CHAPTER 1

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Psychology is defined formally as a science which studies mental processes, experiences and behavior in
different contexts. In doing so, it uses methods of biological and social sciences to obtain data
systematically.

Mental Processes
i). Are states of consciousness or awareness or mental processes.
ii). We use our mental processes when we think or try to solve a problem, to know or remember
something.
iii). Some psychologists have shown that we also learn and remember in our sleep. Mental
processes, such as remembering, learning, knowing, perceiving, feeling are of interest to
psychologists.
iv). One level at which these mental processes are reflected is the brain activity.
v). Brain/neural activities and mental processes are different, but interdependent and mutually
overlapping processes.
vi). Unlike the brain, the mind does not have a physical structure or has a location.
Mind emerges and evolves as our interactions and experiences in this world get dynamically
organised in the form of a system which is responsible for the occurrence of various mental
processes.
vii). Brain activities provide important clues to how our mind functions.
viii). The consciousness of our own experiences and mental processes are much more than the
neural or brain activities.

Experiences
i). Experiences are subjective in nature.
ii). One cannot directly observe or know someone else’s experience. Only the experiencing person
can be aware or be conscious of her or his experiences.
iii). Thus, experiences are implanted in our awareness or consciousness.
iv). Experiences are influenced by internal and the external conditions of the experiencer. If you are
travelling in a crowded bus during a hot summer day, you may not experience the usual
discomfort if you are going for a picnic with some close friends.

Behaviors

i). Behaviours are responses or reactions we make or activities we engage in.

 ii). Behaviours may be simple or complex, short or enduring.
iii). Some behaviours are overt. They can be outwardly seen or sensed by an observer.
iv). Some are internal or covert. They can only be sensed by the individual experiencing it.
v). All behaviours, covert or overt, are associated with or triggered by some stimulus/cause in the
environment or changes that happen internally.
vi). Some psychologists study behaviour as an association between stimulus (S) and response (R).
Both stimulus and response can be internal or external.

Evolution of psychology

Structuralism

i). Wilhelm Wundt set up the first experimental laboratory in Leipzig, Germany Psychology in
1879.
ii). Wundt was interested in the study of conscious experience
iii). He wanted to analyse the constituents or the building blocks of the mind.
iv). Psychologists during Wundt’s time analysed the structure of the mind through introspection and
therefore were called structuralists.
v). Introspection was a procedure in which individuals or subjects in psychological experiments
were asked to describe in detail, their own mental processes or experiences.
vi). However, introspection as a method did not satisfy many other psychologists. It was considered
less scientific because the introspective reports could not be verified by outside observers. This
led to the development of new perspectives in psychology.

Functionalism

i). An American psychologist, William James, set up a psychological laboratory in Cambridge,

Massachusetts, USA
ii). He developed a functionalist approach to the study of the human mind.
iii). He believed that psychology should study what the mind does and how behaviour functions in
making people deal with their environment.
iv). For example, functionalists focused on how behaviour enabled people to satisfy their needs.
v). According to William James, psychology should study consciousness as an ongoing stream of
mental process interacting with the environment.
vi). John Dewey, used functionalism to argue that human beings seek to function effectively by
adapting to their environment.
Gestalt Psychology

i). In the early 20th century, a new perspective called Gestalt psychology emerged in Germany as a
reaction to the structuralism of Wundt.
ii). It focused on the organisation of perceptual experiences.
iii). The term Gestalt means whole. Thus, our perceptual experience is more than the elements.
Experience is holistic; it is a Gestalt.
iv). Instead of looking at the components of the mind, the Gestalt psychologists argued that when
we look at the world our perceptual experience is more than the sum of the components of the
perception. In other words, what we experience is more than the inputs received from our
environment. When, for example, light from a series of flashing bulbs falls on our retina, we
actually experience movement of light. When we see a movie, we actually have a series of
rapidly moving images of still pictures falling on our retina.

Behaviourism

i). John Watson in Around 1910 rejected the ideas of mind and consciousness as subject matters
of psychology.
ii). For Watson, mind is not observable.
iii). According to him , introspection is subjective because it cannot be verified by another observer.
scientific psychology must focus on what is observable , measurable and verifiable.
iv). He defined psychology as a study of behaviour or responses (to stimuli) which can be measured
and studied objectively.

Psychoanalysis

i). Sigmund Freud. Freud viewed human behaviour as a manifestation of unconscious desires and
conflicts.
ii). He founded psychoanalysis as a system to understand and cure psychological disorders. F
iii). reudian psychoanalysis viewed human beings as motivated by unconscious desire for
gratification of pleasure seeking (and often, sexual) desires.

Humanistic Perspective

i). the humanistic perspective in psychology took a more positive view of human nature.
 ii). Humanists, such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, emphasised the free will of human beings
and their natural determination to grow and unfold their inner potential.

