bhakti, riversandgeography, andothertopics. Thetext isan important source
of historic information on different types and theology behind Shaivism in early1st-millennium BCE.
The oldest surviving chapters of the Shiva Purana have significant Advaita Vedanta philosophy,
which is mixed in with theistic elements of bhakti.

Accordingtothe PadmaPurana,thetextsmaybeclassifiedinaccordancewith thethreegunasor qualities; truth,

passion, and ignorance:
1) Sattva("truth;purity"):VishnuPurana,BhagavataPurana,NaradeyaPurana,GarudaPurana, Padma
Purana, Varaha Purana
2) Rajas("dimness;passion"):BrahmandaPurana,BrahmaVaivartaPurana,MarkandeyaPurana,
Bhavishya Purana, Vamana Purana, Brahma Purana
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 3) Tamas("darkness;ignorance"):MatsyaPurana,KurmaPurana,LingaPurana,ShivaPurana, Skanda
Purana, Agni Purana

TheUpapuranas
TheUpapuraṇasare lesser or ancillary texts: these are sometimes also said to be eighteen in number, with
still less agreement as to the canonical titles. Few have been critically edited. They include: Sanat-kumara,
Narasimha, Brihan-naradiya, Siva-rahasya, Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba,
Nandi, Surya, Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesha, Mudgala, and Hamsa.
The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to Ganesha. The Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which extols the
goddess Durga, has become (along with the Devi Mahatmya of the Markandeya Purana) a basic text forDevi
worshipers.
TherearemanyothersallovertheIndiansubcontinent.

SthalaPuranas
Thiscorpusoftextstellsoftheoriginsandtraditionsofparticulartemplesorshrines—the wordsthala
means"spot"inSanskrit. TherearenumerousSthalaPuranas, most writteninvernaculars, some with Sanskrit
versions as well. Some appear in Sanskrit versions in the Mahapuranas or Upapuranas. Some Tamil Sthala
Puranas have been researched by David Dean Shulman.

Kula Puranas
These Puranas deal with a caste's origin myth, stories, and legends (the word kula means "family" or "tribe"
in Sanskrit). They are important sources for caste identity though usually contested by rival castes. This
subgenre isusuallyinthevernacularand mayattimesremainoral. Thesehavebeenlittleresearched,though theyare
documented in the caste section of the British Census of India Report and the various Gazetteers.

JainPuranas
JainPuranasdealwithJainmyths,historyandlegendsandformamajorpartofearlyKannada literature. The best
known is the Mahapurana of Acharya Jinasena.

HISTORYOFBUDDHISTANDJAINLITERATURE:PALI,PRAKRITANDSANSKRIT

Introduction
ThereligiousbooksoftheJainsandtheBuddhistsrefertohistoricalpersonsor incidents.

BuddhistLiterature
The earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali, which was spoken in Magadha and South Bihar. The
Buddhist works can be divided into the canonical and the non-canonical.
The canonical literature is best represented by the – Tripitakas, that is, three baskets - Vinaya Pitaka,
Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. Vinaya Pitaka dealswithrulesand regulationsofdaily life. Sutta
Pitaka contains dialogues and discourses on morality and deals with Dharma while Abhidhamma Pitaka
deals with philosophy and metaphysics. It includes discourses on various subjects such as ethics,psychology,
theories of knowledge and mataphysical problems.

The non-canonical literature is best represented by the Jatakas. Jatakas are the most interesting stories on
the previous births of the Buddha. It was believed that before he was finally born as Gautama, the
BuddhapractisingDharmapassedthroughmorethan 550births,inmany casesevenintheform of animals.Each 25
birth story is called a Jataka. The Jatakas throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions
ranging from the sixth century BC to the second century BC. They alsomake incidental reference to political
events in the age of the Buddha.

SanskritBuddhistliterature
It refers to Buddhist textscomposed either inclassical Sanskrit, in a register that has been called "Buddhist
Hybrid Sanskrit" (BHS), or a mixture of the two. Several non-Mahayana Nikayasappear to have kept their
canons in Sanskrit, most prominent among which was the Sarvastivada. The Mahayana Sutrasare also in
Sanskrit, with less classical registers prevalent in the gatha portions. Buddhist Tantrastoo are written in
Sanskrit, sometimes interspersed withApabhramsa, and often containing notable irregularities in grammar
and meter (traditionally ascribed to the esoteric nature of the texts)
Before the modern derivatives ofSanskrit existed, a group of languages known as the Prakrits or Middle Indo
Aryanlanguagesevolved fromIndia‘sclassicallanguage. Thesewerethe vernacular dialectsofancient times, and
several of them became important literary vehicles in their own right. The best known of this group is Pali,
which still serves as the canonical language of Buddhism in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Other Prakrit
languages such as Sauraseni, Maharastri, Magadhi and Gandhari embody various facetsofthe literatures of
both the Brahmanical/Hindu and Buddhist traditions.

Besides texts considered "Word of the Buddha" (Buddhavacana) by the traditions that transmitted them,
Buddhist authors have composed treatises and literary works in Sanskrit dealing with Buddhist philosophy,
logic, etc., but also with more worldly topics such as gemology, erotics, literaryaesthetics, etc
Sanskrit Buddhist literature is therefore vast and varied, despite the loss of a significant amount of texts. A
large number of works survive only in Tibetan and Chinese translations

HypothesesfororiginallanguageofBuddha
Traditional accounts vary vastly in identifying the language in which the Buddha taught, as well as inrespect
to the history of the non-Mahayana Nikayas. While the Theravada tradition usually upholds that the Buddha
taught exclusively in the language ofMagadha, other accounts offer a verydifferent perspective on the
languages of the early non-Mahayana schools, and in these accounts Sanskrit plays a centralrole.
According to some contemporary hypotheses, the earliest Buddhist texts were orally composed and
transmitted in Middle Indo-Aryan languages called Prakrits.
The termPali, used today in both Buddhist and Western cultures as a designation of a language, is a
relatively modern coinage, not traceable before the seventeenth century. An earlier name given to this
language in Buddhist literatureis Magadhi, the language of the province Magadha in Eastern India that
roughly corresponds to the modern Indian state Bihar. The only Buddhist school using this language is the
TheravAda in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Theravadins erroneously consider Pali to be the language
spoken by the Buddha himself.
During the nineteenth century, Western scholarship discovered that Pali is not an eastern Middle Indic
language and has little relationship to Magadhi, which is known from other sources.
EventhoughPali, asan artificial language, was never actually a vernacular ofanypart ofIndia, it was by no
means a "dead" language. Changes in the phonetic shape of Pali, most likely introduced by Buddhist
grammarians at various times, can be observed, althoughdating themis problematic. None ofthese changes
were far-reaching, although theyseem to have continued well into the sixteenth century, if not later.
The oldest literature preserved in Pali is the canon of the Theravada Buddhists, the only Buddhist canon
extant in its entirety in an Indian language. Consequently, it is linguistically the oldest form of Buddhist
scriptures known.
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RiseofSanskritinBuddhism
While some hypotheses saythat Buddhism was originallywritten in Prakrits, Sanskrit gradually became the
mainlanguageofBuddhistscripturesandscholasticisminIndiamirroringitsriseaspoliticaland literarylingua
franca of the Indian subcontinent, perhaps reflecting an increased need for elite patronage. This process, it is
proposed, began with the north-western Indian Buddhists of the Kushan empire (CE 30-
375).TheSarvastivadin PiṭakasweremostlytransmittedinSanskrit andmanyMahayanasutrassuchas
thePrajnaparamita sutra were composed in different registers of Sanskrit. The Buddhist use of classical
Sanskritfor literary purposes possibly began with Asvaghoṣa (c. 100 CE), author of the Buddhacarita and
one of the earliest Sanskrit dramatists. Buddhist thinkers like Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Asanga, Vasubanhhu
Dignaga, Sthiramati, Dharmakīrti, Bhaviveka, Candrakīrti, etc., also wrote in Sanskrit

Jainism Literature
The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were finally compiled in the sixth century AD in Valabhi in
Gujarat. The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas, Chhedab Sutras and Malasutras.
Among the important Jain scholars, reference may be made to Haribhadra Suri, (eighth century AD) and
Hemchandra Suri, (twelfth century AD). Jainism helped in the growthofa rich literature comprising poetry,
philosophy and grammar. These works contain many passages which help us to reconstruct the political
history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The Jain texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders.

Jain literature begins with the last of the Tirthankarasi, Mahavir, who reorganized the old Nirgrantha sectand
revitalized its moral and religious zeal and activities. He preached his faith of ahimsa (non-violence or
harmlessness) and self-purification to the people in their own language which was not Sanskrit, but Prakrit.
The formofPrakrit whichhe is said to have used was Ardha-Magadhi, bywhichwas meant a language that
was not pure Magadhi but partook of its nature.

TwelveAngas
Mahavira‗steachingswerearrangedintwelveAngas(parts)byhisdisciples.TheseAngasformedthe
earliestliteratureonJainism
1) Acarangalaiddownrulesofdisciplineforthe monks
2) Sutrakrtanga contained further injunctions for the monks regarding what was suitable or unsuitable
for them and how they should safeguard their vows. It also gave an exposition of the tenets and
dogmas of other faiths
3) Sthanangalistedinnumericalorder, categoriesofknowledgepertainingtotherealitiesofnature
4) Samavayangaclassifiedobjectsinaccordancewithsimilaritiesoftime, place,number,andsoon
5) Vyakhya-prajnapti or Bkagavatexplainedtherealitiesoflifeandnatureintheformofacatechism
6) Jnatrdhamakathacontainedhintsregardingreligiouspreachingaswellasstoriesandanecdotes calculated
to carry moral conviction
7) UpasakadhyayanaorUpasaka-dasakawasmeanttoserveasareligiouscodefor householders
8) Antakrddasakagaveaccountsoftensaintswho attainedsalvationafterimmensesuffering
9) Anuttaraupapatikacontainedaccountsoftensaintswhohadgonetothehighestheavenafter enduring
intense persecution
10) Prsnna-vyakaranacontainedaccountsandepisodesfortherefutationofoppositeviews,
establishmentofone‗sownfaith,promotionofholydeeds,andpreventionofevil
11) Vipaka-Sutraexplainedhowvirtuewasrewardedandevilpunished

27
 12) Drstivada included the five sections namely Parikarmani contained tracts describing the moon, the
sun, Jambudvipa, other islandsand seas, as wellas living beingsand nonliving matter, Sutragave an
account of various tenets and philosophies numbering no less than 363, Prathamanuyoga recounted
ancient historyand narratedthe lives of great kings and saints. Purvagata dealt with the problems of
birth, death, and continuity.

Jainliteraturein Sanskrit
The language of Jain literature was primarily the Prakrits which were prevalent amongst the people at one
time or the other in different parts of the country. But Sanskrit was not altogether shunned. Amongst the
Jains, the earliest work in Sanskrit devoted to religious writing is the Tattvarthadhigama- Sutraof
Umasvamin which epitomizes the whole Jaina creed in about 375 sutras arranged in ten chapters. The work
occupies a unique position in Jaina literature as it is recognized as authoritative equally by the Digambaras
and the Svetambaras with a few variations in the readings, and is very widely studied by both. It has been
commented upon by the most eminent authors of both the sects.

Prakritlanguageandliterature
Broadly speaking, Indo-Aryan speech has flowed in two streams: Samskrta and Prakrta (which will be spelt
hereafter as Sanskrit and Prakrit) and, at various stages, these two streams have constantly influenced each
other. Prakrit, which means ―naturalǁ or ―commonǁ primarily indicates the uncultivated popular dialects
whichexistedsidebysidewithSanskrit,the―accuratelymadeǁ,―polishedǁand―refinedǁspeech.
The Prakrits, then, are the dialects of the unlettered masses, which they used for secular communication in
their day-to-daylife, while Sanskrit is the language ofthe intellectualaristocrat, the priest, pundit, orprince,
who used it for religious and learned purposes. Yet the language of every-day conversation even of these
people must have been nearer to the popular Prakrits than to literary Sanskrit. The former was a natural
acquisition; while the latter, the principal literary form of speech, required training in grammatical and
phonetic niceties.

