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Practical: 1
Aim: Study of different network devices in detail.

Network Devices: A network device is a physical device that is used to connect other
physical devices on a network. In some cases, their role is to simply forward packets of
information to a destination. In other cases, it might be to serve as a translator or to block
suspicious network traffic. For example Repeater, Hub, Bridge, Switch, Routers,
Gateway, Brouter, NIC, Modems, WAPs, Firewalls, IDPS etc.

1. Repeater:
A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to amplifies (i.e., regenerates) the
signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend
the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. When the signal
becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and regenerate it at its star topology connectors
connecting following the original strength. It is a 2-port device.
Repeaters are used to increase the network’s reach, restore damaged or weak signals, and
provide access to nodes that are otherwise inaccessible. They operate by magnifying the
received signal to a higher frequency domain, making it more scalable, accessible, and
suitable for transmission.

Fig.1 Repeater

Features of Repeaters:
 Repeater can regenerate the signal without modifying it.
 Repeaters can be used in analog signals and digital signals.
 Repeaters can extend the range of networks.
 Dynamic networking is supported by repeater.
 Use of Repeaters reduces error and loss of data.
 Power is required for working of repeaters.
 Using repeater can add complexity in the network.

2. Hub:
A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from
different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different
stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In
other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also,
they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path for data packets which leads to
inefficiencies and wastage.

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A hub must connect to a router or switch in order to communicate outside its LAN. Hub
devices can also connect to each other to expand the overall network.
A hub can be active, passive or intelligent. Active hubs act as repeaters to boost or repair
the signal of an incoming message before they broadcast it to the rest of the ports. Passive
hubs do not boost message signals, simply providing connectivity for devices on its ports.
Intelligent hubs have management and monitoring capabilities to identify potential issues
with connected devices. A hub operates at Layer 1 of the OSI model -- the physical layer.

Fg.2 Hub

Features of Hubs:

 Hubs are the hardware device that operates in the physical layer of the OSI
model.
 It supports half-duplex transmission
 It works with shared bandwidth and broadcasting.
 The hub can provide a high data transmission rate to different devices.
 It can detect collisions in the network and send the jamming signal to each port.
 Hub does not support Virtual LAN(VLAN) and spanning tree protocol.
 It is unable to filter the data and hence transmit or broadcast it to each port.
 It cannot find the best route/ shortest path to send any data, which makes it an
inefficient device.

Types of Hub:
Active Hub: - These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean, boost, and
relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring
center. These are used to extend the maximum distance between nodes.

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Fg.2.1 Active Hub

Passive Hub: - These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from
the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting
them and can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.

Fg.2.2 Passive Hub

Intelligent Hub: - It works like an active hub and includes remote management
capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an
administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in
the hub.

3. Bridge :
A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the
functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the source and
destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It
has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.

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A bridge aggregates the partitioned network segments and controls traffic that moves
between them. A transparent bridge interconnects LANs that use the same protocol suite,
while a translation bridge joins LANs that use different protocols.
Bridge devices have switching capabilities, with which they forward incoming data
frames by examining media access control (MAC) addresses. With each frame it receives,
a bridge builds a lookup table of MAC addresses and port locations. The bridge
references this table to determine whether to forward a frame along or discard it, which
happens when a MAC address is not within the bridge's domain.
Bridges are no longer commonly used within enterprise network designs and are typically
replaced by switches.

Fg.3 Bridge

Advantages of Bridge:
 Bridges reduce network traffic with minor segmentation.
 Bridges can also help to reduce network traffic on a segment by splitting up
network communications.
 Bridge expands the number of connected workstations and network segments.
 It reduces collisions.

Disadvantages of Bridge:
 It is slower than repeaters due to the filtering process.
 A bridge is more expensive than repeaters or hubs.
 Bridges are not scalable to an extremely large network.

Types of Bridges:
Transparent Bridges: - These are the bridge in which the stations are completely
unaware of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the
network, reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two
processes i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge learning.

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Fg.3.1 Transparent Bridges

Source Routing Bridges: - In these bridges, routing operation is performed by the source
station and the frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover the frame by
sending a special frame called the discovery frame, which spreads through the entire
network using all possible paths to the destination.

Fg.3.2 Source Routing Bridges

4. Switch :
A switch is a multiport network device with a buffer and design that can improve
its efficiency (having a large number of ports means less traffic) and performance. A
switch is a networking device that operates at the data link layer. A switch has numerous
ports into which computers can be plugged. When a data frame arrives at any network
switch port, it evaluates the destination address(destination MAC address ), performs the
necessary checks, and sends the frame to the associated device. The switch performs error
checking before forwarding the data, making it very efficient because it does not forward
packets with errors and only forwards good packets to the correct port.

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Fg.4 Switch

Types of Switch:
Unmanaged switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play design and do not
offer advanced configuration options. They are suitable for small networks or for use as
an expansion to a larger network.

Fg.4.1 Unmanaged Switch

Characteristics of unmanaged switches:

 Plug-and-play operation that relies on autonegotiation for settings.
 Suitability limited to simple network topologies, such as star and daisy chain.
 Ability to create and store MAC-address tables, making traffic management a step
better than with use of Ethernet hubs.
 No distinction in how the switches treat multicast traffic and broadcast traffic,
which can cause severe congestion issues called broadcast storms (a problem
especially for industrial IoT devices, which often rely on multicast traffic for
device-related commands).

Managed switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options such as

VLANs, QoS, and link aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more complex networks
and allow for centralized management.

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Fg.4.2 Managed Switch

Characteristics of Managed switches:

 Can be deployed in a wider array of topologies such as Spanning Tree Protocol,
ring, mesh, stacking, and aggregation. These allow for greater redundancy and
reliability.
 Ease of managing and troubleshooting large networks, through remote
management, software-defined network (SDN) management, access to telemetry
data showing traffic flow, and even supplying of electric power to endpoint
devices
 Many security features to control who is accessing the network, monitor for
attacks, and help remediate any breaches that occur
 Ability to optimize performance of devices and applications on the network,
through quality-of-service (QoS) features that help prioritize traffic and group
types of devices that use common services

Smart switches: These switches have features similar to managed switches but are
typically easier to set up and manage. They are suitable for small- to medium-sized
networks.

