Dr. E. HAMATWI, Email: ehamatwi@unam.

na, Office #: E215

Jose Eduardo dos Santos Campus
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
School of Engineering and the Built Environment
 Circuits under considering in this section: RLC circuits – with two storage elements (C and L).

 RLC circuits are second-order circuits – their responses are described by differential equations
that contain second derivatives.
 A second-order circuit is characterised by a second-order differential equation.

 The analysis of the second-order circuits will be similar to that used for the first-order circuits.

 Same as first-order circuits, second-order circuits may contain several resistors and dependent or
independent sources.
 FINDING INITIAL AND FINAL VALUES
𝑑𝑣 0 𝑑𝑖 0
 Getting 𝑣 0 , 𝑖 0 , , , 𝑖 ∞ , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣(∞). – crucial for analysing second-order circuits.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

 𝑣 − 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑖 − 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡.

 Key points to consider when determining the initial conditions:

1. Carefully handle the polarity of voltage 𝑣(𝑡) across the capacitor and the direction of the current
𝑖(𝑡) through the inductor.
2. The capacitor voltage is always continuous, so that 𝑣 0+ = 𝑣(0− ).
3. The inductor current is always continuous, so that 𝑖 0+ = 𝑖(0− )
- 𝑡 = 0− is the time just before a switching event, and 𝑡 = 0+ is the time after the switching event.

- In finding initial conditions, first focus on the variables that cannot change abruptly: capacitor
voltage 𝑣 and inductor current 𝑖.
 FINDING INITIAL AND FINAL VALUES: EXAMPLE 1
 The switch in the figure below has been closed for a long time, it is opened at t = 0. Find: (a)
𝑑𝑖 0+ 𝑑𝑣 0+
𝑖 0+ ,𝑣 0+ , 𝑏 , , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 𝑖 ∞ , 𝑣 ∞ .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

SOLUTION:
(a) Since the switch has been closed a long time before t = 0,

the circuit reached steady state at t = 0.

- Inductor acts as a short circuit, capacitor acts as an open circuit, at 𝑡 = 0− .
12
- Thus, 𝑖 0− = = 2𝐴, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 0− = 2𝑖 0− = 4𝑉.
4+2

- The inductor current & capacitor voltage cannot change abruptly:

𝑖 0+ = 𝑖 0− = 2𝐴, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 0+ = 𝑣 0− = 4𝑉.
 FINDING INITIAL AND FINAL VALUES: EXAMPLE 1
SOLUTION cont…:
b) At 𝑡 = 0+ , the switch is open. Equivalent circuit is given below.
- The same current flows through both the inductor and capacitor. 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒,
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑖𝐶
- 𝑖𝐶 0+ = 𝑖 0+ = 2𝐴, Remember; 𝑖𝐶 = 𝐶 → =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑𝑣 0+ 𝑖𝐶 0+ 2
- Thus, = = = 20 𝑉/𝑠 .
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 0.1
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑣𝐿
- Similarly, remember 𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿 → = , thus, we need to obtain 𝑣𝐿 .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿

- Applying KVL to the loop, → −12 + 4𝑖 0+ + 𝑣𝐿 0+ + 𝑣 0+ = 0 ↦ 𝑣𝐿 0+ = 12 − 8 − 4 = 0

𝑑𝑖 0+ 𝑣𝐿 0 + 0
= = = 0 𝐴/𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 0.25
 FINDING INITIAL AND FINAL VALUES: EXAMPLE 1
SOLUTION cont…:
c) At 𝑡 > 0, the circuit undergoes transiency.
But as 𝑡 → ∞, the circuit reaches steady state again.
- Inductor acts as a short circuit, capacitor acts as an open circuit,

as shown in the circuit below:

- 𝑖 ∞ = 0𝐴, 𝑣 ∞ = 12𝑉
 FINDING INITIAL AND FINAL VALUES: GROUP EXERCISE
 In the circuit shown on the right, calculate:

(a) 𝑖𝐿 0+ , 𝑣𝐶 0+ , 𝑣𝑅 0+
𝑑𝑖𝐿 0+ 𝑑𝑣𝐶 0+ 𝑑𝑣𝑅 0+
(b) , ,
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

(c) 𝑖𝐿 ∞ , 𝑣𝐶 ∞ , 𝑣𝑅 ∞
 Understanding the natural response of series RLC circuits is fundamental knowledge for future
studies in filter design and communications networks.
 Consider the series RLC circuit shown on the right.

