Chapter 3

Retrofittability [cww/tm/71]:

GAC Zeolite Polymer

Provided sufficient space is available, retrofitting an adsorption system to an existing
manufacturing process is generally straightforward. The space requirement of a continuous
adsorption/desorption unit is approximately 25 % that of a two-bed adsorber system.

3.5.1.4 Wet Scrubbers for Gas Removal

Description

Wet scrubbing (or absorption) is a mass transfer between a soluble gas and a solvent – often
water – in contact with each other. Physical scrubbing is preferred for chemicals recovery,
whereas chemical scrubbing is restricted to removing and abating gaseous compounds. Physico-
chemical scrubbing takes an intermediate position. The component is dissolved in the absorbing
liquid and involved in a reversible chemical reaction, which enables the recovery of the gaseous
component [cww/tm/132].

The major waste gas treatment applications of scrubbing processes are:

removal of gaseous pollutants, such as hydrogen halides, SO2, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide
or volatile organic solvents
removal of SO2 or hydrogen halides
but also removal of dust with certain types of scrubbers (see Section 3.5.3.4)

Depending on the pollutants to be removed, several aqueous scrubbing liquids are used:

water, to remove solvents and gases such as hydrogen halides or ammonia, with the main
aim to recover and re-use these contaminants
alkaline solutions, to remove acid components such as hydrogen halides, sulphur dioxide,
phenols, chlorine; also used for second-stage scrubbing to remove residual hydrogen halides
after first-stage aqueous absorption; biogas desulphurisation
alkaline-oxidation solutions, i.e. alkaline solutions with sodium hypochlorite, chlorine
dioxide, ozone or hydrogen peroxide
sodium hydrogensulphite solutions, to remove odour (e.g. aldehydes)
Na2S4 solutions to remove mercury from waste gas
acidic solutions, to remove ammonia and amines
monoethanolamine and diethanolamine solutions, suitable for the absorption and recovery
of hydrogen sulphide.

Various types of scrubbers are operated, e.g.:

fibrous packing scrubber

moving bed scrubber
packed bed scrubber
impingement plate scrubber
spray tower.

Their choice depends on the

requirement for performance efficiency

energy need
reagents
properties of the waste gas stream.

190 Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment

 Chapter 3

An optimum design of scrubbing systems to achieve low exit concentrations includes high
reliability, automatic operation and counter-current flow of liquid and gas. Scrubbers are
normally operated with pre-coolers (e.g. spray chambers and quenchers) to lower the inlet gas
temperature and simultaneously saturate the gas stream, thus avoiding reduced absorption rates
and solvent evaporation. Such additional devices exert low pressure drops.

Fibrous Packing Scrubber

The fibrous packing scrubber (fibre-bed scrubber) consists of a chamber with gas inlet and
outlet, containing mats of fibrous packing material which are sprayed with liquid. The units
may be designed for horizontal or vertical gas flow. Typical fibre materials are glass, plastic
and steel. They are used to remove acidic components (hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen
chloride, sulphuric acid and chromic acid) and organic/inorganic compounds from effluent
gas streams.

The blockage of nozzles, plugging of fibre beds and insufficient irrigation of fibrous mats
might cause problems.

Waste gas streams are often cooled before entering fibrous packing scrubbers to condense
as much of the liquid in the flow as possible and to increase the size of the existing aerosol
particles through condensation. A pre-filter is generally used to remove larger particles from
the gas stream prior to its entering the scrubber [cww/tm/110].

Moving-bed Scrubbers
Moving-bed scrubbers consist of zones of mobile packing, usually plastic spheres. The
vessel shell contains support grids, on which the packing material is placed, inlets and
outlets for gas scrubbing liquor and a mist eliminator. Moving-bed scrubbers are applied to
remove sulphur dioxide, hydrogen fluoride and odours. They are also used to treat waste
gases that contain dust and when scale might be formed. A typical device is shown in
Figure 3.56 [cww/tm/79].