Cognitive Perspective

i). Cognition is the process of knowing.

ii). Aspects of Gestalt approach and structuralism were combined and led to the development of
the cognitive perspective
iii). It focuses on how we know about the world.
iv). It involves thinking, understanding, perceiving, memorising, problem solving and a number of
other mental processes by which our knowledge of the world develops.
v). Some cognitive psychologists view the human mind as an information processing system like the
computer.
Mind, according to this view is like a computer and it receives, processes, transforms, stores and
retrieves information.

Constructivism

i). Modern cognitive psychology views human beings as actively constructing their minds through
their exploration into the physical and the social world. This view is sometimes called
constructivism.
ii). A Russian psychologist Vygotsky went on to suggest that the human mind develops through
social and cultural processes in which the mind is viewed as culturally constructed through joint
interaction between adults and children. He believed that mind is a joint cultural construction
and emerges as a result of interaction between children and adults.
iii). Another psychologist, Jean Piaget believed that children actively construct their own minds.

DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA

The Indian philosophical tradition is rich in its focus on mental processes and reflections on human
consciousness, self, mind-body relations, and a variety of mental functions such as cognition,
perception, illusion, attention and reasoning, etc. Unfortunately, philosophical roots in the Indian
tradition have not influenced the development of modern psychology in India. The development of the
discipline in India continues to be dominated by western psychology, although some attempts have
been made to find points of departure both within the country and abroad.

i). The modern era of Indian psychology began in the Department of Philosophy at Calcutta
University where the first syllabus of experimental psychology was introduced and the first
psychology laboratory was established in 1915.
 ii). Calcutta University started the first Department of Psychology in the year 1916 and another
Department of Applied Psychology in 1938.
iii). The beginning of modern experimental psychology at Calcutta University was greatly influenced
by the Indian psychologist Dr. N.N. Sengupta who was trained in USA in the experimental
tradition of Wundt.
iv). Professor G. Bose was trained in Freudian psychoanalysis, another area which influenced the
early development of psychology in India. Professor Bose established Indian Psychoanalytical
Association in 1922.

BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

Cognitive Psychology

Cognition is the process of knowing.

i. The major cognitive processes are attention, perception, memory, reasoning, problem solving,
decision-making and language.

ii. This branch investigates mental processes involved in acquisition, storage, manipulation, and
transformation of information received from the environment along with its use and communication.

iii. In order to study these cognitive processes, psychologists conduct experiments in laboratory
settings. Some follow an ecological approach, i.e. an approach which focuses on the environmental
factors, to study cognitive processes in a natural setting.

iv. Cognitive psychologists often collaborate with neuroscientists and computer scientists.

Biological Psychology

i). focuses on the relationship between behaviour and the physical system ( including the brain and
the rest of the nervous system, the immune system, and genetics.)
ii). Biological psychologists collaborate with neuroscientists, zoologists, and anthropologists.

Neuropsychology –
i). Focuses on the relationship between behaviour and the nervous system. It is a field of research
where psychologists and neuroscientists work together.
 ii). Researchers are studying the role of neurotransmitters and their role in associated mental
functions.
iii). They do their research on people with normal functioning brain as well as on people with
damaged brain by collecting data obtained from technologies like EEG, PET and fMRI and the
like.

Developmental Psychology

i. Studies the physical, social and psychological changes that occur at different ages over a life-span,
from conception to old age.
ii. The primary concern of developmental psychologists is how we become what we are.
iii. Focus is on the biological, socio-cultural and environmental factors that influence psychological
characteristics such as intelligence, cognition, emotion, temperament, morality, and social
relationship. (Developmental psychologists collaborate with anthropologists, educationists,
neurologists, social workers, counsellors )

Social Psychology

i). Explores how people are affected by their social environments

ii). Focuses on how people think about and influence others.
iii). Social psychologists are interested in such topics as :
Attitudes (states of mind that )
conformity (behaving according to group norm)
obedience to authority
interpersonal attraction
helpful behaviour (pro-social behaviour)
prejudice (a negative attitude towards a person/s and object)
aggression (acts meant to hurt others)
social motivation
inter-group relations

Cross-cultural and Cultural Psychology

i). culture influences human behaviour in many ways and in varying degrees.
ii). This branch examines the effect of culture on behavior, thought, and emotion.
iii). It assumes that human behaviour is a reflection of both human-biological potential and culture.
iv). Therefore behaviour should be studied in its socio-cultural context.

Environmental Psychology

i). studies the interaction of physical factors such as temperature, humidity, pollution, and natural
disasters on human behaviour.
ii). Researches and attempts to understand issues such as –
iii). The influence of physical arrangement of the workplace on health, the emotional state, and
interpersonal relations
iv). the extent to which disposal of waste, population explosion, conservation of energy, efficient
use of community resources are associated with and are functions of human behaviour.