 Circuit is excited by the energy initially stored in the capacitor & inductor.

 Energy represented by the initial capacitor voltage 𝑉0 and initial inductor current 𝐼0 .

 Thus, at t = 0,
1 0
𝑣 0 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉0 , 𝑖 0 = 𝐼0 (70)
𝐶
𝑑𝑖 1 𝑡
 Applying KVL around the loop, 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 + ‫𝑡𝑑)𝑡(𝑖 ׬‬ =0 (71)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 −∞
𝑑2𝑖 𝑅 𝑑𝑖 𝑖
 Differentiating (71) with respect to t, + + =0 (72)
𝐿 𝑑𝑡𝑑𝑡 2
𝐿𝐶
‫ 𝒅𝒏𝒐𝒄𝒆𝑺ۦ‬− 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏.
 To solve the differential equation in (72), there should be two initial conditions, i.e., initial values
of 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣, and their first derivatives.
𝑑𝑖 0 𝑑𝑖 0 1
 From (70) and (71), 𝑅𝑖 0 + 𝐿 + 𝑉0 = 0 → = − (𝑅𝐼0 + 𝑉0 ) (73)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿

 The initial conditions in (70) and (73) can now be used to solve (72).

 The content from the preceding section on first-order circuits suggests that the solution is of L
exponential form. 𝒅𝟐 𝒊 𝑹 𝒅𝒊 𝒊 A
+ + =𝟎 P
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝑳 𝒅𝒕 𝑳𝑪
 Let 𝑖 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑠𝑡 (74) L
𝑹𝒊 𝒊 A
- Where A and s are constants to be determined. 𝒔𝟐 𝒊 + 𝒔 + =𝟎 C
𝑳 𝑳𝑪 E
- Substituting (74) into (72) and carrying out the necessary differentiations, we obtain,
𝐴𝑅 𝐴 𝑠𝑡 𝑅 1
𝐴𝑠 2 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 + 𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑡 + 𝑒 = 0 → 𝐴𝑒 𝑠𝑡 𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + =0 (75)
𝐿 𝐿𝐶 𝐿 𝐿𝐶
 From (75), since 𝑖 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑠𝑡 is the assumed solution, only the expression in the brackets can be 0.
𝑅 1
𝑠2 + 𝑠 + =0 (76)
𝐿 𝐿𝐶
- Characteristic equation of the differential equation in (72).
- The roots of Eq. (76) dictate the character of i. −𝑏 ± 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥1,2 =
2𝑎
 The two roots of Eq. (76):
2
𝑅 𝑅 1
𝑠1 = − + −
2𝐿 2𝐿 𝐿𝐶 (77)

𝑅 𝑅 2 1
𝑠2 = − − −
2𝐿 2𝐿 𝐿𝐶

𝑅 1
𝑠1 = −𝛼 + 𝛼 2 − ω20 , 𝑠2 = −𝛼 − 𝛼 2 − ω20 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 = , ω0 = (78)
2𝐿 𝐿𝐶
 Roots 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 are natural frequencies [associated with the natural response of the circuit]

 ω0 - resonant frequency or the undamped natural frequency [radians/second].

 𝛼 – neper frequency or damping factor, [nepers/second].