Figure 3.56: Moving-bed Scrubber

Moving-bed scrubbers are packed with low-density plastic spheres that are free to move
within the support grids. These scrubbers are less susceptible to plugging because the
spherical, hollow plastic balls are kept in a constant state of agitation and fluidisation. The
column mobile packing resists clogging. This constant movement and the smooth surface of
the balls prevent scale from adhering to the packing.

Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment 191

Chapter 3

Packed-bed Scrubbers
Packed-bed scrubbers consist of an outer shell containing a bed of variously shaped packing
material on support grids, liquid distributors, gas and liquid inlets and outlets and a mist
eliminator. In vertical designs (packed towers), the gas stream flows up the chamber
(counter-current to the liquid). They are the most commonly used gas absorbers for
pollution control. Packed-bed scrubbers, with appropriate reagents, are used to absorb
sulphur dioxide, chromic acid, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, chlorides, fluorides and VOC.
A typical example is shown in Figure 3.57 [cww/tm/79].

Packed-bed scrubbers are not suitable for particle collection because of plugging. They are
generally limited to applications in which the particle content is less than 0.5 g/Nm3.
Plugging and scaling are serious problems for packed-bed scrubbers because the packing is
more difficult to access and clean than other scrubber designs. Consequently a separate,
very efficient, particulate abatement device may be necessary to precede a packed-bed
absorber.

Figure 3.57: Packed-bed Scrubber

Impingement Plate Scrubbers

Impingement plate scrubbers consist of a vertical tower with several horizontal perforated
(bubble cap or sieve) trays stacked in it. Baffles are situated a short distance above the
apertures in the plates. The typical application for plate scrubbers is the absorption of acids,
sulphur dioxide and odours. An example is given in Figure 3.58 [cww/tm/79].

Plate scrubbers are not suitable for foaming liquids. When absorption is used to abate VOC,
packed scrubbers are usually more cost effective than plate scrubbers. However, the
impingement plate design is preferred over packed scrubbers when either internal cooling is
desired, or where low liquid flow rates would not adequately wet the packing.

Plate scrubbers are typically used because of their high efficiency and easy maintenance.
They are usually designed to provide operator access to each tray, making them relatively
easy to clean and maintain. The height of the column and the amount of packing material
and/or the number of metal trays, along with the pressure drop in the column, generally
determine the waste gas flow. Pressure drop is a determining factor in the choice of
scrubber and, in this respect, plate scrubbers compare most favourably with other gas
cleaning methods on the basis of efficiency-to-cost ratio. At high gas flow rates, plate
towers exhibit larger pressure drops and have larger liquid hold-ups.

192 Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment

 Chapter 3

Figure 3.58: Impingement Plate Scrubber

The chemical absorption of noxious gaseous contaminants such as sulphur dioxide, chlorine
and hydrogen sulphide can be achieved by contacting the air stream with suitable chemicals
on the plates. Packed columns, however, are preferred to plate towers when acids and other
corrosive materials are involved because tower construction can then be of fibreglass, PVC,
or other less costly corrosive-resistant materials.

Spray Towers
Spray towers (or spray scrubbers) consist of spray nozzles at the top of the tower, through
which the scrubbing liquid enters, and a gas inlet near the bottom. Generally the waste gas
stream passes up the tower counter-current to the liquid flow. The typical application for
spray towers is to remove acid gases and odours. An example is shown in Figure 3.59
[cww/tm/79].

Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment 193

Chapter 3

Figure 3.59: Spray Tower, (a) Counter-Current, (b) Co-Current

Plugging of spray nozzles might cause problems.

Spray towers are the traditional wet scrubber configurations used to bring waste gases into
contact with a sorbent. They exert, however, the least effective mass transfer capability and
so are generally limited to the removal of highly soluble gases.