Fg.4.3 Smart Switch

Characteristics of Smart Switches:

 Limited set of configuration options, meaning lower cost and simpler operations
than for managed switches.

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Layer 2 switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model and
are responsible for forwarding data between devices on the same network segment.

Fg.4.4 Layer 2 Switches

Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the OSI model and can
route data between different network segments. They are more advanced than Layer 2
switches and are often used in larger, more complex networks.

Fg.4.5 Layer 3 Switches

PoE switches: These switches have Power over Ethernet capabilities, which allows them
to supply power to network devices over the same cable that carries data.

Fg.4.6 PoE Switches

Gigabit switches: These switches support Gigabit Ethernet speeds, which are faster than
traditional Ethernet speeds.

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Fg.4.7 Gigabit Switches

Rack-mounted switches: These switches are designed to be mounted in a server rack

and are suitable for use in data centers or other large networks.

Fg.4.8 Rack-mounted Switches

Desktop switches: These switches are designed for use on a desktop or in a small office
environment and are typically smaller in size than rack-mounted switches.

Fg.4.9 Desktop Switches

Modular switches: These switches have modular design, which allows for easy
expansion or customization. They are suitable for large networks and data centers.

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Fg.4.10 Modular Switches

Features of switches:
 Switches function in the OSI model’s layer 2 or data connection layer.
 It is a smart network appliance that resembles a multiport network bridge.
 The media access control (MAC) sublayer addresses are used to transport data
packets to certain target ports.
 To accept and transmit data packets from the source device to the target device, it
employs packet switching technology.
 It allows one-to-one (unicast), one-to-many (multicast), and one-to-all (broadcast)
communications.
 Full duplex transmission means that communication in the channel happens in
both directions at once. As a result, collisions do not happen.
 Switches are operational hardware that has network management and software
capabilities.
 Switches have the ability to carry out some error checking before sending data to
the target port.
 There are a total of 24/48 ports, which is more than usual.

5. Router:
A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. The
router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs
and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on
routing the data packets. The router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected
through it.

Fg.5 Router

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Advantages of Router:
 It offers advanced routing, flow control, and traffic isolation.
 They are configurable, allowing the network administrator to create policies based
on routing decisions.
 It can select the best path across the internetwork using dynamic routing
algorithms.
 It can reduce network traffic by establishing collision domains as well as
broadcast domains.

Disadvantages of Router:
 A router is more expensive than a bridge or a repeater.
 They are protocol-dependent devices that must comprehend the protocol they are
transmitting.
 The router is slower than bridges or repeaters because it must analyze data
transmission from the physical to the network layer.

Features of Router:
 A router works on the 3rd layer (Network Layer) of the OSI model, and it is able
to communicate with its adjacent devices with the help of IP addresses and subnet.
 A router provides high-speed internet connectivity with the different types of ports
like gigabit, fast-Ethernet, and STM link port.
 It allows the users to configure the port as per their requirements in the network.
 Routers' main components are central processing unit (CPU), flash memory,
RAM, Non-Volatile RAM, console, network, and interface card.
 Routers are capable of routing the traffic in a large networking system by
considering the sub-network as an intact network.
 Routers filter out the unwanted interference, as well as carry out the data
encapsulation and decapsulation process.
 Routers provide the redundancy as it always works in master and slave mode.
 It allows the users to connect several LAN and WAN.
 Furthermore, a router creates various paths to forward the data.

Types of Routers:

Wireless Router:
These routers can generate a wireless signal in your home or office, allowing computers
to connect to routers within a specific range and access the internet. When
connected indoors, the wireless router's range is approximately 150 feet, when
connected outdoors, the range is up to 300 feet.

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Fg.5.1 Wireless Router

Brouter:
A brouter is a hybrid of a bridge and a router. It acts as a bridge, allowing data to be
transferred between networks, and it can also route data within a network to individual
systems, much like a router. As a result, it combines the functions of a bridge and a router
by routing some incoming data to the appropriate systems while transferring the rest to
another network.

Fg.5.2 Brouter Router

Core Router :
A core router is a kind of router that can route data within a network but cannot route data
between networks. It is a computer communication system device that serves as the
backbone of networks by connecting all network devices. It is used by internet service
providers and offers a variety of fast and powerful data communication interfaces.

Fg.5.3 Core Router

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Edge Router :
An edge router is a low-capacity device that sits at the network's edge. It enables an
internal network to communicate with external networks. For internet-based connectivity
with distant networks, it uses an external BGP (Border Gateway Protocol).

Fig.5.4 Edge Router

Broadband Router :
Broadband routers are primarily used to provide computers with high-speed internet
access. It is required when connecting to the internet via phone and using Voice over IP
technology (VoIP). All broadband routers have three or four Ethernet ports for connecting
laptop and desktop computers.

Fig.5.5 Broadband Router

6. Gateway:
A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks that may work
upon different networking models. They work as messenger agents that take data from
one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also called
protocol converters and can operate at any network layer. Gateways are generally more
complex than switches or routers.
A network gateway typically consists of physical components, such as network interface
cards and inputs and outputs, as well as software for translating network protocols and
providing gateway functions. These functions can be defined, deployed, and controlled
through software, and may also be built into other devices, such as routers.

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Fig.6 Gateway

Gateways can be deployed on various layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model, but are typically used on the network layer. They can be used in various security
processes, including as a firewall or proxy server to scan and filter data, and can be used
in either a unidirectional or bidirectional manner, allowing data to flow in only one
direction or in both directions.