 Equation (76) can be expressed in terms of 𝛼 and ω0 as:

𝑅 1
𝑠2 + 𝑠 + = 0 → 𝑠 2 + 2𝛼𝑠 + ω20 = 0 (79)
𝐿 𝐿𝐶
𝛼
= ζ – damping factor
ω0

 From Eq (78), it is clear that there are two solutions for i, taking the form of the assumed solution:

𝑖1 = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑠1 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖2 = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑠2 𝑡 (80)
 Equation (72) is linear, thus a complete or total solution would require a linear combination of 𝑖1
and 𝑖2 . Thus, natural response of the series RLC circuit is → 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒆𝒔𝟏 𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒆𝒔𝟐𝒕 (81)
 Natural response of the series RLC circuit is → 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒆𝒔𝟏 𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒆𝒔𝟐 𝒕 (81)
- Constants 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 are determined from the initial values 𝑖 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖 0 Τ𝑑𝑡.
- From (78), there are three types of solutions: 𝑠1 = −𝛼 + 𝛼 2 − ω20 , 𝑠2 = −𝛼 − 𝛼 2 − ω20

1. 𝛼 > ω0 - overdamped response {the roots of the circuit’s characteristic equation are real &
unequal.
2. 𝛼 = ω0 - critically damped response {the roots are real and equal. 𝑅 1
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 = , ω0 =
2𝐿 𝐿𝐶
3. 𝛼 < ω0 - underdamped response {the roots are complex.
OVERDAMPED CASE (𝛼 > ω0 )
 From Eq. (77) and (78), 𝛼 > ω0 means that 𝐶 > 4𝐿/𝑅 2 .
Thus, both 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 are negative, real and unequal.
 The response is 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒆𝒔𝟏 𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒆𝒔𝟐𝒕 (82)
~ 𝑖 𝑡 decays and approaches zero as t increases.
 𝑠1 = −𝛼 + 𝛼 2 − ω20 , 𝑠2 = −𝛼 − 𝛼 2 − ω20
CRITICALLY DAMPED CASE (𝛼 = ω0 )
2 𝑅
 When 𝛼 = ω0 , 𝐶 = 4𝐿/𝑅 and, 𝑠1 = 𝑠2 = −𝛼 = − (83)
2𝐿

 For this case, Eq. (81) yields, 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 = 𝑨𝟑 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 (84) ~ 𝑨𝟑 = 𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐
 However, the two initial conditions cannot be satisfied with the single constant 𝑨𝟑 . Thus,

 Considering that 𝛼 = ω0 = 𝑅/2𝐿, the second-order differential equation in (72) becomes,

𝑑2𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
+ 2𝛼 + 𝛼 2𝑖 = 0 → + 𝛼𝑖 + 𝛼 + 𝛼𝑖 = 0 (85)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
Let 𝑓 = + 𝛼𝑖 (86)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑓
- Eq. (85) becomes, + 𝛼𝑓 = 0 (87) ~ a 1st-order differential eq. with solution 𝑓 = 𝐴1 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 .
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
- Eq. (86) then becomes, + 𝛼𝑖 = 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 → 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 + 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 𝛼𝑖 = 𝐴1 (88)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 CRITICALLY DAMPED CASE (𝛼 = ω0 )
𝑑
 Eq. (88) can be written as; 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 𝑖 = 𝐴1 (89), integrating both sides gives,
𝑑𝑡

𝑒 𝛼𝑡 𝑖 = 𝐴1 𝑡 + 𝐴2 → 𝒊(𝒕) = (𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒕)𝒆−𝜶𝒕 (90)

~ 𝐴2 is a constant.
 The natural response is a sum of two terms: a –ve exponential and a –ve exponential * a linear term.