KAUTILYA‟S ARTHASHASHTRA
TheArthashastra is an Indian treatise on politics, economics,military strategy, the function of the state, and
socialorganization attributed to the philosopher and Prime Minister Kautilya (also known as Chanakya,
Vishnugupta) who was instrumental in establishing the reign of the great king
Much of our knowledge about state policy under the Mauryas comes from the Arthashastra written by
Kautilya (more popularly known as Chanakya), who was a Brahmin minister under Chandragupta Maurya.
The book, written inSanskrit, discusses theories and principles ofgoverning a state. The title, Arthashastra,
which means ―the Science of Material Gainǁ or ―Science of Polityǁ, does not leave any doubts about its
ends. Kautilya'sphilosophy is based on the principles of "sam, dam, dand, bhed" (persuasion, temptation,
punishment, and division) as various, different, and sequential means to achieve an end.
According to Kautilya, the ruler should use any means to attain his goal and his actions required no moral
sanction. Though the kings were allowed a free rein, the citizens were subject to a rigid set ofrules.

Arthashastra remains unique in allofIndian literature because ofits totalabsence ofspecious reasoning, or its
unabashed advocacy of real politic, and scholars continued to study it for its clear cut arguments and formal
prose till the twelfth century.
Kautilya‘s Arthashashtra is an important treatise of the Mauryan times. Kautilya helped the young
Chandragupta Maurya, who was a Vaishya, to ascend to the Nanda throne in 321 BC. Kautilya‘s counsel is
particularlyremarkablebecausetheyoungMaurya‘ssupporterswerenotaswellarmedastheNandas.
28
Kautilya continued to help Chandragupta Maurya in his campaigns and his influence was crucial in
consolidating the great Mauryan Empire.
It reflects the state of society and economy at that time and provides rich material for the study of ancient
Indian polity and economy.

Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam Literature

There are four languages Tamil, Telugu, and Malayalam developed their own literature. Tamil being the
oldest of these languages began writing earlier and produced the Sangam literature the oldest literature in
Tamil.

Telugu Literature
The Vijayanagara period was the golden age ofTelugu literature. Nachana Somnatha, a court poet of Bukka
I, produced a poeticalwork titled Uttaraharivamsam. Krishnadevaraya, the greatest ofthe Vijayanagara, was a
poetofgreat merit. His workAmukta Malyada is regarded as anexcellent prabandhan inTelegu literature.
Eight Telugu literary luminaries, popularly known as ashtadiggajas adorned his court. Among them,
AllasaniPeddana, theauthorofManucharitram, wasthegreatest. Hewasknownas Andhra kavitapitamaha. The
other seven poets of the group were Nandi Timmana, the author of Parijathapaharanam, Madayagari
Mallana, Dhurjati, Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Kavi, Pingali Surana, Ramaraja Bhushana and Tenali
Ramakrishna.

Kannada Literature
Apart from Telugu, Vijayanagara rulers extended their patronage to Kannada literature. Kannada language
developed fully after the tenth century AD. The earliest known literary work in Kannada is kaviraj among
written by the Rashtrakuta king, Nripatunga Amoghavarsha. Pampa, knownas the father of Kannada, wrote
his great poetic works Adi Purana and Vikramarijiva.

29
In the thirteenth century new feats were achieved in Kannada literature. Harishvara wrote Harishchandra
kavya and Somanatha charita whereas Bandhuvarma wrote Harivanshabhyudaya and Jiva Sambodhana.
Kannada literature flourished considerably between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries under the
patronage ofthe Vijayanagara kings. Poetsofallreligious groups made important contributionto it. Kunura
Vyasa wrote Bharata and Narahari wrote Tarave Ramayana.
This is the first Rama Katha in Kannada composed on the basis of Valmikis Ramayana. Lakshamisha who
lived in the seventeenth century wrote Jaimini Bharata and earned the titled of Kamata-Karicutavana-
Chaitra (the spring of the Karnataka mango grove).

Malayalam Literature
Malayalam is spoken in Kerala and the adjoining areas. The language of Malayalam emerged around the
eleventh century AD. By fifteenth century Malayalam was recognised as an independent language. Bhasa
Kautilya, a commentary on Arthashashtra and kokasandisan are two great works. Rama Panikkar and
Ramanuja an Ezhuthachan are well known authors of Malayalam literature.
Though it developedmuch later compared to other South Indian languages, Malayalam has made a markas a
powerful medium of expression. Now a large number of journals, newspapers and magazines arepublished
in Malayalam. When people read and write in their own language, they enjoy it more. This is because
language is a part of their culture. It is so well inter woven in their social life that theycan express and
feeltheiremotionsaswellintheirownlanguage. This must also bethecasewithyouand your language also.

Tamil or Sangama Literature

Tamil as a written language was language was known since the beginning of the Christianera.
Poets who in these assemblies were patronised bykings andchief tains produced the Sangama literature over
a period of three to four centuries.
Suchassemblieswerecalled―Sangamas,and the literature produced in these assemblies was called
―Sangama literature.

In ancient times the association or academy of the most learned men of the Tamil land wascalled Sangam (or
‗Cankam‘), whose chief function was promotion of literature. Later Tamil writers mention the existence of
three literary academies (Sangams) at different periods. The last academy is credited with the corpus of
literature now known as ‗Sangam Works‘. It is, however, almost certain that some noteworthy literature
existed even before the Sangam era. Dr K. K. Pillai, a renowned Tamil historian, is of the view that
academies of the type of the Sangam must have flowered under an earlier designation like Avai or Kudal.
Naturalism and romanticism were the salient features of the poems of the Sangam bards. Excepting
Tolkappiyam, the earliest work on Tamil grammar and poetic techniques, no other works attributed to the
first two Sangams have come down to us in their entirety. However, from the titles of writings traditionally
traced to these Sangams, it is evident that theydealt with music and the art of dancing.
Tolkappiyam, the name signifying the ancient book or ‗the preserver ofancient institutions‘, was written by
Tolkappiyanar and is the oldest extant Tamil grammar dating back to 500 B.C. It lays down rules for
different kinds of poetical compositions drawn from the examples furnished by the best works then extant.
Iyal is elucidated clearly and systematically in Tolkappiyam. Containing about 1,610 suttirams (aphorisms),
it is in three parts-ezhuttu (orthography), Sol (etymology), and porul (literary conventions and usages)-each
with nine sections. While the first two parts are interesting from both linguistic and philological points of
view, the third, poruladhikdram, is most valuable as it gives a glimpse of the political, social, and religious
life of the people during the period when the author of this treatise lived.
30
Other Sanskrit Literature and FamousAuthors
There large body of books dealing with various sciences, law, medicine and grammar. To this class belong
the law books called the Dharmasutras and smritis, together known as Dharmashastras. The Dharmasutras
werecompiled between500 and 200 BC. These laydownduties for different varnas aswell as for thekings and
their officials. They prescribed the rules according to which property had to be held, sold and inherited.
Theyalso prescribe punishments for persons guiltyofassault, murder and adultery. The Manusmriti tells us
about the role of man and woman in society, their code of conduct and relationship with each other.
The works of Bhasa, Shudraka, Kalidasa and Banabhatta provided us with glimpses of the social andcultural
life of northern and centralIndia in times ofthe Guptas and Harsha. The Gupta period also saw the
development of Sanskrit grammar based on the works of Panini and Patanjali.

The Kushana kings patronised Sanskrit scholars. Ashvaghosha wrote the Buddhacharitra which is the
biographyof the Buddha. He also wrote Saundarananda, which is a fine example of Sanskrit poetry. India
produced great literary works on subjects like Maths, Astronomy, Astrology, Agriculture and Geographyetc.
Books on medicine were written by Charak and on surgery by Sushruta. Madhava wrote a book on
pathology. Bookswrittenonastronomy byVarahamihiraand Aryabhattaand onastrologybyLagdhacharya had
all achieved prominence. There is none that can compete with Varahamihiras Bhrihatsamhita, Aryabhatia
and Vedanga Jyotisha.
The post-medieval period in northern India saw the rise of Sanskrit literature in Kashmir. Somadeva‘s
Katha-sarit-sagar and Kalhan‘s Rajatarangini are of historical importance. It gives a vivid account of the
Kings of Kashmir. The Geet Govinda of Jaidev is the finest poem of Sanskrit literature of this period,
besides numerous works on different aspects of art and architecture, sculpture, iconography and related
fields.

NORTHERN INDIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE

We have already seen how languages evolved in India right uptotheearlymedievalperiod.

Theoldapabhramsha hadtakennew forms insomeareasorwasintheprocessofevolving intootherforms.
Languages were evolving at two levels:
1) Thespoken language
2) Thewrittenlanguage
The old Brahmi script of the Ashoka days had undergone a great change. The alphabets during Ashoka‘s
period were uneven in size but by the time of Harsha, the letters had become of the same size and were
regular, presenting the picture of a cultivated hand. The studies have indicated that all the scripts of present
northern Indian languages, except that of Urdu, have had their origin in old Brahmi.
If we compare the scripts of Gujarati, Hindi and Punjabi, we can easily understand this change. As for the
spoken word, there are over 200 languages or dialects spoken in India at present.Some are widely used while
others are limited to a particular area. Out of all these, only twenty-two have found their way into our
Constitution.
A large number ofpeople speak Hindi in its different forms that include Braj Bhasha, and Avadhi (spoken
in Oudh region), Bhojpuri, Magadhi, and Maithili (spoken around Mithila), and Rajasthani and Khadi
Boli (spoken around Delhi). Rajasthani is another variant or dialect of Hindi. This classification has been
made on the basis of literature produced by great poets over a length of time. Thus, the language used by
Surdas and Bihari has been given the name of Braj Bhasha; that used by Tulsidas in the
Ramacharitamanasa is called Avadhi and the one used by Vidyapati has been termed as Maithili. But
Hindi, as we know it today is the one called Khadi Boli. Though Khusrau has used Khadi Boli in his
compositions in the thirteenth century its extensive use in literature began only in the nineteenth century. It
even shows some influence of Urdu.
31
PersianandUrdu
 Urduemerged asan independentlanguagetowardstheend ofthe4thcenturyAD.
 ArabicandPersianwereintroducedinIndiawiththecomingoftheTurksandthe Mongols.
 Persianremainedthecourtlanguageformanycenturies.Urduasalanguagewasbornoutofthe interaction
between Hindi and Persian.
 Originallyitwasadialectbutslowlyitacquiredallthefeaturesofaformallanguagewhenthe authors started
using Persian script.
 Urdubecamemorepopularintheearlyeighteenthcentury.Peopleevenwroteaccountsoflater Mughals in
Urdu.
Urdu was patronised bythe Nawabs of Lucknow, who held symposiums in this language. Slowly it became
quite popular as Persian was the language of the court, much of the literature produced in this period was
written in Persian.
AmirKhusrau and AmirHasan Dehelvi wrote superbpoetry in Persian. Historians like Minhas-us-Siraj,
Zia Barani and Ibn Batutawho came to India during those days wrote accounts of rulers, important
political events and incidents in this language. In the medieval period, Persian was adopted as the court
language. Several historical accounts, administrative manuals and allied literature in this language havecome
down to us. The mughal rulers were great patrons of leaning and literature. Babar wrote his Tuzuk
(autobiography) inTurkishlanguage, but hisgrandsonAkbargot it translated intoPersian. Akbarpatronized
many scholars. He got Mahabharata translated into Persian.
Jahangir‘s autobiography (Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri) is in Persian and is a unique piece of literature. It is said that
Noorjahanwasanaccomplished Persianpoetess.Quite a fair amount ofPersian literature has been produced by
the courtiers of the Mughals. Abul Fazl‟s Akbarnamah and Ain-e-Akbari is a fine piece of literature.
From there we get a good deal of information about Akbar and his times. Faizi wrote beautiful Persian
poetry. Several collections of letters of the Mughal period (insha) have come down to us. Besides shedding
light on Mughal history, they indicate different styles of letter writing. Another name in prose and history
writing isthat ofChandra Bhan, awriterofShahjahan‟sdays.Similarly, we have aworknamed Tabqat- i-
Alamgiri, shedding light on Aurangzeb. Badauni was another writer who belonged during Akbar‘s time. In
the twentieth century, Iqbal wrote good Persian poetry. All this has now become a part ofIndian heritage and
culture quite popular. Pakistan has adopted Urdu as the state language.