Typical pollutant concentrations range from 100 to 10000 mg/Nm3. Spray tower wet
scrubbers are not as prone to fouling as packed scrubbers, but very high liquid-to-gas ratios
(>3 l/m3) are required to capture fine particulate.

When absorbed gases are to be recovered, an additional desorption step is necessary. The usual
method of desorption / regeneration of the organic content is distillation or steam stripping,
transferring the gaseous content back to the gaseous phase. With stripping as regeneration, the
stripped gas is subsequently condensed and collected. The condensate is either re-used directly
in the process or segregated into its components by, e.g. distillation. Stripping and distillation
are carried out at reduced pressure in order to reduce the temperature and minimise the
degradation risk of the organic compounds [cww/tm/71].

A typical absorption / desorption system is shown in Figure 3.60 [cww/tm/71]. The vacuum
desorption, as described in Figure 3.60, is not the general case, but an option. It makes it easier
to boil the scrubbing liquid (solvent), but makes its condensation more difficult.

194 Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment

 Chapter 3

Figure 3.60: Typical Absorption / Desorption System

Application

Absorption is widely used as a raw material and/or product recovery technique for separation
and purification of gaseous streams containing high concentrations of VOC, especially
compounds soluble in water – such as alcohols, acetone or formaldehyde. The use of absorption
as the primary control technique for organic vapours is subject to the availability of a suitable
solvent, with a high solubility for the gas, low vapour pressure and low viscosity.

As a final control technique for emissions, gas scrubbing is commonly employed for inorganic
compounds rather than for VOC. Its suitability as a pollution control method depends on:

recovery value of the pollutant

the waste water disposal cost
the required removal efficiency
the pollutant concentration in the inlet waste gas
the availability of suitable solvent / chemical reagent.

Absorption is enhanced by:

larger contacting surface

higher liquid-gas ratios
higher concentrations in the gas stream
lower temperature.

Low outlet gas concentrations will typically be required for hazardous VOC, leading to
impractically tall absorption towers, long contact times and high liquid-gas ratios that may not
be cost-effective. Therefore, wet scrubbers are more effective with hazardous VOC control
when used in combination with other control devices, such as GAC adsorbers (see
Section 3.5.1.3) or waste gas incinerators (see Sections 3.5.2.4 and 3.5.2.5).

Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment 195

Chapter 3

Application limits and restrictions are:

Limits / restrictions
50–500000 1
1800–170000 (fibrous packing scrubber) 2
Gas flow [Nm3/h] 900–130000 (packed-bed scrubber) 3
1700–130000 (impingement plate scrubber) 4
2500–170000 (spray tower) 5
5–80 (generally) 1
<60 (fibrous packing scrubber) 2
4–38 (packed-bed scrubber, for gaseous pollutant control) 3
4–38 (impingement plate scrubber, for gaseous pollutant control) 4
Temperature [°C] 4–38 (spray tower, for gaseous pollutant control) 5
10–40 (alkaline-oxidation scrubbing) 1
30 (biogas desulphurisation) 1
(high gas temperature can lead to significant scrubbing liquid
evaporation losses)
Pressure atmospheric
Pollutant loading 0.2–11 (fibrous packing scrubber) 2
[g/Nm3]
Particulates 450 (packed-bed scrubber) 3
[mg/Nm3]
1
[cww/tm/70]
2
[cww/tm/110]
3
[cww/tm/113]
4
[cww/tm/111]
5
[cww/tm/114]