- The response reaches a maximum value of 𝒆−𝟏 /𝜶 at t = 1/𝜶 (1 time constant) and decays to zero.
UNDERDAMPED CASE (𝛼 < ω0 )
 For 𝛼 < ω0 , 𝐶 < 4𝐿/𝑅 2 . The roots may be written as;

𝑠1 = −𝛼 + − ω20 − 𝛼 2 = −𝛼 + 𝑗ω𝑑 , 𝑠2 = −𝛼 − − ω20 − 𝛼 2 = −𝛼 − 𝑗ω𝑑 (91)

Where 𝑗 = −1 and ω𝑑 = ω20 − 𝛼 2 {damping frequency/ damped natural frequency}

{while ω0 - undamped natural frequency}.

 The natural response is;𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝑒 −(𝛼−𝑗𝜔𝑑 )𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 −(𝛼+𝑗𝜔𝑑 )𝑡
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (𝐴1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑑 𝑡 ) (92)
- Remember Euler’s identities, 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃, 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
 Thus, 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 cos ω𝑑 𝑡 + 𝑗 𝐴1 − 𝐴2 sin ω𝑑 𝑡
𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 (𝑩𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒅 𝒕 + 𝑩𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒅 𝒕) (93)
UNDERDAMPED CASE (𝛼 < ω0 )

𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 (𝑩𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒅 𝒕 + 𝑩𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒅 𝒕) (93)

 Having the sine and cosine functions in (93) means the natural

response for this case is exponentially damped and oscillatory in nature.

 Response has a time constant 1/𝛼, and a period of 𝑇 = 2𝜋/ω𝑑 .

 Once the inductor current i(t) is found for the RLC series circuit, other circuit quantities such as
individual element voltages can be found:
𝑑𝑖
e.g. resistor voltage, 𝑣𝑅 = 𝑅𝑖 , and the inductor voltage 𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿 .
𝑑𝑡

- The inductor current i(t) is selected as the key variable to be determined first, for ease of
determining other circuit quantities.
 EXAMPLE 1
1
 In the circuit shown, 𝑅 = 40Ω, 𝐿 = 4𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = 𝐹.
Calculate the characteristic roots of the
4
circuit. Is the natural response overdamped, underdamped or critically damped?
SOLUTION:
 To determine the roots, we first find,
𝑅 40 1
𝛼= = = 5, ω0 = =1
2𝐿 2(4) 4×1/4

 The roots are;

𝑠1,2 = −𝛼 ± 𝛼 2 − ω20 = −5 ± 52 − 12
𝑠1 = −0.101, 𝑠2 = −9.899
Since 𝛼 > ω0 , the response is overdamped. Also evident because the roots are real, negative &
unequal.
 Parallel RLC circuits have many practical applications, such as, communication networks and
filter designs.
 Consider a source-free parallel RLC circuit on the right,

 Assume an initial inductor current 𝐼0 and initial capacitor voltage 𝑉0 .

1 0
𝑖 0 = 𝐼0 = ‫𝑉 = 𝑡𝑑)𝑡(𝑣 ∞׬‬0 , 𝑣 0 = 𝑉0 (94)
𝐿

 For elements in parallel – same voltage 𝑣 across them.

 Applying KCL at the top node gives,

𝑣 1 0 𝑑𝑣
+ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑣(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶 = 0 (95)
𝑅 𝐿 𝑑𝑡

 Taking the derivative with respect to t and dividing by C results in:

𝑑2𝑣 1 𝑑𝑣 1
+ + 𝑣 =0 (96)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶
 Getting the characteristic equation as follows,
1 1
𝑠2 + 𝑠 + =0 (97)
𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶

- Whereby the roots are:

1 1 2 1
𝑠1,2 = − ± − ⟹ 𝑠1,2 = −𝛼 ± 𝛼 2 − ω20 , (98)
2𝑅𝐶 2𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶
1 1
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 = , ω0 = (99)
2𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶

 As in the previous subsection, there are three possible solutions, depending on whether;

𝛼 > ω0 , 𝛼 = ω0 or 𝛼 < ω0
 OVERDAMPED CASE (𝛼 > ω0 )
 From Eq. (99), 𝛼 > ω0 , means 𝐿 > 4𝑅 2 𝐶. The roots for the characteristic equation are real and
negative.
 The response is: 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒆𝒔𝟏 𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒆𝒔𝟐 𝒕 (100)

CRITICALLY DAMPED CASE (𝛼 = ω0 )

 For 𝛼 = ω0 , L = 4𝑅 2 𝐶. The roots are real and equal.