HindiLiterature
The emergence of all these languages resulted in the decline of Sanskrit as they came to be used as the
medium through which the administrative machinery functioned.
Prithviraj Raso is supposed to be the first book in Hindi language. It is an account ofexploits ofPrithvi Raj
Chauhan. Hindi literature looked to Sanskrit classics for guidance and Bharata‘s Natyashastra was kept in
mind by Hindi writers.
As its influence reached the north, it started affecting the prose and poetry that were being composed in
Hindi.
Hindi evolved during the Apabhramsha stage between the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. and the 14th C. There
wasatremendousgrowthofregional languages likeHindi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Marathiand Gujarati. It
was patronised by the Rajput rulers as it glorified chivalry and poetry. The most famous figures fromthis
period were Kabir and Tulsidas. All the above mentioned Hindi poets, except Kabir, expressed their
sentiments essentially to satisfy their own devotional instincts.

During the last 150 years, many writers have contributed to the development of modern India literature,
written in a number of regional languages as well as in English. One of the greatest Bengali writers,
Rabindranath Tagore became the first Indian to win the NobelPrize for literature (Geetanjali) in 1913.
However, it is only with the beginning of nineteenth century that-Hindi prose came into its own.
Bharatendu Harishchandra was one of the earliest to produce dramas in Hindi which were basically
translations oftexts written inSanskrit and other languages. But he set the trend. MahavirPrasad Dwivedi
was another author who wrotetranslations or made adaptations from Sanskrit.Bankim Chandra Chatterji
32
(l838-94) wrotenovelsoriginallyinBangla. Theycame tobetranslated intoHindiandbecame verypopular.
Vande Mataram, our national song, is an excerpt from his novel, Anand Math. Swami Dayanand‟s
contribution to Hindi cannot be ignored. Originally a Gujaratiand a scholar ofSanskrit, he advocated Hindi
asacommon language for thewholeofIndia. Hestarted writing inHindiand contributed articlesto journals
essentially engaged in religious and social reforms. Satyartha Prakash was his most important work in
Hindi. Among other names that have enriched Hindi literature, is that of Munshi Prem Chand, who
switched over from Urdu to Hindi. Surya Kant Tripathi, „Nirala‟, achieves recognition because he
questioned the orthodoxies in society. Mahadevi Vermais the first woman writer in Hindi to highlight
issues related to women. Maithili Sharan Guptis another important name. Jaishankar Prasad wrote
beautiful dramas.

HindiLanguageMakesProgressinModernPeriod Hindi
Language
The development of modern language started at the end ofthe 18th century. The main writers ofthis period
were Sadasukh Lal and Enshallah Khan. Bhartendu Harishchandra also strengthened Hindi language.
Similarly,RajaLakshman Singh translatedShakuntalaintoHindi.Hindi continuedtodevelopinadverse
circumstances as the office work was done in Urdu.
HindiLiterature
BhartenduHarishChandra, MahaviraPrasadDwivedi, RamchandraShuklaandShyamSunderDaswerethe main
among the prose writers of Hindi literature.
Jai Shanker Prasad, Maithalisharan Gupta, Sumitranandan Pant, SuryakantTripathi ‗Nirala‘, Mahadevi
Verma, Ramdhari Singh ‗Dinkar‘ and Haribans Rai ‗Bacchan‘ made great contribution to the development
of Hindi poetry.

If we look at the above writers, we find that they all wrote with a purpose. Swami Dayanand wrote in order
to reformthe Hindu societyand rid it of false beliefs and social evils. Munshi Prem Chand tried to draw the
attention of the society to the miserable existence of the poor and Mahadevi Verma recipient of Padma
Vibhushan, the second highest civilian award highlighted the conditions of women in the society. ‗Nirala‘
became the pioneer of awakening of Modern India.
 MODULE3

INDIAN RELIGION PHILOSOPHY,ANDPRACTICES

 Pre-Vedic and Vedic Religion

 Buddhism
 Jainism
 Six System Indian Philosophy
 Shankaracharya
 VariousPhilosophicalDoctrines
 Other HeterodoxSects
 Bhakti Movement
 Sufi movement
 Socio religious reform movementof19thcentury
 Modernreligiouspractices
 MODULE-3
INDIANRELIGION,PHILOSOPHYANDPRACTICES

India is a beautiful, lovely and a lively countryto be in. This is because religion has always been a significant
factor in influencing the lives of people in India from the earliest times. The relationship between religion and
philosophy has been an intimate one and hence their growth and development need to be studies in an
interrelated manner.

Religion
 Religionisthescienceofsoul.Moralityandethicshavetheirfoundationonreligion.
 ReligionplayedanimportantpartinlivesoftheIndiansfromtheearliest times.
 ReligioninIndiawas neverstaticincharacterbutwasdrivenbyaninherentdynamicstrength.
 Every system of philosophy in India is a quest for Truth, which is one and the same, always and
everywhere. The modes of approach differ, logic varies, but the purpose remains the same – trying to
reach that Truth.
 Indian spiritually is deeply rooted in ancient philosophical and religious traditions of the land.
Philosophy arose in India as an enquiry into the mystery of life and existence.
The sages found that the true nature of the human being is not the body or the mind, which are ever changing
and perishable but the spirit which is unchanging, immortaland pure consciousness. They called it the Atman.
The Atman is the true source of human’s knowledge, happiness and power. The rishis further found that all
individualselvesare partsofinfinite consciousnesswhichtheycalled Brahman. Brahman isthe ultimate reality, the
ultimate cause of the universe. Ignorance of human’s true nature is the main cause of human suffering and
bondage. By gaining correct knowledge of Atman and Brahman,it is possible to become free from suffering and
bondage and attain a state of immortality, everlasting peace and fulfillment known as Moksha.
Religion in ancient India meant a way of life which enables a human to realize his true nature and attain
Moksha.

Pre-VedicandVedicReligion
 Fromthe archaeologicalfindings inthepreandproto-historic sites it seems thatthesepeople believed in the
sanctityof the creative force and venerated the male and female aspects of divinity.
 The nature of the religious beliefs and practices of the Aryans is alsoknown from the RigVeda.
Theybelieved in many gods like Indra, Varuna, Agni, Surya and Rudra.
 SacrificesandritualsofferingoffoodanddrinktofireinhonouroftheGods, constituted the main religious
practices.
 TheSamaVedaandtheYajurVedaelaboratedintheBrahmanas.
 TheAtharvaVedacontainedagreatdealofanimistic beliefs.
 Indiadowntheagesattemptedtograpplewiththefundamentalproblemsoflifeandthought.
 PhilosophyinIndiabeganwithaquest afterthehighesttruth-truthnotas mereobjectivecertitude, butas being
closely linked with the development of personality and leading to the attainment of the highest freedom,
bliss and wisdom.
The Aranyakaand Upanishad sections of theVedic literature envisage a progressive outlook.
The Upanishads represent the early stage in the origin and development of the religions-metaphysical concepts
which were used later by the religious leaders and reformers of ancient and medieval India. Some of them
followed the traditional lines while others proceeded along the paths of unorthodoxy.

UnorthodoxReligiousMovements
 TheReligious movementsassociatedwithpersons like, MahaviraandtheBuddha inaboutthe middleof the
first Millennium BCE fall under this category.
 There were many other creeds during this time as well. The creeds preached by some of themcontained
elements that were not in keeping with the Vedic tradition.
 TheyignoredtheinfallibilityandsupernaturaloriginoftheVedas.UnliketheVedicseerswhowere Brahmin
sages, many of these new teachers were Kshatriya.
 BothBuddhismandJainismwereatheisticcreeds inthe beginning.

TheisticReligions
 Creedsoftheisticcharacterevolvedalmostsimultaneouslywiththenon-theisticreligions.
 TheimportantdeitiesofthesereligionswerenotprimarilyVediconesbutthosethatcamefromunorthodox
sources.
 Influenceofpre-Vedicandpost-Vedic folkelementsweremostconspicuousintheirorigin.
 The primary factor that motivated these creeds wasBhakti, the single-souled devotionofthe worshipper to
a personal god with some moral link.

 ThisledtotheevolutionofdifferentreligioussectslikeVaishnavism,ShaivismandSaktism,which came to be
regarded as components of orthodox Brahminism.
 These sects in course of time came to have a significant impact on the popular forms of Buddhism and
Jainism.

Religion of the Rig Vedic people was very simple in the sense that it consisted mainly of worship of numerous
deities representing the various phenomena of nature through prayers.
  It was during the later Vedic period that definite ideas and philosophers about the true nature of soul or
Atman and the cosmic principle or Brahman who represented the ultimate realitywere developed.
 TheseVedicphilosophicalconceptslaterongaverisetosixdifferentschoolsofphilosophiescalled
shadadarshana.
 They fall in the category of the orthodox system as the final authority of the Vedas is recognisedby all of
them.

JainPhilosophy
 LiketheCharvakas, theJainstoodonotbelieveinthevedas, buttheyadmitexistenceofasoul.
 TheJainaphilosophywas firstpropoundedbytheTirthankaraRishabhaDeva.

JainTheory of Reality:Nine Tattvas(Principles)

• Theninetattvas,or principles,arethesinglemostimportantsubjectofJainphilosophy.
• It dealswiththe karmatheoryofJainism,which provides the basis for the path of liberation.
• Withouttheproperknowledgeofthissubject, apersoncannotprogressspiritually.
• Theproperunderstandingofthissubject bringsaboutright faith (samyak-darshana),right knowledge
(samyak-jnana), and right conduct in an individual.
• TheNineTattvas are:-
1) Jiva- soulorlivingbeing(Consciousness)
2) Ajiva-non-livingsubstances
3) Asrava-causeoftheinfluxofkarma
4) Bandha-bondageofkarma
5) Punya–virtue
6) Papa–sin
7) Samvara-arrestoftheinfluxofkarma
8) Nirjara-exhaustionoftheaccumulatedkarma
9) Moksha-totalliberationfromkarma

BuddhismPhilosophy
Gautama Buddha, who founded the Buddhist philosophy, was born in 563 BCE at Lumbini, a village near
Kapilavastu inthe foothills ofNepal. His childhoodnamewasSiddhartha. His mother, Mayadevi, diedwhenhe was
hardly a few days old. He was married to Yashodhara, a beautiful princess, at the age of sixteen.After a year of
the marriage, he has a son, whom they named Rahul. But at the age of twenty-nine, Gautama Buddha renounced
family life to find a solution to the world’s continuous sorrow of death, sickness, poverty, etc.He then travelled
a lot to spread his message and helped people find the path of liberation or freedom.
Gautama’s three main disciplines known as Upali, Ananda and Mahakashyap remembered his teachings and
passed them on to his followers.

MainCharacteristicsofBuddhaPhilosophy:
 Buddhapresentedsimpleprinciplesoflifeandpracticalethicsthatpeoplecouldfolloweasily.
 Heconsideredtheworldas fullofmisery.Man’sdutyistoseekliberationfromthispainfulworld.
 HestronglycriticizedblindfaithinthetraditionalscripturesliketheVedas.
 Buddha’steachingsareverypracticalandsuggesthowtoattainpeaceofmindandultimateliberation
fromthis materialworld.