Advantages/Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages
General General
Wide range of uses. Water or diluted chemicals are required for
Very high efficiency. replacement of the purged water and the
Compact installation thanks to favourable ratio evaporation losses.
between capacity and device volume. Waste water due to replacement of scrubbing
Simple and robust technology. liquid needs treatment.
Simple maintenance. Conditioning agents (e.g. acids, bases,
Only few wear-sensitive components. oxidants, softeners) are required for many
Can handle flammable and explosive gas/dusts applications.
with little risk. Dust, separated as sludge, needs to be treated
Can also cool hot gas streams. either for re-use or for disposal operations.
Can handle mists. For roof fitting, support structures needed.
Corrosive gases and dusts can be neutralised. For outdoor fitting, frost protection needed
(according to climate).
Packing material sensitive to clogging because
of dust or grease.
Potential for corrosion.
Collected particulates may be contaminated
and may not be recyclable.
Off-gas may require reheating to avoid visible
(steam) plume.
Packed-bed Scrubbers Packed-bed Scrubbers
Low to medium pressure drop. Tendency to bed plugging.
Plastic and fibreglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) Relatively high maintenance costs, compared
scrubbers can operate in highly corrosive to other scrubber techniques.
atmospheres. When FRP construction is used, it is sensitive
High mass-transfer efficiency. to temperature.
Ability to collect gases as well as particulates. Relatively high maintenance costs.
Low capital cost.
Small space requirements.

196 Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment

 Chapter 3

Advantages Disadvantages
Impingement Plate Scrubbers Impingement Plate Scrubbers
Flexibility in operating conditions (variation of Dust build-up around valves and/or on plates.
flow rate). Higher costs than other wet scrubbers.
High versatility in case of low gas flow-rate, as
they can also operate with low liquid flow.
Provides gas absorption and dust collection in
a single unit.
Improves gas-slurry contact for SO2 removal.
Easy maintenance and operating.
Spray Towers Spray Towers
Low pressure drop. Low mass-transfer efficiency.
FRP constructions can operate in highly Low efficiency in removing fine particulates.
corrosive atmospheres. When FRP construction is used, sensitive to
Low energy consumption. temperature.
Low capital costs. High operational costs.
Relatively free from plugging.
Relatively small space requirements.
Capable to collect gases as well as particulates.

Achievable Emission Levels / Performance Rates

Performance
Emission level
Parameter rate a 3 b Remarks
[mg/Nm ]
[%]
1 1
Alcohols up to 95 down to 100 water
1 1
>99 <50 water
Hydrogen fluoride 1
<1 alkaline
>99 1 <50 1 water
Hydrogen chloride 1
<10 alkaline
1
Chromic acid <0.1–1 water
c 1
Ammonia >99.9 <1 acid
1 1
Amines >99 <1 acid
Sulphur dioxide 80–99 d 2 <40 1 alkaline
Phenols >90 alkaline
1
90–95 alkaline
Hydrogen sulphide h 5
80->99
d,f,h 2,3,5
Inorganic compounds 95–99
50–95 d,e 2
VOC f,g 3,4
70->99
a
high feed concentration
b
low feed concentration
c
feed concentration 25 g/Nm3 ammonia, effluent concentration <10 mg/Nm3
d
spray tower, several reagents
e
may achieve > 99 %
f
packed-bed scrubber
g
fibrous packing scrubber
h
impingement plate scrubber
1
[cww/tm/70]
2
[cww/tm/114]
3
[cww/tm/113]
4
[cww/tm/110]
5
[cww/tm/111]

Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment 197

Chapter 3

Cross-media Effects

The main utilities and consumables required for absorption systems are [cww/tm/71]:

Consumable Amount Remarks

Scrubbing water
Chemicals (acidic, alkaline,
oxidants)
Desorption facilities:
cooling water for condenser,
steam for steam stripper 30-40 kg/1000 Nm3
waste gas (steam
1
120 °C)
3 2 dependent on application,
Energy [kWh/1000 Nm ] 0.2-1
desorption not included
Pressure drop [kPa] 0.4-0.8 1 dependent on application
1
[cww/tm/71]
2
[cww/tm/70]

An additional work-up of the recirculating liquid is normally required, depending on its

degradation (e.g. insoluble solid contents) and evaporation losses.

Scrubbing generates waste water which needs treatment, if the scrubbing liquid with its content
is not used otherwise. Adequate treatment is desorption of the waste gas content, which is
operated in any case when recovery of the gas is the aim of scrubbing. Desorption can cause
emissions to air. Its energy need should be borne in mind.