 The response is: 𝒗(𝒕) = (𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒕)𝒆−𝜶𝒕 (101)

UNDERDAMPED CASE (𝛼 < ω0 )
 For 𝛼 < ω0 , 𝐿 < 4𝑅 2 𝐶. The roots are complex and may be expressed as, s1,2 = −𝛼 ± 𝑗ω𝑑 (102)

 The response is: 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 (𝑨𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒅 𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒅 𝒕) (103)

 UNDERDAMPED CASE (𝛼 < ω0 )

 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 (𝑨𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒅 𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒅 𝒕) (103)

 Constants 𝑨𝟏 and 𝑨𝟐 in each case are determined from the initial conditions 𝑣(0) and 𝑑𝑣(0)/𝑑𝑡.
𝑑𝑣 0
 𝑣(0) is known from Eq. (94), is derived from Eq. (95) as follows:
𝑑𝑡
𝑉0 𝑑𝑣 0 𝒅𝒗 𝟎 𝑽𝟎 +𝑹𝑰𝟎
+ 𝐼0 + 𝐶 =0→ =− (104)
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝒅𝒕 𝑹𝑪

 Once the capacitor voltage v(t) for the RLC parallel circuit is found, other circuit quantities such
as individual element current can be found:
- Resistor current, 𝑖 = 𝑣/𝑅 , the capacitor voltage 𝑣𝐶 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑣 Τ𝑑𝑡.
 EXAMPLE
 In the parallel circuit shown on the right, find v(t) for t > 0, assuming 𝑣 0 = 5𝑉, 𝑖 0 = 0, 𝐿 =
1𝐻, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = 10𝑚𝐹. Consider these cases: 𝑅 = 1.923Ω, 𝑅 = 5Ω, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 = 6.25Ω.
SOLUTION:
 CASE 1: If R = 1.923 𝛺,
1 1 1 1
𝛼= = = 26 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ω0 = = = 10
2𝑅𝐶 2×1.923×10×10−3 𝐿𝐶 (1×10×10−3 )

Since 𝛼 > ω0 , the response is overdamped. The roots of the characteristic equation are:

𝑠1,2 = −𝛼 ± 𝛼 2 − ω20 = −26 ± 262 − 102 = −2, −50, and the corresponding response is:
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒆−𝟓𝟎𝒕
- Applying the initial conditions to get 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 :
𝑑𝑣 0 𝑣 0 + 𝑅𝑖 0 5
𝑣 0 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 = 5, =− =− = −260
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 1.923 × 10 × 10−3
 EXAMPLE
SOLUTION cont…:
 CASE 1: If R = 1.923 𝛺,
𝑑𝑣 𝑡
- Differentiating 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒆−𝟓𝟎𝒕 ⇉ = −2𝐴1 𝑒 −2𝑡 − 50𝐴2 𝑒 −50𝑡
𝑑𝑡

- At t=0, −260 = −2𝐴1 − 50𝐴2 , solving the two simultaneous equations [𝐴1 + 𝐴2 = 5], the
constants are: 𝐴1 = −0.2083 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴2 = 5.208,
- Thus, the natural response is:
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒆−𝟓𝟎𝒕 = −𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟖𝒆−𝟐𝒕 + 𝟓. 𝟐𝟎𝟖𝒆−𝟓𝟎𝒕
CLASS EXERCISES:
 CASE 2: If R = 5 𝛺, Ans: 𝒗 𝒕 = (𝟓 − 𝟓𝟎𝒕)𝒆−𝟏𝟎𝒕 𝑽