Advantages of Gateway:
 A gateway increases network flexibility by allowing multiple computers to be
connected to a single gateway. The gateway may be capable of interpreting data
from computers.
 We can link two different kinds of networks.
 A gateway can effectively handle traffic problems.

Disadvantages of Gateway:
 Gateways can never filter out the data.
 Protocol conversion is done, so the transmission rate is slower.

Types of Gateways:

Gateways can be classified into two types based on the direction of flow.

Unidirectional Gateways :
These gateways allow alerts to go in only one direction. Changes that are made in the
source ObjectServer are replicated in the destination ObjectServer or application, while
changes made in the destination ObjectServer or application are not duplicated in the
source ObjectServer. Unidirectional gateways can be thought of as archiving tools.

Bidirectional Gateways :
These gateways enable alerts to be sent from the source ObjectServer to the target
ObjectServer or application, as well as feedback to the source. Changes to the contents of
a source ObjectServer are replicated in a destination ObjectServer or application in

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a bidirectional gateway configuration. The destination ObjectServer or application

replicates its alerts in the source ObjectServer.
Gateways can be classified into five types based on functionalities.

Network Gateway :
This is the most common gateway type, serving as an interface between two disparate
networks that use different protocols. When the term gateway is used without specifying
the type, it refers to a network gateway.
Cloud Storage Gateway :
This type of gateway translates storage requests into API calls to various cloud storage
services. It enables organizations to integrate private cloud storage into applications
without migrating to a public cloud.

IoT Gateway :
This type collects sensor data from IoT devices, translates sensor protocols, and processes
sensor data before sending it.
Internet-To-Orbit Gateway (I2O) :
It connects Internet devices to satellites and spacecraft in orbit around the Earth.
Project HERMES and the Global Educational Network for Satellite Operations are two
prominent I2O gateways (GENSO).

VoIP Trunk Gateway :

This type of gateway makes it possible to use traditional telephone service equipment
with a voice over IP (VoIP) network, such as landline phones and fax machines.

7. NIC:
A network interface card (NIC), also known as an Ethernet card, LAN card, or network
adaptor, is a piece of hardware that enables computers to communicate with other devices
on a network. It provides a dedicated connection to the network and contains the
necessary circuits to translate digital data into signals used to transfer data, such as
Ethernet or Wi-Fi.
The NIC represents the computer on the network and is identified by its unique MAC
address. When a user browses the internet, the NIC acts as a go-between for the computer
and the network, converting digital requests to electrical signals and transmitting them to
the network.

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Fig.7 NIC
Advantages of NIC:
 As compared to the wireless network card, NIC provides a secure, faster, and
more reliable connection.
 NIC allows us to share bulk data among many users.
 It helps us to connect peripheral devices using many ports of NIC.
 Communication speed is high.
 Network Interface cards are not expensive.
 NICs are easy to troubleshoot.

Disadvantages of NIC:
 NIC is inconvenient as compared to the wireless card.
 For wired NIC, a hard-wired connection is required.
 NIC needs a proper configuration to work efficiently.
 NIC cards are not secure, so the data inside NIC is not safe.

There are two types of NIC:

 Ethernet NICs: use an 8P8C socket for connecting to ethernet cables.
 WiFi NICs: connect directly to a wireless network.

8. Modems:
A modem is a network device that modulates and demodulates analog carrier
signals (known as sine waves) to encode and decode digital data for processing. Because
modems perform both of these tasks simultaneously, the term modem is a combination
of "modulate" and "demodulate".
A modem is a crucial piece of computer hardware that converts digital data into a format
suitable for transmission over analog mediums, such as phone lines or radio waves. This
process involves modulating one or more carrier wave signals to encode the digital
information, which is then transmitted over the medium.

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The receiver, on the other hand, demodulates the received signal to recreate the original
digital information. The ultimate goal of a modem is to produce a signal that can be
transmitted efficiently and decoded reliably, regardless of the analog medium being used.
In fact, modems can be used with a wide range of analog transmission methods, including
light-emitting diodes, radio, and much more.

Fig.8 Modem

The receiver, on the other hand, demodulates the received signal to recreate the original
digital information. The ultimate goal of a modem is to produce a signal that can be
transmitted efficiently and decoded reliably, regardless of the analog medium being used.
In fact, modems can be used with a wide range of analog transmission methods, including
light-emitting diodes, radio, and much more.

Advantages of Modem:
 Some modems have sophisticated voice mail features, making them useful as
digital information systems or intelligent answering machines.
 Through a software patch, they can be upgraded to almost any global standard.
 Some modems support dual simultaneous voice and data (DSVD), which means
they can transport both analog voices and computer data.

Disadvantages of Modem:
 There is no traffic maintenance.
 The modem is unaware of its destination path.

Types of Modem:

Optical Modem :
Instead of other metallic media, optical cables are used in optical modems. It converts
digital data signals into light pulses transmitted via the optical fiber it employs.

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Digital Modem :
Digital data are converted into digital signals by a digital modem. The digital data is
modulated on the digital carrier signals before being transmitted over the digital
transmission lines.

Acoustic Modem :
A specific modem called an "acoustic modem" can connect a phone handset to a gadget
that traveling salespeople use to connect hotel phones. It has a microphone and speaker.

Smart Modem :
The smart modem has capabilities for auto-dialing, auto-redialing, and auto-answering. It
has a microprocessor onboard that performs auto-dial and auto-answering tasks using
the Hayes AT command set.

Short Haul Modem :

The short-haul modem is the one that is installed on your home computer. They are
typically used to connect PCs in a building or office within this region and can transmit
the data over distances of up to 20 miles .

9. WAPs:
A wireless access point (WAP) is a crucial networking device that enables wireless-
capable devices to connect to a wired network.
Unlike traditional wired connections, WAPs are simple and easy to install, making it a
convenient option for connecting all computers and devices in your network. There are
several reasons to use a WAP to set up a wireless network. For instance, it allows you to
create a wireless network within your existing wired network, accommodating wireless
devices and enhancing your overall network capability.