SIXSYSTEMSOFANCIENTINDIANPHILOSOPHY
Metaphysics played an extremely important role in Ancient Indian learning and social system. These
metaphysics formed the philosophical foundation of life. Hence, it was given the term Darshana which literally
means showing the path (of life). The Shad-Darshanas or the six systems of the Astika or the orthodox schools
of Indian Philosophy consider the authority of Vedas.

Nyaya–ValidknowledgethroughLogicalCriticism
The short form for Nyaya is N. The founder ofthe Nyaya system was Akshapada Gautama. It is also known as
Nyaya Vidya or Tarka Sastra – ‘the science of logic and reasoning’. Because Nyaya analyses the nature and
sourceofknowledge,itvalidityandinvalidity,itisalsoknownasAnviksikiwhichmeans‘thescienceof
critical study’. For example, it is when one knows a snake as a snake or a cup as a cup. Nyaya system of
philosophy considers God who creates, sustains and destroys the universe.

Nyaya assertsthatobtaining validknowledge oftheexternalworldand itsrelationshipwiththe mind and self is

theonlywayto attain liberation. Ifone mastersthe logicaltechniquesofreasoning and dutifullyappliestheseto daily
life, hewillrid himselfofallsuffering. Theultimateaimof Nyayaphilosophylikeother systemsofIndian philosophy
is liberation – the complete cessation of pain and suffering. Although concerned with the study of logic and
epistemology Nyaya is a philosophy of life.

The common aims ofallthe six orthodoxschools ofIndianphilosophy are to describe the nature ofthe external
world and its relationship to the individual, to discuss the metaphysical aspects of the ultimate Reality, and to
state the goal of life and means for attaining this goal. In this attempt, all Indian systems divide their course of
study into two categories, the studyof the unmanifested reality and manifest reality.
InNyaya,boththeseaspectsarestudiedunder16majordivisionscalledPadarthas.Thesixteendivisionsare:-
1) Pramana–TheSourceofKnowledge
2) Prameya –TheObjectofKnowledge
3) Samsaya–Doubt/Confusion
Itisastateofmindwherethemindwaversbetweenconflictingviewsregardingasingleobject,isa product of a
confused state of mind that is not able to perceive with clarity.
4) Prayojana -The Purpose/Aim
Withoutanaimortargetnoonecanperform anyaction.Oneactstoachievedesirableobjectsortoget
ridofundesirableones,theseobjectsthatmotivateone’sactivitiesareknownasprayojana.
5) Drstanta–Example/FamiliarInstance
It is the use of an example to illustrate a common fact and establish an argument. This is a very
important aspect of reasoning for frequently an example can be accepted by both parties to resolve a
difference of opinion.
6) Siddhanta–EstablishPrinciple/Doctrine
It is a postulate that is accepted as the undisputed truth and that serves as the foundation for the entire
theoryofa particular systemofphilosophy. This accepted truth might be derived fromdirect experience
orfromreasoningand logic. Fore.g.it is thedoctrineofNyayaphilosophythatthereisaGodwhoisthe efficient
cause of the universe and who organizes / regulates the atoms.
7) Avayava–TheElements/ConstituentsofInference
Thetermliterallymeansconstituentsor partsand inthiscontext it refersto theconstituentsofinference. This
isanimportant partinNyayaphilosophybecauseNyayastronglyemphasizesdescribingthe minute
complexities of the pramanas, the sources or methods of receiving correct knowledge. Among these
methods inference is the most important source of correct knowledge and Nyaya provides a technical
method to test the validity ofthe inference. Ifan inference contains the following five constituents, then it
can give correct knowledge. These are pratijna (statements), hetu (reason), udaharana (example),
upanaya (universal proposition) and nigamana (conclusion).
8) Tarka–ReasonedArgument
9) Nirnaya– Conclusion
10) Vada–Discussiontoarriveatthetruth
11) Jalpa–Wranglingtowinanargument
12) Vitanda–IrrationalArgumentorbaselessargumentforprovingsomeonewrong
13) Hetvabhasa–Specious/ErroneousReasoning
 14) Chala–UnfairReply/Willfullymisinterpretingthewordsofothers
15) Jati–GeneralityBasedona FalseAnalogy
16) Nigrahasthana–TheGroundsforDefeat.

Prameya-TheObjectofKnowledge
Prameya or P for short may be translated as ‘that which is knowable’ or ‘the object of true knowledge’. The
word P is derived from the Sanskrit word prama meaning ‘buddhi’ or cognition. That which is the object of
cognitionisprameyaandwhatever iscomprehendedorcognizedbybuddhiiscategorized intotwelveobjectsof
cognition known as the Prameyas. These 12 divisions are –
1) AtmantheSelf,
2) Sarira thebodythatexperiencespleasureandpain,theseatofallorganicactivities,
3) Indriyasthefivesensesi.e.smell,taste,sight,touchandhearingthatcontactexternalobjectsand transmit the
experience to the mind,
4) Artha theobjectsofthesenses,
5) Buddhicognition,
6) Manas or the mind that is concerned with the perception ofpleasure and pain and according to N limits
cognition to time and space. The mind is compared to an atom because it is minute, everlasting,
individual and all pervading.
7) Pravrtiisactivity–vocal,mentaland physical,
8) Dosa–mentaldefectsthatincludeattachment(raga),hatred(dvesa),anddelusion(moha),
9) Pretyabhava–rebirthorlifeafter death,
10) Phala–thefruitsorresultsofactionexperiencedaspleasureand pain,
11) Dukha–suffering,and
12) Apavarga–liberationorcompletecessationofallsufferingwithoutthepossibilityofitsreappearance.

According to Nyaya philosophy, the goalof life is to understand these 12 aspects ofreality as they actually are.
Bondage is bornofthe misunderstandingofthese12knowableobjectsandoneobtains freedomwhenheattains the
correct knowledge of these 12 aspects of reality.

Vaisheshika
Kannada is the founder of this school, which is associated with the Nyaya system. Vaisheshika system is
considered as the realistic and objective philosophy of universe. It is popularly understood as the atomistic
schoolofIndian Philosophy. It elaborates on seven elements of matter with the nomenclature ofSaptapadartha-
1) Dravya(substanceandalsoincludesthePanchamahabhutas)
2) Guna(distinct quality)
3) Karma(action/activities)
4) Samanya(generalisttraits)
5) Vishesha(uniqueness/specialty)
6) Samavaya(inherence/inter-relatedness)
7) Abhaava(non-existence/absence)
Vaisheshikathinkers believethat allobjectsoftheuniversearecomposedoffiveelements–earth, water, air, fire and
aether. They believe that God is the guiding principle. The living beings were rewarded or punished according
to the law of karma,based on actions of merit and demerit. Creation and destruction ofuniverse wasa cyclic
process and took place in agreement with the wishes of God.
This school is called Vaisesika because it considers, uniqueness, as an aspect of reality and studies it as a
separate category. Under the topic of substance, it deals with the physics and chemistry of the body and the
universe. The theory of atomic structure was established by this school. Its practical teaching emphasizes
dharma, the codeof conduct that leads man to worldlywelfare and to the highest goalof life.

SamkhyaSystem
The propounder of this philosophy was Kapila, who wrote the Samkhya sutra. The Samkhya-karika of
Isvarakrsna, the oldest text on this philosophy, cites the name of Kapila, Asuri and Pancasikha as previous
teachers of this school. It is considered to the oldest of the philosophical systems.
Samkhya isan extremelycomplex schoolofphilosophythat goesdeep into the understanding ofthe creator and the
creation. There are terms like Mahat, Purusha, Prakritiand Tri-Gunas are explored in this school.
The Samkhya philosophy holds that reality is constituted of two principles one female and the other male i.e.
Prakriti, Purusha respectively. Prakriti and Purusha are completely independent and absolute. According to this
system, Purusha is mere consciousness, hence it cannot be modified or changed. Prakriti on the other hand is
constituted of three attributes, thought, movement and the change or transformation of these attributes brings
about the change in all objects. The Samkhya philosophy tries to establish some relationship between Purusha
and Prakriti for explaining the creation of the universe.
Samkhya isadualisticphilosophythat believesinthecoexistent and interdependent realities,consciousPurusha and
unconsciousPrakrti. Purusha is ever pure, wiseand free but it becomes a subject ofpain andpleasurewhen it
identifies itself with Prakrti. Prakrti is the material cause of the universe and is composed of three gunas –
sattva, rajas and tamas that correspond to light, activity and inertia respectively. The state in which the gunasare
in equilibrium is called Prakrti but when disturbed the state is called Vikrti. Disturbance of the equilibrium of
Prakrti produces the material world, including the mind, which is supposed to be the finest form of material
energy.
The Mahat is the universal cosmic spirit. Purusha is the passive element whereas Prakriti is the active element
which creates Manas (Mind) and the three Gunas- Sattva (Calm and composed), Rajas (momentum, dynamism
and egoistic) and Tamas (imbalanced, chaotic and destructive).
Samkhya philosophy explains the dynamics of the bodyand nature of mind. It is the mother of mathematics as
well as Ayurveda and is indeed the very basis of Eastern philosophy.

Yoga
Yoga literally means the union of the two principal entities. The origin of yoga is found in the Yogasutra of
Patanjali believed to have been written in the second century BC.The Yoga Sutras contain 196 aphorisms,
which are divided into four sections. Yoga studies all aspects of human personality and teaches one how to
control the modifications of the mind through practice of meditation and detachment and surrender to higher
consciousness.
Yogic techniques control the body, mind and sense organs. Thus this philosophy is also considered a means of
achieving freedom or mukti. This freedom could be attained by practising self-control (yama), observation of
rules (niyama), fixed postures (asana), breath control(pranayama), choosing an object (pratyahara) and fixing
the mind (dharna), concentrating on the chosen object (dhyana) and complete dissolution of self, merging the
mind and the object (Samadhi). Yoga admits the existence of God as a teacher and guide. In this system the
individualself is the seeker and pure consciousness isthe ultimate realitythat he findswithin. Practicality is the
main feature of this system.

AshtangaYoga
While Samkhya highlights the three Gunas of Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas, the eight-limbs of Yoga Sutras of
Patanjali highlight how to connect with the greater cosmic essence and enhance spirituality. These eight-limbs
include- Yama (moral conduct), Niyama (Disciple), Asana (right posture), Pranayama (effective breathing),
Pratyahara (withdrawing the senses), Dharana (to concentrate on one object), Dhyana (meditation), Samadhi
(supreme bliss/ salvation).

Mimamsa
Jamini was the founder of this system that accepts the Veda as the final authority on all questions. Mimamsa
philosophy is basically the analysis of interpretation, application and the use of the text of the Samhita and
Brahmanaportions of the Veda. According to Mimamsa philosophy Vedas are eternal and possess all
knowledge, and religion means the fulfillment of duties prescribed by the Vedas.
It lays great emphasis onrituals, worship and ethicalconduct and provides a systematic lifestyle and direction.
Mimamsa offers guidelines for practical application of Vedantic theory. This school is foremost in the analysis
of sound and mantra.
ThenamesassociatedwiththisphilosophyareSabarSwamiandKumarila Bhatta.
Eventually this school was divided into two groups: the school founded by Prabhakara and the one founded by
Kumarila Bhatta. According to the former there are five sources of valid knowledge: perception, inference,
comparison, testimony and postulation. According to the latter there is only one source of knowledge – non-
cognition. The essence of the system according to Jaimini is Dharma which is the dispenser of fruits of one’s
actions, the law of righteousness itself. This system lays stress onthe ritualistic part of Vedas.

PurvaMimamsa
Sage Jaimini is associated with Purva Mimamsa who is considered to be the disciple of Sage Vyasa. This text
provides details on why isitimportant to conduct Vedic ritualsfor a person to attain thelast ultimate goal of life
which is Moksha (usually understood as Salvation). This deals with Karma Khanda i.e action based
compendium of knowledge in the Vedas.