Health Psychology
i). Focuses on the role of psychological factors (for example, stress, anxiety) in the development,
prevention and treatment of illness.
ii). Areas of interest for a health psychologist are-
iii). stress and coping,
iv). the relationship between psychological factors and health,
v). patient-doctor relationship
vi). ways of promoting health enhancing factors.

Sports Psychology

i). Applies psychological principles to improve sports performance by enhancing the motivation of
athletes. Studies how various factors (such as, the coach, the technique) affect performance.

Educational Psychology

i). Studies how people of all ages learn.

ii). Educational psychologists help develop instructional methods and materials used to train people
in both educational and work settings.
iii). They are also concerned with research on issues of relevance for education, counselling and
learning problems.
iv). School psychology -Attempts to apply knowledge of psychology in a school setting.
  Focuses on designing programmes that promote intellectual, social, and emotional development
of children, including those with special needs.
 School psychologists administer various psychological tests, and interpret test results to help
students with their problems.
 They also help in the formulation of school policies.
 They facilitate communication between parents, teachers and administrators.
 They provide teachers and parents with information about the academic progress of a student.

Clinical and Counseling Psychology

Clinical psychologists

i). Specialise in helping clients with behavioural problems by providing therapy for various mental
disorders and in cases of anxiety or fear, or with stresses at home or at work.
ii). They work either as private practitioners or at hospitals, mental institutions, or with social
agencies.
iii). They may be involved in conducting interviews and administering psychological tests to
diagnose the client’s problems, and use psychological methods for their treatment and
rehabilitation.
iv). A clinical psychologist has a degree in psychology, which includes intensive training in treating
people with psychological disorders.
 In contrast, a psychiatrist has a medical degree with years of specialised training in the
treatment of psychological disorders.
 One important distinction is that psychiatrists can prescribe medications and give
electroshock treatments whereas clinical psychologist cannot.

Counseling psychologists

i). Work with persons who suffer from motivational and emotional issues.
ii). Aim to improve everyday functioning by helping people solve problems in daily living and cope
more effectively with challenging situations.
iii). The problems of their clients are less serious than those of the clinical psychologists.
iv). A counselling psychologist may be involved in vocational rehabilitation programmes, or helping
persons in making professional choices or in adjusting to new and difficult situations of life.
v). Counselling psychologists work for public agencies such as mental health centres, hospitals,
schools, colleges and universities.

Community psychologists
 i). generally focus on problems related to community mental health.
ii). They work for mental health agencies, private organisations and state governments.
iii). They help the community and its institutions in addressing physical and mental health problems.
 In rural areas they may work to establish a mental health centre.
 In urban areas they may design a drug rehabilitation programme.
iv). Many community psychologists also work with special populations such as the elderly or the
physically or mentally challenged.
v). They help in the redirection and evaluation of various programmes and plans and community
based rehabilitation (CBR).

Industrial/Organisational

i). deals with workplace behaviour, focusing on both the workers and the organisations that
employ them.
ii). Industrial/organisational psychologists are concerned with-
 training employees,
 improving work conditions,
 developing criteria for selecting employees.
 dealing with problems that the executives and employees of an organisation tend to face in
their respective roles.
iii). For example, an organisational psychologist might recommend that a company may adopt a
new management structure that would increase communication between managers and staff.
iv). industrial and organisational psychologists are trained in cognitive and social psychology.
v). They provide organisations with consultancy services and organise skill training programmes in
order to enhance their efficiency and effectiveness.

THEMES OF RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS

Theme 1 : Psychology like other sciences attempts to develop principles of behavior and
mental processes.

i). In research, the main concern is with the understanding and explanation of behaviour ,
mental events and processes.
ii). Psychologists, who choose to engage in research, function more like other scientists.
Like them, they draw conclusions which are supported by data.
iii). They design and conduct experiments or studies under controlled conditions on a wide
range of psychological phenomena.
iv). The purpose is to develop general principles about behaviour and mental processes.
v). The conclusions drawn on the basis of such studies apply to everybody and are, therefore,
universal.
vi). For example, experimental psychologists study the processes of perception, learning,
memory, thinking, and motivation, etc., using experiment as their method of enquiry,
whereas physiological psychologists attempt to examine physiological bases of these
behaviours. Developmental psychologists study qualitative and quantitative changes in
behaviour from the beginning of human life to its end, whereas social psychologists focus
on the study of experience and behaviour of individuals as they take place in social
contexts.

Theme 2 : Human behaviour is a function of the attributes of persons and environment.

i). Kurt Lewin first proposed the famous equation B = f(P,E)

B –behaviour, P-person, E- environment , f- function of
ii). It suggests that behaviour is the product of a person and her/ his environment.
iii). this equation tells us that the variations we find in human behaviour are largely due to the
fact that persons differ with respect to their various attributes because of their genetic
endowments and diverse experiences and so do the environments they are placed in.
iv). Psychologists believe that although, core psychological processes are universal, they are
prone to individual dispositions. Psychologists also believe that there are variations in
behaviour which occur due to environmental factors.