Fig.9 WAPS

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Additionally, WAPs or mesh extenders can be used to extend the signal range and
strength of your wireless network, effectively eliminating “dead spots” and providing
complete wireless coverage, which is particularly beneficial in larger office spaces or
buildings. Furthermore, WAPs can be configured using a single device, making it a
seamless and efficient process.

10. Firewalls:
A firewall is a network security device, either hardware or software-based, which
monitors all incoming and outgoing traffic and based on a defined set of security rules
accepts, rejects, or drops that specific traffic.
Accept: allow the traffic
Reject: block the traffic but reply with an “unreachable error”
Drop: block the traffic with no reply
A firewall is a type of network security device that filters incoming and outgoing network
traffic with security policies that have previously been set up inside an organization. A
firewall is essentially the wall that separates a private internal network from the open
Internet at its very basic level.

Fig.10 Firewalls

How Firewall does works?

A firewall system analyzes network traffic based on pre-defined rules. It then filters the
traffic and prevents any such traffic coming from unreliable or suspicious sources. It only
allows incoming traffic that is configured to accept.
Typically, firewalls intercept network traffic at a computer's entry point, known as a port.
Firewalls perform this task by allowing or blocking specific data packets (units of
communication transferred over a digital network) based on pre-defined security rules.
Incoming traffic is allowed only through trusted IP addresses, or sources.

Types of Firewall:
Depending on their structure and functionality, there are different types of firewalls. The
following is a list of some common types of firewalls:
 Proxy Firewall
 Packet-filtering firewalls

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 Stateful Multi-layer Inspection (SMLI) Firewall

 Unified threat management (UTM) firewall
 Next-generation firewall (NGFW)
 Network address translation (NAT) firewalls

Practical: 2

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Aim: Study of different types of network cables and practically implement the cross-
wired cable and straight through cable using clamping tool.

What is Network Cabling?

Network cabling is the process of connecting devices to an Internet source. For network
cabling to be effective, one can pay attention to the length of the cable, the shielding, the
cable’s data rate, and where it will be installed.
The data rate (or speed) allows network cables to transfer millions of data per second.
This speed depends on the purpose of a cable (if it is installed in a commercial building or
at home). Network cables can come in extensive lengths and thick shieldings that protect
the cable conductors from EMI or external factors. In commercial buildings, installed
network cables are fire-rated and plenum-rated.
 Ethernet Cable
 Coaxial Cables
 Hardline Coaxial Cable
 Flexible coaxial cable
 Semi-rigid coaxial cable
 Formable coaxial cable
 Twinaxial cable
 Tri-Axial Cable
 Rigid coaxial cable
 Twisted Pair Cables
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
 Fiber optic Cables
 Single-Mode Fiber
 Multi-Mode Fiber
 HDMI Cable
 VGA Cable
 USB Cable
 Display Port
 DVI Cable
 PS/2 Cable
 3.5mm Audio jack
 Sata Cable
 Console Cable
 Firewire(IEEE 1394)
 Thunder Bolt

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1. Ethernet Cable
An ethernet cable allows the user to connect their devices such as computers, mobile
phones, routers, etc, to a Local Area Network (LAN) that will allow a user to have
internet access, and able to communicate with each other through a wired connection.
It also carries broadband signals between devices connected through it. In this article,
we are going to discuss different types of ethernet cable used in local area networks
for reliable internet connection.

Fig.1 Ethernet Cable

Advantages:
 The cost of installing an Ethernet connection is affordable.
 Provides high-speed data transmission for data in the network.
 It maintains data quality and also provides a secure channel for data transmission.

Disadvantages:
 Ethernet networks are more suited for short-distance connections.
 Troubleshooting faults in the ethernet connection is difficult.
 Increased cases of network traffic in the network channel.

1.1 Coaxial Cables

Coaxial Cable is a type of guided media made of Plastics, and copper wires which
transmit the signal in electrical form rather than light form. Coaxial cable is also known
as coax. The core copper conductor is used for the transmission of signals and the
insulator is used to provide insulation to the copper conductor the insulator is surrounded
by a braided metal conductor which helps to prevent the interference of electrical signals
and prevent cross talk. This entire setup is again covered with a protective plastic layer to
provide extra safety to the cable.

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Fig.1.1 Coaxial Cable

How does Coaxial Cables Work?
Coaxial cables consist of concentric layers of electrical conductors and insulating
material. This structure ensures that signals are protected within the cable and that
electrical interference does not interfere with the signal. The primary conductor layer
consists of a thin conducting wire made of solid or braided copper. A dielectric layer
comprised of an insulating substance with well-defined electrical properties surrounds the
wire. The dielectric layer is then surrounded by a shield layer of metal foil or braided
copper. The whole thing is wrapped in an insulating covering. The outside metal shield
layer of a coaxial cable is normally connected in the connectors at both ends to filter the
signals and reduce all unwanted transmission, so this is how coaxial cable works.
Advantages of Coaxial Cable:
 Coaxial cables support high bandwidth.
 It is easy to install coaxial cables.
 Coaxial cables have better cut-through resistance so they are more reliable and
durable.
 Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.
 Coaxial cables support multiple channels

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable:

 Coaxial cables are expensive.
 The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.
 As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.
 There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by
hackers, this compromises the security of the data.

Types of Coaxial Cable:

1.1.1 Hardline coaxial cable: Hardline coaxial cable’s center conductor is made of
copper, silver and has a larger diameter when compared to other coaxial cables.
Hardline coaxial cable, also known as rigid coaxial cable or waveguide cable, is a
type of coaxial cable that is designed for high-power, high-frequency applications.
It is used in situations where low signal loss and efficient signal transmission are
essential, such as in telecommunications, broadcasting, and microwave
communication systems.

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Fig.1.1.1 Hardline coaxial cable

1.1.2 Flexible coaxial cable: The flexible coaxial cables are very flexible and the inner
conductor is surrounded by a flexible polymer.