VedantaorUttaraMimamsa
Vedanta (the end ofthe Vedas or knowledge) refers to the Upanishads which appeared at the end of each Veda
with a direct perception of reality. It is the concluding portion of the Vedas. Shankaracharya wrote the
commentaries on the Upanishads, Brahmasutras and the Bhagavad Gita.
According to Vedanta philosophy, ‘Brahman is true, the world is false and self and Brahman are not different’.
Shankaracharya believes that the Brahman is existent, unchanging, the highest truth and the ultimateknowledge.
He also believes that there is no distinction between Brahman and the self. The knowledge of Brahman is the
essence of all things and the ultimate existence. Ramanuja was another well known Advaita scholar.
Vedanta, as the name suggests, is the last of the four forms of Vedas, the other three being Brahmanas,
Samhitas, and Aranyakas. Aranyakas and Vedanta formthe Jnana Khada viz. a more metaphysical element fora
person to explore. The beginning of Vedanta is credited to Sage Bhadrayana.
Vedanta was analyzed and interpreted by many thinkers that deserve a definite mention --Advaita(nondualistic)
Vedanta by Shankaracharya, Vishishta Advaita(qualifies nondualism) by Ramanujacharya, Dvaita (dualistic)
Vedanta by Madhavacharya, Dvaitadvaita (both dualistic and non dualistic) Vedanta by Nimbaraka and
Shuddha Advaita (pure non-dualism) Vedanta by Vallabhacharya.
Vedanta is a philosophy and a religion. As a philosophy it inculcates the highest truths thathave been discovered
by the greatest philosophers and the most advanced thinkers of all ages and all countries Vedanta philosophy
teaches that all these different religions are like so manyroads, which lead to same goal.
Thecore messageofVedanta isthat everyactionmust begoverned bythe intellect –thediscriminating faculty. The
mind makes mistakes but the intellect tells us if the action is in our interest or not. Vedanta enables the
practitioner to access the realm of spirit through the intellect. Whether one moves into spirituality throughYoga,
meditation or devotion, it must ultimately crystallize into inner understanding for atitudinal changes and
enlightenment.
The main teachings ofVedanta is that self-realization is the actualgoalof life, that the essence ofthe self is the
ever existent consciousness and bliss, the Self is free from all qualifications and limitations, that the self is
essentiallyBrahman, supremeconsciousnessandthis Brahmanis theabsolute,transcendent, attributelessreality but
it eternally embodies itself within itself the capacity or power called maya, which is the basis of mind and
matter.
Shankaracharya’s discourse or his philosophical views came to be known as Advaita Vedanta. Advaita literally
means non-dualism or belief in one reality. Shankaracharya expounded that ultimate reality is one, it being the
Brahman.

HeterodoxSects(SramaṇicSchools)
SeveralSramaṇic movementshaveexisted beforethe6thcenturyBCE, and these influenced boththe astika and
nastikatraditions ofIndianphilosophy. TheSramaṇa movement gave rise to diverse range of heterodoxbeliefs,
ranging from accepting or denying the concept of soul, atomism, antinomian ethics, materialism, atheism,
agnosticism, fatalism to free will, idealization of extreme asceticism to that of family life, strict ahimsa(non-
violence) and vegetarianismto permissibilityofviolence and meat-eating. Notable philosophies that arose from
Sramaṇic movement were Jainism, early Buddhism, Charvaka, Ajnana and Ajivika.

AjnanaPhilosophy
Ajnana was one of the nastika or "heterodox" schools of ancient Indian philosophy, and the ancient school of
radical Indian skepticism. It was a Sramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism. They
have been recorded in Buddhist and Jain texts. They held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of
metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions; and even if knowledge was
possible, it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation. They were sophists who specialised inrefutation
without propagating any positive doctrine of their own.

JainPhilosophy
Jainphilosophy is the oldest Indian philosophy that separates body (matter) from the soul(consciousness)
completely. Jainismwas revived and re-established after Mahavira,thelastand the 24thTirthankara, synthesised
and revived the philosophiesand promulgations ofthe ancient Śramaṇic traditions laid downbythe first Jain
tirthankara Rishabhanatha millions of years ago. According to Dundas, outside of the Jain tradition,
historiansdatetheMahaviraasabout contemporaneouswiththe Buddha inthe5th-centuryBC, andaccordingly the
historical Parshvanatha, based on the c. 250-year gap, is placed in 8th or 7th centuryBC.
Jainism is a Śramaṇic religion and rejected the authority of the Vedas. However, like all Indian religions, it
shares the core concepts such as karma, ethical living, rebirth, samsara and moksha. Jainism places strong
emphasis on asceticism, ahimsa (non-violence) and anekantavada (relativity of viewpoints) as a means of
spiritual liberation, ideas that influenced other Indian traditions.
Jainism strongly upholds the individualistic nature of soul and personal responsibility for one's decisions; and
that self-reliance and individual efforts alone are responsible for one's liberation. According to the Jain
philosophy, the world (Saṃsara) is full ofhiṃsa (violence). Therefore, one should direct all his efforts in
attainment ofRatnatraya,that are Samyak Darshan, Samyak Gnana, and Samyak Chàritra which are the key
requisites to attain liberation.

BuddhistPhilosophy
Buddhist philosophy is a system of thought which started with the teachings ofSiddhartha Gautama, the
Buddha, or "awakened one". Buddhism is founded on elements of the Śramaṇa movement, which flowered in
the first half ofthe 1st millennium BCE, but its foundations contain novel ideas not found or accepted by other
Sramana movements. Buddhism and Hinduism mutually influenced each other and shared many concepts,states
Paul Williams, however it is now difficult to identify and describe these influences. Buddhism rejectedthe Vedic
concepts of Brahman (ultimate reality) and Atman (soul, self) at the foundation of Hinduphilosophies.
Buddhism shares many philosophical views with other Indian systems, such as belief in karma – a cause-and-
effect relationship, samsara – ideas about cyclic afterlife and rebirth, dharma – ideas about ethics, duties and
values, impermanence of all material things and of body, and possibility of spiritual liberation (nirvana or
moksha). Amajor departurefromHindu and Jain philosophy istheBuddhist rejectionofaneternalsoul(atman) in
favour of anatta (non-Self).

AjivikaPhilosophy
ThephilosophyofAjivikawasfoundedby MakkhaliGosala,itwasa Śramaṇamovement andamajorrival
ofearlyBuddhismand Jainism. Ajivikaswereorganisedrenunciateswhoformeddiscretemonastic communities
prone to an ascetic and simple lifestyle.
Original scriptures of the Ajivika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently
unavailable and probably lost. Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ajivikas in the secondary sources
of ancient Indian literature, particularly those of Jainism and Buddhism which polemically criticized the
Ajivikas. The Ajivika school is known for its Niyati doctrine of absolute determinism (fate), the premise that
there is no freewill, that everythingthat has happened, is happeningandwillhappenisentirelypreordainedand a
function of cosmic principles. Ajivika considered the karmadoctrine as a fallacy.Ajivikas were atheists and
rejected the authority of the Vedas, but they believed thatin every living being is an atman – a central premise
of Hinduism and Jainism.

CharvakaPhilosophy
Charvaka or Lokayata was a philosophy of scepticism and materialism, founded in the Mauryan period. They
were extremely critical ofother schools ofphilosophy ofthe time. Charvaka deemed Vedas to be tainted bythe
three faults of untruth, self-contradiction, and tautology. Likewise they faulted Buddhists and Jains,
mockingtheconceptofliberation, reincarnationandaccumulationofmerit ordemerit throughkarma.
Theybelievedthat, the viewpoint of relinquishing pleasure to avoid pain was the reasoning of fools.

ComparisonofIndian Philosophies
The Indian traditions subscribed to diverse philosophies, significantly disagreeing with each other as well as
orthodox Hinduism and its six schools ofHindu philosophy. The differences ranged from a belief that every
individualhasasoul(self, atman)to assertingthat there is no soul, fromaxiologicalmerit ina frugalascetic life to
that ofa hedonistic life, froma belief in rebirth to asserting that there is no rebirth.
PoliticalPhilosophy
The Arthashastra, attributed to the Mauryan minister Chanakya, is one of the early Indian texts devoted to
politicalphilosophy. It is dated to 4th centuryBCE and discusses ideas ofstatecraft and economic policy.
The political philosophy most closely associated with modern India is the one of ahimsa (non-violence) and
Satyagraha, popularised by Mahatma Gandhi during the Indian struggle for independence. In turn it influenced
the later independence and civil rights movements, especially those led by Martin Luther King Jr. and Nelson
Mandela. Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar’s Progressive Utilization Theory is also a major socio-economic and political
philosophy.

ReligionandPhilosophyinMedievalIndia:
TheSufiMovementandImportanceofSufiMovement

Nearly every month a programme is going on in any auditorium in the city where songs of the Sufi saints and
Bhakti saints are sung. The songs and the teachings of the Sufi and the Bhakti saints are relevant even today.
The Sufi and Bhakti saints played an important role in bringing the Muslims and Hindus together.

The Sufi Movement

Background-RiseofIslam
IslamwasfoundedbyProphetMuhammad.Islamsawtheriseofmanyreligiousandspiritualmovements within it. These
movements were centered mainly around the interpretation of the Quran.
Thereweretwomajor sectsthatarosewithinIslam-theSunnisandShias.
Our country has boththe sects, but in many other countries like Iran, Iraq, Pakistan etc. The greatest challenge
to orthodox Sunnism came fromthe rationalist philosophyor Mutazilas, who professed strict monotheism.

TheSufis
Contrary to the ulena were theSufis. The Sufis weremystics. They were piousmen whowere shocked atthe
degeneration in political and religious life.
The Sufiphilosophy also differed fromthe ulena. The Sufis laid emphasis upon free thought and liberal ideas.
Theywereagainst formalworship, rigidityand fanaticism in religion. TheSufisturned to meditation in orderto
achievereligioussatisfaction.LiketheBhaktisaints,theSufistoointerpretedreligiousas‘loveofgod’and service of
humanity.

SufisminIndia
TheadventofSufisminIndiaissaidtobeintheeleventhandtwelfthcenturies.OneoftheearlySufisof eminence, who
settled in India, was AI-Hujwariwho died in 1089, popularly known as Data GanjBaksh.
TheSufiscametoIndiavis Afghanistanontheirownfreewill. Theiremphasisuponapure life, devotionallove and
service to humanity made them popular and earned them a place of honour in Indian society.

TheChishti Silsilah
The ChishtiSilsilahwas founded ina village called Khawaja Chishti. InIndia, the ChishtiSilsilahwas founded by
Khawaja Moinuddin Chishti who came to India around 1192.
HemadeAjmerthemaincentreforhisteaching.Hebelievedthatservingmankindwasthebestformof devotion and
therefore he worked amongst the downtrodden. He died in Ajmer in 1236.
TheSuhrawardiSilsilah
ThisSilsilahwas founded bySheikhShahabuddin Suhrawardi. It wasestablished inIndia bySheikhBahauddin
Zakariya.
HesetupaleadingkhanqahinMultan,whichwasvisitedbyrulers,highgovernmentofficialsandrich merchants.
TheSuhrawardiSilsilah was firmly established in Punjaband Sind. Besidesthesetwo Silsilahthere wereothers such
as the Firdawsi Silsilah, Shattari Silsilah, Qadiri Silsilah, Naqshbandi Silsilah.

TheImportanceoftheSufiMovement
TheSufimovement madea valuablecontributionto Indiansociety. Likethe Bhakti saintswho were engaged in
breaking down the barriers within Hinduism, the Sufis too infused a new liberaloutlook within Islam.
TheinteractionbetweenearlyBhaktiandSufiideaslaidthefoundationformoreliberalmovementsofthe fifteenth
century.
TheSufimovementencouragedequalityandbrotherhood.Infact,TheIslamicemphasisuponequalitywas respected far
more bythe Sufis than by the Ulena. The doctrines ofthe Sufis were attacked bythe orthodoxy.