Theme 3 : Human behavior is caused.

i). Most psychologists believe that all human behaviour can be explained in terms of causes
which are internal (to the organism) or external having location in the outside
environment.
ii). Psychologists realise that simple linear explanations, such as X Causing Y do not hold
true.
iii). There is no one cause of behaviour. Human behaviour has multiple causes.
Psychologists, therefore, look for causal models where a set of interdependent variables
are used to explain behaviour.

Theme 4 : Understanding of human behaviour is culturally constructed.

i). There are psychologists who believe that most psychological theories and models are
Euro-American in nature and therefore, do not help us in understanding behaviours in
other cultural settings.
ii). A similar evaluation is made by feminists who argue that psychology offers a male
perspective and ignores the perspective of women. They argue in favour of an approach
which will accommodate both male and female perspectives to understand human
behaviour

Theme 5 : Human behavior can be controlled and modified through the application of
psychological principles.

i. Psychologists seek to improve the quality of human life. This often requires removal
of certain difficulties or adverse conditions that individuals experience in different
phases of their life.
ii. Psychologists make certain interventions into the lives of needy people.
iii. Thus, several independent branches of psychology have emerged that try to use
psychological theories, principles and facts to diagnose and resolve problems related
to industrial and organisational settings, clinical services, education, environment,
health, community development and so on.

PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER DISCIPLINES

Philosophy:

i). Until the end of the 19th century, certain concerns that are now part of contemporary
psychology like, what the nature of the mind is or how do humans come to know their
motivations and emotions were the concerns of philosophers.
ii). In the later part of the 19th century, Wundt and other psychologists adopted an experimental
approach to these questions and contemporary psychology emerged.
Medicine:

i. a healthy body requires a healthy mind

ii. important areas where the two fields have merged - preventing people from engaging in
health hazardous behaviors , in adhering to the prescribed doctors’ regimen (While treating
patients suffering from cancer, AIDS, and the physically challenged, or handling patients in the
Intensive Care Unit, and patients during post operative care . A large number of hospitals now
employ psychologists.)
iii. A successful doctor looks at the psychological as well as physical well-being of the patients.

Economics, political science sociology:

As sister social science disciplines, these three have drawn considerably from psychology and
have enriched it as well.
i). Economics -Psychology has contributed a great deal to the study of micro-level economic
behaviour, particularly in understanding consumer behaviour, savings behaviour and in decision
making.
 American economists have used data on consumer sentiments to predict economic
growth.
ii). Political science helps to understand issues related to
 exercise of power and authority,
 nature of political conflicts and their resolutions,
 voting behaviour.
iii). Sociology and psychology come together to explain and understand the behaviour of
individuals within different socio-cultural contexts.
 Issues related to socialisation, group and collective behaviour, and intergroup conflicts
are the focus of both these disciplines.

Computer Science:

i). From the very beginning, the effort of computer science has been to imitate the human mind.
ii). It is visible in terms of how a ‘computer’ is structured, its memory organised, sequential and
simultaneous (parallel) processing of information.
iii). Computer scientists and engineers are seeking to make computers not only more and more
intelligent but also machines which can sense and feel.

Law and Criminology :

 i). A skilled lawyer, a Psychologists and a criminologist requires knowledge of psychology in
answering such questions as:
How well a witness remembers an accident, a street fight, or a murder?
How well can s/he report such facts when taking the witness stand in the court?
What factors influence the decision which is taken by the jury?
What are the dependable signs of guilt and falsehood
What factors are held important in holding a culprit responsible for her/his action?
What degree of punishment is considered just for a criminal act?

Mass Communication:

i). The print and the electronic media have a major influence on our thinking, attitudes and
emotions.
ii). have brought us closer together and have reduced cultural diversities.
iii). have helped in developing strategies for better and effective communication.
iv). knowledge of the motives and emotions of human beings is very important-especially when
reporting news/ content on social media.

Music and Fine Arts :

i). Scientists have made use of music in raising work performance.

ii). The correlation between Music and emotions is being researched upon widely.
iii). Musicians in India have recently started experimenting with what they call ‘Music Therapy’. In
this they use different ‘Ragas’ for curing certain physical ailments. The effectiveness of music
therapy still remains to be proven.

Architecture and Engineering :

i. an architect must satisfy her/his clients by providing mental and physical space through her
design and satisfy aesthetically.

ii. Engineers must take into account human habits in their plans for safety, for example, on streets
and highways. Psychological knowledge helps to design mechanical devices and displays in as user
friendly a way as possible .