Fig.1.1.2 Flexible coaxial cable

1.1.3 Semi-rigid coaxial cable: Semi-rigid coaxial cable uses a solid copper outer
sheath with a dielectric of Polytetrafluoroethylene. Semi-rigid coaxial cables are
an essential component in various industries, offering high-performance
connectivity solutions. These cables are designed to provide reliable transmission
of radio frequency (RF) signals with minimal signal loss and interference.

Fig.1.1.3 Semi-rigid coaxial cable

1.1.4 Formable coaxial cable: It is an alternative to semi-rigid cable, instead of a rigid

copper outer sheath a flexible metal sheath is utilized. Being hand formable, a cost
savings is realized due to a lack of need for fixturing where routing bends are
required.
1.1.5 Twinaxial cable: It has two central conductors in the core and a single outer core
and dielectric. These cables are best for low-frequency digital and video
transmission.

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Fig.1.1.5 Twinaxial cable

1.1.6 Triaxial cable: It is also known as Triax. It is very much similar to a coaxial
cable but with an additional copper braid added to it, the braid works as a shield
and protects from noise. Triaxial cables offer more bandwidth.

Fig.1.1.6 Triaxial cable

1.1.7 Rigid coaxial cable: Rigid coaxial cable is made up of two copper tubes
supported at cable ends and fixed intervals across the length of the cable using
PTFE supports or disk insulators. The rigid coaxial cable cannot be bent. It is
mainly used in TV and FM broadcasting systems.

Fig.1.1.7 Rigid coaxial cable

2.1 Twisted Pair Cables

These are a type of guided media. It was invented by Alexander Graham Bell. Twisted
pair cables have two conductors that are generally made up of copper and each conductor

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has insulation. These two conductors are twisted together, thus giving the name twisted
pair cables.
One of the conductors is used to carry the signal and the other is used as a ground
reference only. The receiver uses the difference of signals between these two conductors.
The noise or crosstalk in the two parallel conductors is high but this is greatly reduced in
twisted pair cables due to the twisting characteristic. In the first twist, one conductor is
near to noise source and the other is far from the source but in the next twist the reverse
happens and the resultant noise is very less and hence the balance in signal quality is
maintained and the receiver receives very less or no noise. The quality of signal in twisted
pair cables greatly depends upon the number of twists per unit length of the cable.

Fig.2.1 Twisted Pair Cables

Advantages of Twisted pair cable :

 It are often wont to carry both analog and digital data.
 It’s relatively easy to implement and terminate.It is the smallest amount expensive
 media of transmission for brief distances.
 If portion of a twisted pair cable is broken it doesn’t effect the whole network.
 Less vulnerable to electrical interference caused by nearby equipment or wires.
 It cause interference themselves.
 Best performance in short distances.
 High-cost performance
 The twisted-pair cable is low in weight.
 Twisted pair cable is flexible to use
 Twisted Pair cable is easy to connect.
 These cable are suitable for Data and voice infrastructure.

Disadvantages of Twisted pair cable :

 It result signal distortion in a very effective manner.
 Attenuation is very high.
 It supports 10 mbps upto a distance of 100 meters on a 10BASE-T which are
considered to be low bandwidth.
 It provides poor security and is relatively easy to tap.
 As they a thin so can be easily breakable.
 Low durability (must be maintained regularly).

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 Susceptible to electromagnetic interference (EMI).

Applications of Twisted pair cables :

 Twisted Pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide data and voice channels.
 The DSL lines make use of these cables.
 Local Area Networks (LAN) also make use of twisted pair cables.
 They can be used for both analog and digital transmission.
 RJ-45 is a very common application of twisted pair cables.

Types of Twisted pair cable:

2.2.1 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

These types of cables have extra insulation or protective covering over the conductors in
the form of a copper braid covering. This covering provides strength to the overall
structure of the cable. It also reduces noise and signal interference in the cable. The
shielding ensures that the induced signal can be returned to the source via ground and
only circulate around the shield without affecting the main propagating signal. The STP
cables are also color-coded like the UTP cables as different color pairs are required for
analog and digital transmission. These cables are costly and difficult to install.

Fig.2.2.1 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

Advantages:
 They are generally used for long-distance communication and transmission and
are installed underground.
 The protective shield prevents external electromagnetic noise penetration into the
cable.
 They have a higher bandwidth as compared to UTP.

Disadvantages:
 These cables are very expensive.
 They require a lot of maintenance which increases the cost more.
 These can be installed underground only.
 The length of the segment is similar to UTP for these cables.

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2.2.2 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

These are a pair of two insulated copper wires twisted together without any other
insulation or shielding and hence are called unshielded twisted pair cables. They reduce
the external interference due to the presence of insulation. Unshielded twisted pair cables
are arranged in pairs so that we can add a new connection whenever required. The DSL or
telephone lines in our houses have one extra pair in them. When UTP are arranged in
pairs, each pair is coded with a different color as defined by the 25-pair color code
developed by AT&T Corporation. The Electronic Industries Association divides UTP into
7 categories based on some standards. Categories are based upon cable quality where 1 is
the highest quality and 7 is the lowest quality. Each cable in a category is put to a
different use as needed.

Fig.2.2.2 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

Advantages:
 These cables are cost-effective and easy to install owing to their compact size.
 They are generally used for short-distance transmission of both voice and data.
 It is less costly as compared to other types of cables.

Disadvantages:
 The connection established using UTP is not secure.
 They are efficient only for a distance up to 100 meters and have to be installed in
pieces of up to 100 meters.
 These cables have limited bandwidth.

3.1 Fiber Optic Cables

A fibre optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the structure of
light signals. The structure of an optical fibre cable is displayed in the figure. It involves
an inner glass core surrounded by a glass cladding that reflects the light into the core.
Each fibre is encircled by a plastic jacket.
In fibre optics, semiconductor lasers transmit data in the form of light along with hair-thin
glass (optical) fibres at the speed of light (186,000 miles second) with no significant loss
of intensity over very long distances. The system includes fibre optic cables that are made
of tiny threads of glass or plastic.