TheImportanceoftheBhakti andSufiMovementsandPhilosophyinMedievalIndia
The development of Bhakti movement took place in Tamil Nadu between the seventh and twelfth centuries. It
was reflected in the emotional poems of the Nayanars and Alvars. These saints looked upon religion not as a
cold formalworship but as a loving bond based upon love between the worshipped and worshipper.
In course of time, the ideas of the south moved up to the North but it was a very slow process. Sanskrit, which
was still the vehicle of thought, was given a new form.
Thus we find that the Bhagavata Purana of ninth century was not written in the old Puranic form. It centered
around Krishna’s childhood and youth, this work uses Krishna’s exploits to explain deep philosophy in simple
terms. This work became a turning point in the history of the Vaishnavite movement which was an important
component of the Bhakti movement.
During this period, another movement based upon devotion towards a sakar form of God had also developed
this movement, called the Vaishnavite movement.
TheImportanceoftheBhaktiandSufiMovements
 Bhaktimovementwasasocio-religiousmovementthatopposedreligiousbigotryandsocialrigidities.
 Itemphasisedgoodcharacter andpurethinking.Atatimewhensocietyhadbecome
 stagnant,theBhaktisaintsinfusednew lifeandstrength.
 TheimportanceoftheBhaktiandSufisaintsliesinthenewatmospherecreatedbythem,which continued to
affect the social, religious and political life of India even in later centuries.
 ThepopularversesandsongsoftheBhaktisaints alsoservedas forerunnersofamusicalrenaissance.
 New musical compositions were written for the purpose of group singing at kirtans. Even today Mira’s
bhajans and Tulsidas’s chaupais are recited at a prayer meeting.

PhilosophyinMedievalIndia
 Themajorreligiousmovementswerebroughtaboutby themystics.They contributedtothereligious ideas and
beliefs.
 Bhakti saintslikeVallabh Acharya,Ramanuja,Nimbarakabroughtaboutnew philosophical thinking which
had its origin in Shankaracharya’s Advaita philosophy.

Socio-ReligiousreformMovementsof19thCentury
The Indian society in the first half of the 19th century was caste ridden, decadent and rigid. It followed certain
practices which are not in keeping with humanitarian feelings or values but were still being followed in the
name of religion.

CommonCharacteristicsofReligiousandSocialReformMovements
Fromthelate19thcenturyanumberofEuropeanandIndianscholarsstartedthestudyofancientIndia’s
history,philosophy,science,religiousand literature.
Thisgrowing knowledgeofIndia’spast gloryprovided totheIndianpeopleasenseofpride intheir civilization. It also
helped the reformers in their work of religious and social reform for their struggle against all type of inhuman
practices, superstitions etc. Since they had become associated with religious beliefs, therefore most of the
movements of social reform were of a religious character. They worked for abolition of castes and
untouchability, purdah system, sati, child marriage, social inequalities and illiteracy.

BrahmoSamajandRajaRammohanRoy
Men and women enjoy certain rights and freedom today. Among the great reformers of this period, Raja
Rammohan Roy deserves special mention.
He presented a fine combination of East and the West. A man of great literary talent and well versed in Indian
culture, he also made special effort to study Christianity and Islam so that he could deal with them with
understanding.
His main pre-occupation was how to rid the Hindu religion of image worship, sacrificial rites and other
meaningless rituals. His greatest achievement in the field of religious reform was a setting up in 1828 of the
Brahmo Samaj. The Brahmo Samaj was an important organization ofreligious reforms. It forbade idolworship
and discarded meaningless rites and rituals.
Raja Rammohan Roy’s greatest achievement was the abolition of Sati in 1929. He realized that the practice of
Satiwas due to the extremely low position of Hindu women. Therefore he started working as a stout champion
of women’s rights.
He was also deeply opposed to the caste system that prevailed in Indian society. A humanist and democrat to
the core, he wrote and talked against the caste system.
The Brahmo Samaj stood for the principles of individual freedom, national unity, solidarity and collaboration
and the democratisation of all social institutions and relations.It thus became the first organised vehicle for the
expression of national awaking and inaugurated a new era for the people of India.

ReligiousReformMovementsinModern India
The Prarthana Samaj was established in Bombay by Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang in 1876 with the objective of
rational worship and social reform.
Two great members of this Samaj were Shri R.C. Bhandarkar and Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade. They
devoted themselves to the work of social reform such as inter-caste dinning, inter-caste marriage, widow
remarriage and improvement of the lot of women and depressed classes.
Mahadev Govind Ranade devoted his entire life to Prarthana Samaj. He was the founder of the Widow
Remarriage Association and the Deccan Education Society. He established the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha as
well to Ranade, Religious reform was inseparable from social reform. He also believed that if religious ideas
were rigid there would be no success in social, economic and political spheres.
Ranade’s great message to the persons who were involves in social service was “Strength of numbers we
cannot command, but we can command earnestness of conviction, singleness of devotion, readiness for
self-sacrifice, in all honest workers in the cause.”

DerozioandYoungBengalMovement
HenryLuiVivianDeroziojoined theHinduCollegeofCalcuttaasateacher.HehadcomefromScotland tosell
watched inCalcutta,butlatermadethespreadofmoderneducationinBengalas hislife’smission.
Derozio promoted radical ideas through his teaching and by organizing as association for debate anddiscussions
on literature, philosophy, historyand science. He inspired his followers and students to question all authority.
Derozio and his famous followers, known as the Derzians and Young Bengal, were fierypatriots.
TheYoung Bengal Movement continued evenafter Derozio’s dismissaland his sudden death. Thoughdeprived of
leadership, the embers of this group continued preaching radical views throughof teaching and journalism.

SpreadoftheReformMovementsinWesternandSouthernIndia
AfterBengal,themost importantregionwherethemovement forreformsspreadwaswesternIndia.
BalShastriJambekarwasoneofthe first reformers inBombay. HeattackedBrahmanicalorthodoxyandtriedto reform
popular Hinduism.
In 1849, the Parmahansa Mandali was founded in Poona, Satara and other towns of Maharashtra. Its followers
had faith in one God and they opposed caste system. At its meetings, members took food cooked by low-caste
people. They favoured education of women and supported widow remarriage.
MahadevRanadebelievedthat without socialreforms it was notpossibletoachieveanyprogress inthepolitical and
economic fields. He was a great advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity.
Two other great reformers in Western India were Gopal DeshmukhLokahitwariand JotiRao GovindRao Phule
popularly known as Jotiba.
Jotiba Phule was also a pioneer of the widow remarriage movement in Maharashtra.
An important movement particularly significant for the emancipation of the so-called backward and oppressed
sections of Indian society was started by Shree Narayan Guru in Kerala.
In1903 he founded the Shree Narayan Dharma ParipalanaYogam to carry on the work of social reform.
He considered differences based on casteandreligionasmeaninglessandadvocatedwhathecalled„One
Caste, one Religion and on God for all.‟

ReligiousReformMovementsinModernIndia
Attend a meeting of the Arya Samaj any day. They are also performing yajana and reading the scriptures. This
was the basic contribution of Mool Shanker an important representative of the religious reform movement in
India from Gujarat. He later came to be known as Dayanand Saraswathi. He founded the Arya Samaj in 1875.
The most influential movement of religious and social reform in northern India was started by Dayanand
Saraswathi. He held that the Vedas contained all the knowledge imparted to man by God and essentials of
modern science could also be traced in them. He was opposed to idolatry, ritual and priesthood, particularly to
the prevalent caste practices and popular Hinduism as preached by the Brahmins. He favoured the study of
westernscience. With all this doctrine, he went about all over the countryand in 1875founded the Arya Samaj
inBombay. SatyarthPrakashwas his most important book.TheuseofHindiin hiswritingsandpreaching made his
ideas accessible to the common people of northern India.
AryaSamajis opposed child marriagesand encouraged remarriage ofwidows. It maderapid progress in Punjab,
Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. Arya Samaj tried to inoculate the spirit of self-respect and self-reliance
among the people of India. This promoted Nationalism.

TheRamakrishnaMissionandSwamiVivekananda
Gadadhar Chattopadhyaywas a poor Brahmin priest who later came to be known as Ramakrishna Parmahansa.
His education did not proceed beyond the elementary stage and he had no formal education in philosophy and
shastras. He dedicated his life to God. He believed that there were many roads to God and the service of man
was the service of God, because man was the embodiment of God.
Narendra Nath Datta later known as Swami Vivekananda was the most devoted pupil of Ramakrishna
Parmahansa who carried the message of his Guru Ramakrishna all over the world, especially in America and
Europe.
Vivekanandawas indeed, apatriot fromthecoreofhis heart.Hehad tremendousfaith intheevolutionofIndian culture
and an intense zeal to revive all that was good and great in her culture so as to serve her in all possible ways for
her onward march. In 1893 he participated in the All World Religious Conference at Chicago in the United
States of America. He argued that Vedanta was the religion of all andnot of the Hindusalone. He argued his
countrymen to work for their own salvation. For this purpose bands ofworkers devoted to this cause were
trained through the Ramakrishna Mission. Thus, Vivekananda emphasized social good or social services.
 MODULE4

INDIANLITERATURE,CULTURE,TRADITION,AND
PRACTICES

 Astronomy in India
 ChemistryinIndia
 Mathematicsin India
 PhysicsinIndia,AgricultureinIndia
 MedicineinIndia
 MetallurgyinIndia
 Geography
 Biology
 HarappanTechnologies
 WaterManagementinIndia
 TextileTechnologyinIndia
 WritingTechnologyin India
PyrotechnicsinIndiaTradeinAncientIndia
 India‟sDominanceuptoPre-colonialTimes

2
 MODULE4
SCIENCE,MANAGEMENTANDINDIANKNOWLEDGESYSTEM

IndianCulture: Science andTechnologyinIndia:

ExperimentationandObservation
Indians have a desire to know the unknown, accompanied with experimentation and observation.
Development of science in ancient India occured where religion and science worked in close proximity.
Astronomy in Ancient India was studied in a text called Jyotishvedanga which established systematic
categories. Though the basic problem of astronomy were taken up by Aryabhatta whose text Aryabhatta
contains 121 verses containing separate sections on astronomical definitions, position of planets, movement
of sun and moon, calculation of the eclipses. He gave astronomy a scientific outlook deviating from the
Vedic astronomy. Astrology and horoscope were studied in Ancient India.
Mehendra Suri developed an astronomical instrument. Yantraja during Firoz Shah Reign. Kamalakar
studied Islamic astronomical ideas as he was head of Islamic Knowledge. Five Astronomical observatories
were setup in Delhi, Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and Jaipur by Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh-II of Jaipur.

In Ancient India Mathematics was called Ganita which includes Arithmetic, Geometry, Algebra, and
Astronomy. Arithmetic was called aspattinganita (calculationson board) and ankaganita (calculations with
numbers). Geometryand Algebra was called as Rekha Ganita and Bija Ganita, respectively.
Various work on Mathematics were produced during this time like Ganitakaumudi And Bijaganitavatamsa
by Narayana Pandit; Lilavati Karamdipika and Lilavati Vyakhya by Gangadhara; Tantrasamgraha by
Nilakantha Somasutvan. Tajik was compiled by Nilakantha Jyotirvida who introduced Persian technical
terms. Mathematics was made as a subject by Akbar.
Mathematics can be easily seen in the town planning of Harappa Civilization. Mathematics developed as
separate stream of study in third century AD. Indian mathematics is supposed to be originated from
sulvasutras. The concept of Acute, Obtuse and Right Angle was introduced by APASTAMBA in second
century BC which helped in construction of Fire Altars where kings used to offer sacrifices. Zero was
discovered in India in the second century itself in the book “Brahmagupta‟s Brahmasputa Siddhanta‟ and
hence BRAHMAGUPTA was considered the man who discovered ZERO.