Monitoring [cww/tm/79]

The abatement efficiency of the scrubbing system is determined by monitoring the gaseous
pollutant concentration before and afterwards. Sulphur dioxide is usually monitored with infra-
red analysers; wet chemical methods are used for hydrogen halides. VOC are measured as total
carbon, excluding particulate matter, using a flame ionisation detector. A qualitative analysis of
the emissions can be done if grab samples of gas are taken at selected sampling points and are
subsequently analysed by GC/MS. Abatement efficiencies of odorous emissions are determined
by taking grab samples at appropriate sampling points and subsequently analysing them by
olfactometry.

Further routine measurement is necessary for:

the pressure drop across the scrubber, as a means to discover operational anomalies that
might require maintenance
the scrubber make-up water flow rate
the recycle water flow rate
the reagent flow rate
in some cases pH, temperature, electrical conductivity and ORP.

Wet scrubbers need regular inspection to identify any deterioration in the plant, such as
corrosion or blockages. Access to the scrubber should be readily available. It is essential that
operating failures are detected quickly, and adequate instrumentation with alarms should be
applied at the outlet vent of the absorption plant to ensure that warning is given if equipment
fails.

A programmable logic controller (PLC) system or a digital computer system (DCS) is typically
used to manage the operation of the plant automatically (e.g. operating at set pH and ORP
values, optimised for high gas absorption). A program is available which can predict the
optimum operating parameters, i.e. circulation and steam requirement, for a given waste gas
composition. This is particularly useful where changes in the gas flow and/or solvent
concentration are likely to be significant.

198 Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment

 Chapter 3

Action by plant operators is minimal, provided that automatic shutdown is fitted and alarms set
up on the control system, e.g. for low liquid flow or loss of vacuum.

Maintenance requirements are likely to be low. They are mainly limited to routine checks on the
desorber system, because the quality of desorption is a key factor in the performance of the
absorption, and equipment with moving parts. [cww/tm/71]

Economics

Costs
Type of costs Fibrous Moving Packed- Impingement Spray
packing bed bed plate towers
Capital costs 1 2 3 4
3 USD 600-1800 USD 6200-33500 USD 1300-7000 USD 500-2200
[per 1000 Nm /h]
Annual operating
USD 1000- 2 3 4
costs 1 USD 9300-42300 USD 1500-42000 USD 800-28100
3 21100
[per 1000 Nm /h]
Cost effectiveness
[per tonne per year 1 2 3 4
USD 40-710 USD 0.24-1.09 USD 51-1300 USD 28-940
of pollutant
controlled]
1
[cww/tm/110]
2
[cww/tm/113]
3
[cww/tm/111]
4
[cww/tm/114]

Cost factors [cww/tm/71]:

Factors Influence / results

Emission flow rate Overall size of the system,
utility requirement
Recovery efficiency required Height of the scrubbing column
Solvent absorption efficiency Scrubbing liquid recirculation rate and hence
pumping requirements
Solvent type Choice of scrubbing liquid
Solvent solubility Complexity of downstream separation
techniques (directly proportional to
solubility),
energy intensity of separation techniques
(directly proportional)
Solvent mixtures Complexity of downstream separation
techniques (directly proportional),
energy intensity of separation techniques
(directly proportional)
Solvent loading Rate of desorption and subsequent utility
requirements such as steam
Scrubbing liquid degradation High purge rate of spent liquid and hence
high treatment and/or disposal costs
Ease of solvent desorption Desorption temperature

Retrofittability [cww/tm/71]:

Fibrous packing Moving bed Packed-bed Plate Spray towers

Provided sufficient space is available, absorption systems can be relatively easily retrofitted to existing
plants. Retro-fits of existing absorption systems with improved structured packings and/or liquids can
also be carried out to improve the operation of recovery equipment.

Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment 199