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Fig 3.1 Fiber Optic Cable

Advantages of Fibre Optic Cable:
 Bandwidth is above copper cables
 Less power loss and allows data transmission for extended distances
 Optical cable is resistance for electromagnetic interference
 Fiber cable is sized as 4.5 times which is best than copper wires
 As cable are lighter, thinner, in order that they use less area as compared to copper
wires
 Installation is extremely easy thanks to less weight.
 Optical fiber cable is extremely hard to tap because they don’t produce
electromagnetic energy. These optical fiber cables are very secure for transmitting
data.
 This cable opposes most acidic elements that hit copper wired also are flexible in
nature.
 Optical fiber cable are often made cheaper than equivalent lengths of copper wire.
 Light has fastest speed within universe, such a lot faster signals
 Fiber optic cables allow much more cable than copper twisted pair cables.
 Fiber optic cables have how more bandwidth than copper twisted pair cables.

Disadvantages of Fiber Optic Cable:

 Compared to copper, the cost of producing optic fibre cable is higher. Due to the
need for specialised test equipment, installation is more expensive.
 Fibre optic cables are more brittle than electrical wires like copper cabling since
they are composed of glass. They will break if you bend them too much.
 In order to prevent network disruptions, the fibres must be appropriately sliced
whether establishing a new fibre optic network or growing an existing one. This is
a very sensitive operation, and the signal will suffer if the fibres aren’t joined
correctly.
 The fibre optic cable is extremely prone to being cut or damaged during
installation or other construction/renovation activity because of how small and
compact it is.

Types of Fiber Optic Cable:

3.3.1 Single-Mode Fiber

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In single-mode fiber, only one type of ray of light can propagate through the fiber. This
type of fiber has a small core diameter (5um) and high cladding diameter (70um) and the
difference between the refractive index of core and cladding is very small. There is no
dispersion i.e. no degradation of the signal during traveling through the fiber. The light is
passed through it through a laser diode.

3.3.2 Multi-Mode Fiber

Multimode fiber allows many modes for the light rays traveling through it. The core
diameter is generally (40um) and that of cladding is (70um). The relative refractive index
difference is also greater than single-mode fiber. There is signal degradation due to
multimode dispersion. It is not suitable for long-distance communication due to the large
dispersion and attenuation of the signal.

2. HDMI Cable
HDMI means High-Definition Multimedia Interface, a standard for simultaneously
transmitting digital video and audio from a source, such as a computer or TV cable box,
to a computer monitor, TV or projector. Originally developed by a consortium of
electronics manufacturers, it has been widely adopted with almost all televisions and
computer monitors supporting the interface.

Fig.2 HDMI Cable

3. VGA Cable
A video graphics array (VGA) cable is a type of computer cable that carries visual display
data from the CPU to the monitor. A complete VGA cable consists of a cable and a
connector at each end, and the connectors are typically blue.
A VGA cable is used primarily to link a computer to a display device. One end of the
VGA cable is attached to the port in the graphics card on the computer motherboard, and
the other to the port in the display device. When the computer is running, the video card
transmits video display signals via the VGA cable, which are then displayed on the
display device. VGA cables are available in different types, where shorter cables with
coaxial cable and insulation provide better video/display quality.

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Fig.3 VGA Cable

4. USB Cable
A USB cable, short for Universal Serial Bus, is a common type of cable used to connect
electronic components to computers or other digital devices. It enables data transfer and
power supply between devices, making it an essential tool in today's interconnected world.

Fig.4 USB Cable

Types of USB Cables:

 USB Type-A: Originally introduced in 1996, USB Type-A cables are flat,
rectangular USB connections that we typically find on computers, USB hubs, and
even some AC power bars. Peripheral devices like keyboards, mice, printers, and
external storage devices typically use USB Type-A to connect to a computer.

Fig.4.1 USB Type-A

 USB Type-B: The USB Type-B, also known as a printer cable, was introduced to
the market shortly after Type-A. USB Type-B cables feature square-shaped
connectors with beveled corners, and provide a secure connection for printers,

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scanners, audio interfaces, and external hard drives. While USB Type-B cables
were common in the early 2000s, they are now rarely used due to the rise of USB
Type-C.

Fig.4.2 USB Type-B

 USB Type-C: This versatile connector is rapidly gaining popularity, with Apple
now using USB Type-C for its MacBook Pro and Air, iPad Pro, and some iPhone
models. USB Type-C cables boast a smaller, reversible design, making plugging
in easier. They are also suitable for smartphones, tablets, laptops, and video
monitors. It provides faster data transfer speeds and higher power delivery for
quick file transfers and efficient charging.

Fig.4.3 USB Type-C

5. Display Port
DisplayPort, or DP for short, is a digital display interface standard primarily used to
connect a computer to a monitor. It was developed by the Video Electronics Standards
Association (VESA) and was designed as a successor to VGA, DVI and LVDS.
DisplayPort offers several advantages over other display interface standards, including
support for high-resolution displays, high refresh rates and the ability to transmit audio
and video over a single cable. DisplayPort is commonly used on computer monitors,
graphics cards and laptops, and is also used in some consumer electronics devices such
as TVs and Blu-ray players. DisplayPort comes in different versions, with DisplayPort
2.1 being the most recent and offering the highest bandwidth and support for the latest
display technologies.

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Fig.5 Display Port

6. DVI Cable
Digital Visual Interface is a interface which is used to transmit video signals whether
analogue or digital. We also use VGA and HDMI to send video signals. DVI is only used
to transmit video signals and not audio signals in your monitor. They have extraordinary
component of improving the photo or visual quality of any electronic device. It is usually
associated with the devices like LCD, projectors and TV. These cables give clear and
quality pictures which obviously is a good user experience.