Medicines were mentioned firstly in Atharva Veda for diseases like Fever, Cough, diarrhoea, sores and
others. The diseases were said to be caused due to demon entering the body therefore magical charms were
remedies for the same. It was 600 BC the period of rational science where Taxila and Taranasi were the
centresofmedicine and learning. Charaksamhita by Charak and Sushrutsamhita by Sushrutawere important
texts in the field. Sushruta was pioneer the field of Surgery and considered it as “the highest division of the
healing arts and least liable to fallacy”. He mentions method of operations, bone setting, cataract and 121
surgical instruments.
Metallurgy was also present in India as it could be seen in the glazed potteries and bronze or copper
artefacts that were found in excavations of Indus Valley Civilization. The Vedic people were aware of
fermenting grains and fruits, tanning leather and the process of dyeing. The Iron Pillar of Qutub Minar isalso
an example of high qualityof alloying and a two-metre-high bronze image of Buddha at Sultanganj.
Geography was studied to understand the relation between the constant interaction of man and nature.
Ancient Indians were not familiar withthe voyages and navigation, but trade exist inthat time as there were
remains of dockyard in Lothal (aside in Gujarat).

In the field of Biology Mrga-paksi-sastra was compiled by Hamsadeva; Jahangir‟s Tuzuk-I jahangiri
recorded his observation and experiments on breeding and hybridisation.
3
In the area of Chemistry Paper was produced in Kashmir, Sialkot, Patna and Mysore. The application of
Chemistrywas also used in making Gunpowder, explosive composition and (Attar) perfumes.

Scientific and technological developments in medieval India were along two lines: one with already
existing courses and other which came up as an influence of Islamic and European influence.
Medieval period witnessed the entryofMuslims in India. The educational pattern ofArab was adopted, and
classical Indian methods received a setback. Maktabs and Madarsas came into existence and received royal
patronage. Madarsawereopenedat numerousplaces including Sambal and Agra where they were headed by
two brothers Sheikh Abdullah and Sheikh Azizullah. Learned men from Arabia, Persia and Central Asia
were invited to educate in Madarasas.
Subjects like Arithmetic, Mensuration, Geometry, Astronomy, Accountancy, Public Administration and
Agriculture were added in the primary school courses.
Large workshops called Karkhanas were opened for manufacturing equipments for royal household and
governmental departments. These Karkhanas provided Technical and Vocational training to people who
turned out to be Artisans and Craftspersons who later opened their own independent Karkhanas.

IndianCulture: Science and Technology in India:The Medieval Period

 There was not much change in agricultural practices, only some changes like introduction of new
crops and trees. The Western Ghats yielded black pepper and Kashmir maintained saffron while
ginger and cinnamon in Tamil Nadu; Cardamom, Sandalwood and coconut from Kerala were
Popular.
 During the 16th and 17th century Tobacco, Chillies, potato, guava, custard apple, cashew and
pineapple were also introduced.
 MangoGraftingsystemwereintroducedbyJesuitsofGoa.
 Forirrigation,Wells,Tanks, Canals,and Rahat were used.
 Land measurement and land classification system was introduced which was beneficial to the rulers
as well as the tillers.
 Science and technology in modern India have the role in National Development. In 1971, the
Department of Science and Technology (DST) was setup and at State levels; State Council ofScience
and Technology have been established. Government also promotes research and schemes to
encourage scientific temper in the country.

IndianCulture: Scientists of Ancient India:

The Field of Mathematics, Science, Ayurveda and Yoga
There was contribution of Ancient Indians in the field of Mathematics and Science, including Medical
Science, Ayurveda, Yoga, Astronomy and Astrology. Scientific knowledge was evolved in Ancient India.
During Ancient India, there was immense contribution to the knowledge in Mathematics and various
branches of Science. Due to lack of documentation and dissemination in the western world Ancient Indians
mathematics did not get the credits for the mathematical theories that they deserve.

Badayun was first to discover several mathematical concepts like the value of pi used in area and
circumference of a circle. Today‟s Pythagoras theorem was founded several years before the age of
Pythagoras in Baudhayan‟s sulva sutra.
Aryabhatta was an astronomer, astrologer, physicist, and a pioneer of Mathematics. He wrote summary of
Mathematics of his time Aryabhattiya at the age of 23 having four sections describing method of denoting
bigdecimalnumbersbyalphabets,differentquestionssuchastheory,geometry,trigonometry,and
4
Beejganita (algebra); and two sections onastronomy. He showed that zero was a symboland a concept not a
numeral only which enables to find out the exact distance between earth and the moon. He also contributed
to field of science as the last two sections of Aryabhattiya were on Astronomy.

In Ancient India, the science of astronomy was called Khagol Shastra. The need of astronomy to have
accurate calendars, climateand rainfall patterns for sowing crops, dates ofseasons and festivals was ofgreat
importance in trade.

Aryabhatta stated that Earth is round and rotates on its own axis. He also stated that the moon and planets
sheild byreflected sunlight and gave scientific explanation for solar and lunar eclipse.

Brahmagupta; in 7th century he used place value in multiplication and introduced negative numbers and
operations on zero into Mathematics. He wrote Brahm sputa siddantika.

Bhaskaracharya a leading light of 12th century. He was famous for his book Siddanta Shiromani. It was
divided into four sections: Lilavati (arithmetic), Beejaganit (Algebra), Goladhyaya (sphere) and Grahaganit
(mathematics of planets). He introduced Chakrawat method or cyclic method to solve algebraic equations.

Mahavir Acharya was a Jain guru and wrote Ganit Sara Sangraha in 850 A.D which was first textbook on
arithmetic. LCM (Least Common Multiple) was also described by him.
Kanad was a 6th century scientist. His original name was AULUKYA. He got the name Kanad because of
his interest in minute particles called KANA. He held that material universe is made up of Kanas /atom
which is not visible through eyes and are indivisible in his atomic theory.

Varahmihira lived during Gupta period. He claims that termites and plants could be indicators of
underground water. He gave list of six animals and thirty plants. He also gave famous Earthquake Cloud
Theory in Brhat Samhita (32nd chapter). He also contributed in Jyotish or Astrology which was given high
place in Ancient India and eventoday. Hewasthe member ofVikramAditya‟s court andwasgiven thetitle
VARAHA by Vikramaditya.

Nagarjuna was 10th century Scientist who transformed base elements into gold. He gave the treatise
Rasaratnakara which discusses methods for extraction of metals like Gold, Silver, Tin and copper.

InAncient India, MedicalScience were highlydeveloped as it hasthe indigenoussystemof medicine called

Ayurveda Which literally means the science of good health and longevity of life.

Ayurveda with the help of herbal medicine aims at removing the cause ofdiverse by strikingat the roots. It is
the oldest medical system.

Athreya Samhita oldest medical book of the world. Charak is called the father of Ayurvedic medicine and
Susruta is called the father of Surgery.

Susruta, Charak, Madhava, Vagbhatta and Jeevak were noted Ayurvedic practitioner ofthat time. Susruta is
called the father of Surgery. He studied human body with the help of dead body. In Susruta Samhita over
1100diseases were mentionedwith760 plantsare describedto provideremedy. It also mentionsthe process

5
Of preserving the dead body for the purpose of study.He was greatest contribution in the field of Rhinoplasty
(Plastic Surgery) and Ophthalmic Surgery (Removal of Cataracts).

In Ancient India the science of yoga was developed to get healthy at the physical and mental Level with out
medicine. It has its roots in Vedas.Yogais Physical(Hathyoga) and Mental(Rajayoga).

6
 MODULE5

CULTURALHERITAGEANDPERFORMINGART

 AstronomyinIndia
 IndianArchitect,EngineeringandArchitectureinAncientIndia
 Sculptures,Seals,Coins
 Pottery,Puppetry
 Dance,Music,Theatre,drama,Painting,
 MartialArtsTraditions,FairsandFestivals
 CurrentdevelopmentsinArtsandCultural
 Indian’sCulturalContributiontotheWorld
 IndianCinema

2
 MODULE 5
CULTURALHERITAGEANDPERFORMINGART

IndianCulture: Education in India: Art, Architecture, ReligionandScience

Culture has different aspects such as art, architecture, religion, science but it’s most important aspect is
Education. Education is a learning experience and a lifelong process. This system changes along with
changes in culture.

InAncient India learning was imparted byteacherscalled Gurusto thepupilswho cameto livewith themin their
houses called Gurukul (adomesticschool).Therelationshipof learning betweentheteacher and student was
called as Guru-Shishya Parampara which began with a religious ceremony Upanayana. Education was
imparted orally which included memorization of texts like Vedas and Dharmashastras. Later subjects like
Grammar, Logic and metaphysics were also added. During this time self education was regarded as the
proper method of attaining the highest knowledge.

During Mauryan and the post Mauryan period the growth of urban centers and trade, the Mercantile
community came to an important position and started to play an active part in providing Education. They
fostered the knowledge of mining, metallurgy, carpentry, weavinganddyeing. There were new formulations
in building and architecture with the emergence of city life. Medical knowledge began to be systemized as
AYURVEDA.

In the Gupta period, the Jain and Buddhist systems of education assumed different dimensions. Buddhist
monasteries admitted students for ten years. Their learning began withoralmethod and afterwardsshifted to
reading of literary texts. Monastries also had libraries. Monasteries were maintained by kings and rich
mercantile class. The subjects taught included Vedanta, philosophy, study of the puranas, epics, grammar,
logic etc.
Sanskrit was the court languageand medium of instruction. GraduallyJainism and Buddhism lost their royal
patronage and their monastries started declining.

In Ancient India, the aim of education was for one’s inner growth and self fulfilment, techniques, rules and
methods, increase creative capacity.
Sanskrit enjoyed apositionofprivilege as it wasthe mediumofBrahmanicaleducationand the language for
upper castesand Hindu rulers. Prakrit developed asa languageofmasses withtheriseofBuddhism and Pali
wasoneoftheearliest variantsofit. The Dravidian languagesTamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam were
used in the southern India.

During Medieval period with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, Islamic system of education was
introduced. The institutions of school education were known as Makhtabs and that of higher learning were
known as Madrasas. The famous Madarasas were Muizzi, Nasiri and the Firuzi. This system of education
was traditional in spirit and theological in content. The curriculum was divided into two categories:
Traditions, law and history, literature came under the traditional sciences (MANQULAT) while Logic,
philosophy, medicine, mathematics, astronomy came under the rational sciences (MAQULAT). This period
saw the rise of URDU as a language. Akbar patronised many scholars such as Abul Fazal, Raja Todar Mal,
Birbal and Rahim. They were among the nine gems of his court that helped in spreading culture and
education.

3
In Eighteenth Century, the British were involved in trade and conquest in India. The beginning of oriental
scholarshipwas made byWarrenHastings in1781 whenhe startedthe CalcuttaMadarsa. Elevenyears later, in
1792, Jonathan Duncan, a Resident of Varanasi started a Sanskrit college to educate native Hindus toassist
the Europeans. Christian missionaries were making efforts to introduce western education by opening
elementary schools and providing education to the more humble sections of the Society including the
Untouchables.

The first half ofthe nineteenth centurycan be called as a period of educational experiments. The East India
Company’s Charter Act of 1813 enabled the company to set aside one lakh rupees for education. William
Bentick adopted English as the official language of the government and Lord Harding employed Indianswho
had received English education. The objectivesofeducational policy was given in WoodsDespatchof 1854
which suggested that Universities should be set up in Bombay, Madras and Calcutta. In 1857 Universities of
Bombay, Madras and Calcutta were established.

In 1901, Lord Curzon convened the conference of Directors of Public Instructions which began era of
educational reforms. In 1904, the Indian Universities Act was passed to take measures for qualitative
improvement in higher education.

Literacy and education were more widespread in towns than in villages.

Britishers needed people to work in administrative offices so they encouraged the teaching of English
Language. Christian Missionaries opened schools where English was taught. Use of English unknowingly
helped Indians as it was one language that cut across the entire country and become a common link for
people and also helped to get freedom.