 CASE 3: If R = 6.25 𝛺, Ans: 𝒗 𝒕 = (𝟓𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟔𝒕 − 𝟔. 𝟔𝟔𝟕𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟔𝒕)𝒆−𝟖𝒕

 Consider the series RLC circuit shown on the right, lets find v, after a sudden application of a DC voltage.
 Applying KVL around the loop for t > 0,
𝑑𝑖
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑠 (105)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
But 𝑖 = 𝐶 , 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑣 𝑅 𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑉𝑠
𝐿 𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑠 ⟹ + + = (106)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶
 The solution to Eq. (106) has two components: the transient response and steady-state response.
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑡 𝑡 + 𝑣𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) (107)
 The three possible solutions of the transient response 𝑣𝑡 𝑡 are the same as those obtained for the source-
free series RLC circuit:
- Overdamped: 𝒗𝒕 𝒕 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒆𝒔𝟏 𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒆𝒔𝟐 𝒕 (108)
- Critically damped: 𝒗𝒕 (𝒕) = (𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒕)𝒆−𝜶𝒕 (109)
- Underdamped: 𝒗𝒕 𝒕 = 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 (𝑨𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒅 𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒅 𝒕)(110)
 The steady-state response is the final value of v(t).

 In the circuit, the final value of the capacitor voltage is the same as the source voltage.

𝑣𝑠𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑣 ∞ = 𝑉𝑠 (111)
 The complete solutions for the overdamped, underdamped, and critically damped cases are:
- Overdamped: 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒔 + 𝑨𝟏 𝒆𝒔𝟏 𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒆𝒔𝟐 𝒕 (112)
- Critically damped: 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒔 + (𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒕)𝒆−𝜶𝒕 (113)
- Underdamped: 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒔 + 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 (𝑨𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒅 𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒅 𝒕) (114)
𝑑𝑣 0
 The values of the constants 𝑨𝟏 and 𝑨𝟐 are obtained from the initial conditions: 𝑣 0 and .
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
 Once the capacitor voltage 𝑣𝐶 = 𝑣 is known, we can determine 𝑖 = 𝐶 , the current through all
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
elements. 𝑣𝑅 = 𝑖𝑅 and 𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿 .
𝑑𝑡
 Consider the parallel RLC circuit shown on the right. Lets find i due to a sudden application of a
DC current.
 Applying KCL at the top node for t > 0,
𝑣 𝑑𝑣
+𝑖+ 𝐶 = 𝐼𝑠 (115)
𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
But 𝑣 = 𝐿 , thus,
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝑖 𝑑 𝑑𝑖 𝑑2 𝑖 1 𝑑𝑖 𝑖 𝐼𝑠
𝐿 +𝑖+ 𝐶 𝐿 = 𝐼𝑠 ⟹ + + = (116)
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶
 The complete solution to Eq. (116) is, 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖𝑡 𝑡 + 𝑖𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) (117)
 The 3 solutions of the transient response 𝑖𝑡 𝑡 are obtained the same as in the previous section.
 The steady-state response is the final value of i. In the circuit, the final value of the current
through the inductor is the same as the source current, thus,
𝑖𝑠𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑖 ∞ = 𝐼𝑠 (118)
 The complete solutions for the overdamped, undamped and critically damped cases are:
- Overdamped: 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑰𝒔 + 𝑨𝟏 𝒆𝒔𝟏 𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒆𝒔𝟐 𝒕 (119)
- Critically damped: 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑰𝒔 + (𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒕)𝒆−𝜶𝒕 (120)
- Underdamped: 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒔 + 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 (𝑨𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒅 𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒅 𝒕) (121)
 The values of the constants 𝑨𝟏 and 𝑨𝟐 for each case are obtained from the initial conditions:
𝑑𝑖 0
𝑖 0 and .
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
 Once the inductor current 𝑖𝐿 = 𝑖 is known, we can determine 𝑣 = 𝐿 , which is the same across
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
all elements. 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑣/𝑅 and 𝑖𝐶 = 𝐶 .
𝑑𝑡
END OF SUB-UNIT