Fig.6 DVI Cable

Types of Digital Video Interface :

 DVi-A:
It is the older version of DVI, which is used by very less people nowadays. Here,
A stands for Analogue signal. Full name of DVi-A is Digital Visual Interface-
Analogue. It means that it can only transmit analogue signals and not digital
signals in the monitor. It’s maximum resolution is 1920 * 1080.
Identification of DVi-A is that it has one bar on the right corner with 2 pins above
it and 2 pins below it and has extra 12 pins available with it.

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Fig.6.1 DVi-A

 DVi-D:
DVi-D stands for Digital Visual Interface- Digital. It is very common and used by
majority of people. It transmits video signals which are digital and not analogue
signals. We cannot connect DVi-A and DVi-D with each other because DVi-A
reads analogue signals and DVi-D reads digital signals. So, because of the
difference in its formats we cannot use these both together.

Fig.6.2 DVi-D
 DVi-i:
DVi-i can transmit both video signals whether it is analogue or digital. As it
supports both the signals, one can connect this with DVi-A or DVi-D also.

Fig.6.3 DVi-i
7. PS/2 Cable
A PS/2 port is a mini DIN connector that connects the mouse or keyboard to the computer
system. Besides accepts 6-pin plug. IBM introduced it in 1987. Moreover, its full form
is Personal System/2. Nowadays, computers use the USB port for the keyboard and
mouse.

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Fig.7 PS/2 Cable

Characteristics of a PS/2 Cable:

 This port was used earlier for connecting the mouse and keyboard.
 We can also call it mouse port.
 Some areas still use this port for security reasons.
 Usually, this port uses a color scheme that is, purple for the keyboard and teal
green for the mouse.
 No restrictions on key rollover.

8. 3.5mm Audio jack

A 3.5 mm audio jack is primarily used for analog audio connections, such as connecting
headphones, microphones, or speakers to devices like computers, smartphones, and audio
equipment.
In the context of computer networks, it isn’t typically used for networking purposes
directly. However, it can be part of a setup where audio needs to be transmitted over long
distances using network cables.

Fig.8 3.5mm Audio jack

9. Sata Cable
A Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA) cable, also known as a Serial ATA
cable.A SATA Cable is a high-speed serial cable that connects a computer's motherboard
to storage devices like hard drives, optical drives, and solid-state drives (SSDs).SATA
cables are usually found inside a computer's case.To keep the system tidy, the SATA
cables are more manageable due to the thinner build.

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Fig.9 Sata Cable

Advantages:
 Faster data transfer rate as compared to PATA.
 SATA cable can be of length upto 1 meter, whereas PATA cable can only have
length of maximum 18 inches.
 SATA cables are smaller in size.
 Since, they are smaller in size, they take up less space inside the computer and
increase the internal air flow. Increased air flow can decrease heat build-up and
therefore increases the overall life of computer.
 Most modern computer motherboards today have SATA ports more than PATA
ports.
 Low power consumption (0.5V).

Disadvantages:
 Special device drivers are required sometimes to recognize and use the drive.
However, a SATA hard drive can behave as a PATA drive. This eliminates the
need for a specific driver to be installed.
 SATA cable supports only one hard drive to connect at a time, whereas PATA
cable allows up to two PATA drives per cable.
 SATA is costlier as compared to PATA.

10.Console Cable
Console cables — also known as Cisco cables, rollover cables and management cables —
are designed for a specific purpose. They connect Cisco networking devices to terminals
or PCs for configuration. Typically, the Cisco end will connect via RJ45, and the terminal
end will conclude in a serial connection.
What matters most about console cables is the specific nature of the connection. This is
not an Ethernet or networking connection. It is a terminal connection, and its purpose is to
enable the connected computer to configure the networking device. This is true for older
Cisco equipment and brand-new devices. Configuration is performed through the serial
connection.

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Fig.10 Console Cable

11. Firewire(IEEE 1394)

FireWire (IEEE 1394) is a high-speed serial bus interface standard for connecting devices
to computers and each other. It's often used to connect external hard drives, digital
camcorders, printers, and scanners. FireWire is known for its high transfer rates, which
can reach up to 800 Mbps. It's also ideal for high-bandwidth applications like
multimedia. Two FireWire devices can communicate without a computer. For example,
you can use FireWire to dub video from one camcorder to another. FireWire can support
devices that require continuous bandwidth, such as aircraft control systems. 80% of the
bus is reserved for isochronous cycles, with the remaining 20% reserved for
asynchronous data.

Fig.11 Firewire(IEEE 1394)

12. Thunder Bolt
Thunderbolt is a connectivity standard developed by Intel that allows users to connect
devices to a computer using a single cable that can transfer data, power, and video
signals. Thunderbolt ports are high-speed input/output (I/O) interfaces that can connect to
a variety of peripheral devices. Thunderbolt technology is designed to improve reliability
and interoperability between devices and vendors by establishing minimum requirements
for cables, PCs, and accessories.Thunderbolt technology originated on Mac computers
but has since spread to PCs, where it often competes with USB.

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Fig.12 Thunder Bolt

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Practical: 3
Aim: Study of basic network command and Network configuration commands.

What Are Networking Commands?

Networking commands are tools used in command line interfaces to execute various
network tasks. They allow users to diagnose network problems, modify network settings,
transfer files, and establish distant connections. These commands provide essential
functionality for network administrators and troubleshooters, allowing for efficient
network control and troubleshooting.