InPost Independent India adequate measures were takento spread education, economic inequality, regional
imbalance and social justice. In 1966, the Report of the Education Commission known as Kothari
Commissionreferred to educationasthe only instrument of peacefulsocialchange. The subject ofeducation
was incorporated in concurrent list by the constitutional amendment act of 1976.

Elementaryeducation is the crucial stage of education including first eight years of schooling. Article 45 of
the constitution provides for the state to introduce compulsory andfree education for children up to the age
of fourteen. In 2001, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyana was introduced by central government for universalization of
elementary education.

Higher Education becomes when students completes their senior secondary education It is important that
courses in higher education offers programmes of study and courses closely related to life, aimed at the
development of personality, reasoning and learning capabilities of students.

The National Education Policy of 1968 aimed at promoting national progress, a sense of commoncitizenship
and culture, and strengthens national integration. It also laid stress on a radical reconstruction of the
education system, technology, cultivation of moral values and a closer relation between education andthe
lives of the people.

4
Open and Distance Learning system is meant for those learners who discontinue their education in formal
system due to financial, Geographical, academic, or medical reasons. They can learn without any boundary
of place and time as per their convenience.

Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) is a centrally sponsored scheme for universalisation of
access to and improvement of quality education at secondary stage. Its goal is to make secondary education
Available, Accessible and Affordable.

IndianArchitecture: Architecture-OriginsandIndianPerspectiveandHarappanPeriod
At times itbecomes very important to be reminded that we are that civilization which has spanned at
least4500 years and which has left its impact on nearly everything in our lives and society.
 Goingthrough thecitiesof Delhi, Agra, Jaipur, Mumbai andCalcuttaetc.wefindmany beautiful
buildings.
 Somearemonuments, palaces, temples, churches, mosques and memorials.
 TheearliestandmostremarkableevidenceofIndianarchitectureisfoundinthecitiesoftheHarappan
Civilization which boast of a unique town planning.
 Inthepost Harappan period architecturalstyles have beenclassifiesasHindu, Buddhist and Jain, the
medieval period saw the synthesis of Persian and indigenous styles of architecture.

Architecture-OriginsandIndianPerspective
 Architecture is not a modernphenomenon. It began as soon as the early cave man began to build his
own shelter to live in.
 Manfirstbegantocreateandfixhisownshelterwhenhesteppedoutfromthenaturalhabitatof dense jungle
covers.
 With the artisticfaculties of man awakenedin the searchforlarger andbetter-sheltered spaces, he began
to build, with inherent aesthetic sense, shelters that seem pleasing to the eye.
 Thus emerged architecture which is a combination of needs, imagination, capacities of the
buildersand capabilities of the workers.
 Architectureaccommodatedthelocalandregionalculturaltraditionsandsocialrequirements, economic
prosperity, religious practice of different times.
 IndianArchitectureevolvedinvariousages indifferentpartsandregionsofthe country.
 Apartfromthisarchitecturewasgenerallyaffectedbymanygreatandimportanthistoric developments.
 Naturally, theemergence and decayofgreat empiresand dynasties in thesub-continent, each in their
way influenced the growth and shaped the evolution of Indian architecture.

Harappan Period
 The excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro and several other sites of the Indus Valley
Civilisationrevealed the existence ofa verymodernurbancivilisationwithexpert townplanning and
engineering skills.
 The very advanced drainage system along with well planned roads and houses show that a
sophisticated and highly evolves culture existed in India before the coming of the Aryans.
 The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were excavates under the Archaeological Survey of India
established by the British.
 TheHarappanpeoplehad constructedmainlythreetypesofbuildings
5
 o Dwellinghouses
o Pillaredhalls
o Publicbaths
 ThemostimportantfeaturesofHarappanarchitecturearetheirsuperiortownplanningskillsand cities that
have been built on a clear geometric pattern or grid layout.
 ThedeclineandfinaldestructionoftheIndusValleyCivilization, some time around the second
millennium BC remains a mystery to this day.
 TheHarappanshad theknowledgeand skillofsculpting and craft.Theworld’sfirstbronzesculpture
Of a dancing girl has been found in Mohenjo-Daro.

Indian Architecture: Early Historic Period: Cave Architecture, Rock-Cut Temples and Free-Standing Temples
An important phase of Indian architecture began with the Mauryan Period.The material prosperity of the
Mauryans and a new religious consciousness led to achievements in all fields.

Early Historic Period

 Megasthenes,theGreekambassadorofSelucasNikatorwhovisitedtheMauryancourtdescribed
ChandraguptaMaurya’spalaceasanexcellentarchitecturalachievement.
 IntheMauryanPeriodespeciallyunderAshokaarchitecturesawagreatadvancement.
 MauryanartandarchitecturedepictedtheinfluenceofPersiansandGreeks.Duringthereignof
Ashoka many monolithic one pillars were erected on which teachings of ‘Dhamma’were inscribed.
 Thelioncapitalofthe Sarnathpillarhasbeenacceptedastheemblemofthe IndianRepublic.
 ThestupasofSanchiandSarnatharesymbolsoftheachievementofMauryanarchitecture.
 The Amaravati School developed under the patronage of the Satavahanas of the Andhra region.
 TheGuptaPeriodmarksthebeginningoftheconstructionoffree-standingHindutemples.

Cave Architecture
 The development ofcave architecture is another unique feature and marks an important phase in the
history of Indian architecture.
 More than thousand caves have been excavated between second century BCand tenth centuryAD.
 Famous among these were Ajanta and Ellora caves of Maharashtra, and Udaigiri cave of Orissa.
 These caves hold Buddhist viharas, chaityasaswellas mandapasand pillared templesofHindu gods and
goddesses.

Rock-CutTemples
 Templeswerehewnoutofhugerocks.Theearliestrock-cuttempleswereexcavatedinwestern Deccan in the
early years of the Christian era.
 ThechaityaatKarlewithfinehighhallsandpolisheddecorativewallisaremarkableexampleof rock-cut
architecture.
 The Kailash temple at Ellora built by the Rashtrakuta and the ratha temples of Mahabalipuram built
by the Pallavas are other examples of rock-cut temples.
 Mostprobablythestabilityandpermanenceof rocksattractedthepatronsof artandbuilderswho decorated
these temples with beautiful sculptures.

Free-StandingTemples

6
  ThetemplebuildingactivitiesthatbeganduringtheGuptarulecontinuedtoflourishinlater periods.
 In southern IndiathePallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Hoyshalas and later the rulers of theVijayanagar
kingdom were great builders of temples.
 The Pallava rulers built the shore temple at Mahabalipuram.Pallavasalsobuiltotherstructural temples
like Kailash Nath temple and Vaikuntha Perumal temples at Kanchipuram.
 TheCholasbuiltmanytemplesmost famousbeingtheBrihadeshwaratempleatTanjore.
 The Cholas developed a typical style of temple architecture of south India called the Dravida style,
complete with vimana or shikhara, high walls and the gateway topped by gopuram.
 The Sun temple at Konark was built in thirteenth century by the eastern Ganga rules Narsimha Deva
I.
 The temple complex at Khajuraho was built by Chandella rulers between the tenth and eleventh
centuries in the Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh. Most important among them is the
Kandariya Mahadev temple.
 Somnath temple at Gujarat, Vishwanath temple at Banaras, Govinda temple at Mathura, Kamakhya
temple at Guwahati, Shankaracharya temple at Kashmir and the Kali temple at Kalighat of Kolkata
are some other important templeswhich bear testimonyto temple building activityof the Indian sub-
continent.

Indian Architecture: Delhi Sultanate, Regional Kingdoms and Monuments Built by Akbar at
Fatehpur Sikri
With the arrival of Turks during the thirteenth century came a new technique of architecture, the
architectural styles of Persia, Arabia and Central Asia.

Delhi Sultanate
The engineering features ofthese buildings were the domes, arches and minarets. The palaces, mosques and
tombs built by the rulers had these features which were blended with the features of the indigenous
architecture and a new synthesis in architecture was achieved.
This happened because the Turkish rulers of Delhi utilized the service of the local Indian craftsmen who
were very skilful and had already constructed beautiful buildings.
The earliest building of this period is QuwwatulIslam Mosque at Delhi and the Qutub Minar.
The architecture of thisperiod also shows how indigenous styles were adopted and utilized by the builders.

RegionalKingdoms
With the establishment ofregionalkingdoms in Bengal, Gujarat and the Deccan, beautiful buildings having
their own style were constructed.
In Mandu the JamaMasjid, Hindola Mahal and Jahaz Mahal were built.

Mughals
TheadventoftheMughalsbroughtanewerainarchitecture.Thesynthesisofstylewhichbeganearlier reached its
zenith during this time.
ThearchitectureofMughal StylestartedduringAkbar’srule.ThefirstbuildingofthisrulewasHumayun’s
Tomb at Delhi.In this magnificent building redstone was used.
The Red Fortand Jama Masjidof Delhi and above all the TajMahal are some of thebuildingsbuiltby
Shahjahan.
The Taj Mahal, the tomb of Shahjahan wife, is built in marble and reflects all the architectural features that
were developed during the Mughal Period.
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Monuments Built byAkbarat FatehpurSikri
TheMughal architecture beganin the region of Akbar.He erected many important buildings the crowing
achievements of his reign was the building of his new capital cityof Fatehpur Sikri, 40km from Agra.
Fatehpur Sikri is aromance of stones. The Arch of the Buland Darwajais themostimposing gateway in the
world.

The tomb of Saint Salim Chistiis exquisiteinits beauty.Jodha Bai Palaceis afineexample of ancient Indian
architecture.
The Panch Mahal is a pyramidal structure in five storeys. It was build the patternofa Buddhist Vihara. The
ShalimarGardens inKashmirandLahoreweredevelopedculturalandarchitecturalgrowthofIndia.

IndianArchitecture: Monuments and Buildings, Towns and Cities in India

The colonial influence can be seen inoffice buildings. Europeanswho startedcoming fromsixteenthcentury AD
constructed many churches and other buildings.
 Portuguese built many churchesat Goa, the most famousof these are Basilica Bom Jesusandthe
church of Saint Frances.
 The British also built administrative and residential buildings which reflect their imperial glory.
 Some Greek and Roman influence can be observed in the colonnades or pillared buildings.
 Parliament House and Connaught Place in Delhi are good examples. The architect Lutyens,designed
Rashtrapati Bhavan, formerly theViceroy’s residence.
 The Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, the former capital ofBritish India, is a huge edifice in marble. It
now houses a museum full of colonial artefacts.
 TheBritishalsoleftbehindimpressiverailwayterminalsliketheVictoriaTerminusinMumbai.
 In thepastfewdecades, there have been many talentedIndianarchitects, some trained in premier
schools of architecture like the School of planning and Architecture (SPA) in Delhi.
 In domestic architecture in the last decade, housing Cooperative Societies have mushroomed in
allmetropolitan cities combining utility with a high level of planning and aesthetic sense.

Towns andCities in India

 It is evident that when we think or talk of architecture, we have to think of the related idea of town
planning or urban development.
 Starting from the Harappan civilization, (also known as Indus- Saraswathi Civilization by some
historians), India has had a very historyof town planning, which can be traced back to 2350 B.C.
 The most well known two cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro had an elaborate drainage system,
roadswhichcut eachotheratright angles; acitadelwhichwas built onahighgroundand inthe lower parts
lived the rest of the population.
 Kalibangam in Rajasthan and Surkotda in Kutch had similar city structure. From 600 B.C. onwards,
we as Dravidian civilization.
 These were Rajgir, Varanasi, Ayodhya, Hastinapur, Ujjain, Sravasthi, Kapilvastu and Kausambhi
besides many others.
 New residential areas like Civil Lines and Cantonments came up in towns. The area where civilian
administrative Officers lived was called Civil Lines, while cantonments were areas meant for the
British Army Officers.