There are various types of network and configuration commands:

 PING
 IPCONFIG
 TRACERT
 ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)
 NETSTAT
 ROUTE
 HOSTNAME
 SYSTEMINFO
 NSLOOKUP

1. PING
Ping command is used to get to know if the particular site can be reached by the ping
command. The ping command checks this by sending the packets of data to the
destination address and if the data returns to us in the given time frame then it means that
the particular website can be reached .We can do this by writing the ping and we write the
IP address of the site we want to search.
Here's how the ping command works:
 The ping command sends an ICMP Echo Request message to a target host.
 The ping command waits for a response, which is an ICMP echo reply message.
 The ping command prints a line of output for each response it receives.
 The ping command calculates round-trip times and packet loss statistics.
 The ping command displays a summary when it's done, which could be when it
times out or receives a SIGINT signal.
The ping command also has several options, including:
 -t [target_name]: Ping the specified host until stopped
 -a [target_name]: Resolve addresses to hostname
 -n [count][target_name]: Number of echo requests to send
 -l [size] [target_name]: Sends the buffer size
 -f [target_name]: Stops IPv4 fragmentation
 -i [TTL] [target_name]: Changes the TTL value
 -v [TOS] [target_name]: Type Of Service (IPv4-only. This setting has been
deprecated and has no effect on the type of service field in the IP Header).
 -r [count] [target_name]: Shows the number of hops and gets a record (IPv4
only)

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 -s [count] [target_name]: Provides a timestamp for each hop (IPv4 only)

 -j [host-list] [target_name]: Loose source route along host-list (IPv4 only)
 -k [host-list] [target_name]: Strict source route along host-list (IPv4 only)
 -w [timeout] [target_name]: Sets the time your device can wait for a response
 -R [target_name]: Use routing header to test reverse route also (IPv6-only)
 -S [srcaddr][target_name]: Source address to use
 -p [target_name]: Ping a Hyper-V Network Virtualization provider address
 -4 [target_name]: Force using IPv4
 -6 [target_name]: Force using IPv6
Ping Command:

2. IPCONFIG
The IPCONFIG network command provides a comprehensive view of information
regarding the IP address configuration of the device we are currently working on.
Here are some things you can do with the ipconfig command:
 Display network configuration: When used without parameters, ipconfig displays
IP addresses, subnet masks, default gateways, and more for all adapters. You can
also use it to see the date and time your computer got its IP address, the network
adapter's physical address, and the router your network is connected to.
 Refresh DHCP and DNS settings: You can use ipconfig to refresh Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) and Domain Name System (DNS) settings.
 Renew or release DHCP leases: You can use ipconfig to renew or release DHCP
leases.

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 Flush DNS caches: You can use ipconfig to flush DNS caches.

The IPConfig command also provides us with some variation in the primary command
that targets specific system settings or data, which are:
 IPConfig/all - Provides primary output with additional information about network
adapters.
 IPConfig/renew - Used to renew the system’s IP address.
 IPConfig/release - Removes the system’s current IP address.
 /release6 - Release the IPv6 address for the specified adapter.
 /renew6 - Renew the IPv6 address for the specified adapter.
 /flushdns - Purges the DNS Resolver cache.
 /registerdns - Refreshes all DHCP leases and re-registers DNS names
 /displaydns - Display the contents of the DNS Resolver Cache.

IPConfig Command:

3. TRACERT
The TRACERT command is used to trace the route during the transmission of the data
packet over to the destination host and also provides us with the “hop” count during
transmission.
Using the number of hops and the hop IP address, we can troubleshoot network issues and
identify the point of the problem during the transmission of the data packet.
It also shows the time taken for the journey.

The Tracert command also has several options, including:

 -d - Do not resolve addresses to hostnames.

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 -h [maximum_hops] - Maximum number of hops to search for target.

 -j [host-list] - Loose source route along host-list (IPv4-only).
 -w [timeout] - Wait timeout milliseconds for each reply.
 -R - Trace round-trip path (IPv6-only).
 -S [srcaddr] - Source address to use (IPv6-only).
 -4 - Force using IPv
 -6 - Force using IPv6.

Traccert Command:

4. ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)

The ARP command is used to access the mapping structure of IP addresses to the MAC
address. This provides us with a better understanding of the transmission of packets in the
network channel.
ARP is a layer 2 protocol that maps MAC addresses to IP addresses, which are used to
locate hosts on a network.
The Arp command can display the current ARP entry for a specified host, which can be
identified by name or number using dotted decimal notation.

The Arp command also has several options, including:

 -a : Displays current ARP entries by interrogating the current protocol data.
 -g : Same as -a.
 -v : Displays current ARP entries in verbose mode.
 -d : Deletes the host specified by inet_addr.

ARP Command:

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5. NETSTAT
The Netstat command as the name suggests displays an overview of all the network
connections in the device. The table shows detail about the connection protocol, address,
and the current state of the network.

NetStat Command:

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6. Route:
The Route command is a versatile utility that allows you to view and manipulate the IP
routing table on your computer.
The IP routing table is like a roadmap for your computer. It lists all the known routes to
different networks and hosts on the internet. When your system needs to send data to a
specific destination, it consults this table to determine the best path.
The route command lets you interact with this routing table—adding, modifying, or
deleting routes as needed.

The Route command also has several options, including:

 -f - Clears the routing tables of all gateway entries.
 -p - When used with the ADD command, makes a route persistent across boots of
the system.
 -4 - Force using IPv4.
 -6 - Force using IPv6.

Route Command:

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7. HOSTNAME
The HOSTNAME command displays the hostname of the system. The hostname
command is much easier to use than going into the system settings to search for it.

Syntax: HostName

8. SYSTEMINFO
The SystemInfo command displays detailed information about a computer's configuration
and status, including the operating system, hardware, and software environment:
 Operating System: Configuration, security information, and product ID
 Hardware: RAM, disk space, and network cards
 Software Environment: System components and domain information
 System Uptime: Including the system boot time
Syntax: SystemInfo

SystemInfo Command:

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230493116005 Computer Network

9. NSLOOKUP
The NSLOOKUP command is used to troubleshoot network connectivity issues in the
system. Using the nslookup command, we can access the information related to our
system’s DNS server, i.e., domain name and IP address.
The name “nslookup” stands for “name server lookup.” Essentially, it’s a command-line
utility that interacts with DNS servers to retrieve information about domain names.
Syntax: nslookup [domain_name]
NsLookUp Command:

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