Organisms – C 2.

2 SL Neural Signaling

Guiding Questions

“How are electrical signals generated and moved within neurons?”

“How can neurons interact with other cells?”

Syllabus Overview & Objectives

Students should understand that cytoplasm and a nucleus form the cell
Neurons as cells within the
body of a neuron, with elongated nerve fibres of varying length projecting
C2.2.1 nervous system that carry
from it. An axon is a long single fibre. Dendrites are multiple shorter
electrical impulses
fibres. Electrical impulses are conducted along these fibres.
Students should understand how energy from ATP drives the pumping of
Generation of the resting potential
sodium and potassium ions in opposite directions across the plasma
by pumping to establish and
C2.2.2 membrane of neurons. They should understand the concept of a
maintain concentration gradients
membrane polarization and a membrane potential and also reasons that
of sodium and potassium ions
the resting potential is negative.
Nerve impulses as action Students should appreciate that a nerve impulse is electrical because it
C2.2.3 potentials that are propagated involves movement of positively charged ions.
along nerve fibres
Compare the speed of transmission in giant axons of squid and smaller
Variation in the speed of nerve
C2.2.4 non-myelinated nerve fibres. Also compare the speed in myelinated and
impulses
non-myelinated fibres.
Synapses as junctions between Limit to chemical synapses, not electrical, and these can simply be
C2.2.5 neurons and between neurons and referred to as synapses. Students should understand that a signal can
effector cells only pass in one direction across a typical synapse.
Release of neurotransmitters from Include uptake of calcium in response to depolarization of a presynaptic
C2.2.6
a presynaptic membrane membrane and its action as a signalling chemical inside a neuron.
Include diffusion of neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft and
Generation of an excitatory binding to transmembrane receptors. Use acetylcholine as an example.
C2.2.7
postsynaptic potential Students should appreciate that this neurotransmitter exists in many
types of synapse including neuromuscular junctions.

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Neurons as cells within the nervous system that carry electrical impulses

The nervous system consts of nerve cells called neurons. The neurons help with internal communication by
transmitting nerve impulses.

Neurons transmit information along nerve fibers in the form of electrical

impulses. The electrical impulse is not like an electrical current that flows
along wires. An impulse is a momentary reversal in electrical potential
difference in the membrane – a change in the position of charged ions
between the inside and outside of the membrane of the nerve fibres.

Can you annotate the structures of the neuron?

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Generation of the resting potential:

A nerve impulse is a result of a change in concentration of

sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ions along the cell membrane.

Depending on the membrane potential (voltage), we can distinguish between

• The resting potential and
• The action potential.

What is the resting potential?

It is when the neuron is not actively transmitting a signal. It is between -70 mV

What is the action potential?

An action potential is a rapid change in a neuron's electrical membrane potential.

All cells have a measurable membrane potential

(voltage), which is established by the imbalance of ions
inside and outside of a cell. The membrane potential in
neurons is – 70mV.

Which three factors contribute to the establishment of

a negative membrane potential?
Ion distribution: Na+ outside the neuron are more
concentrated and K+ inside has high concentration.

Permeability of the neuron: More permeable to K+ ions

compared to Na+ ions.

Sodium-Potassium Pump

1. Sodium potassium pump:

Sodium-potassium pumps in
the membrane transfer Na+
out of the neuron and K+ into
the neuron. This is active
transport and requires ATP.
The number of ions pumped is
inequal – three Na+ go out,
two K+ ions go in. This causes
an imbalance of ions and
concentration gradients for
both.

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2. Leakage of Sodium and Potassium ions:

Leakage of potassium and sodium ions also contributes to the

imbalance of ions across the membrane. The axon membrane
has a higher permeability of K+, which leaks out of the cell
through its membrane channels faster than Na+ leaks in
through its Na+ protein channels.

3. negatively charged proteins inside the cell:

Due to this unequal distribution of ions, and the abundance of negatively charged proteins inside the axon
fibre, the membrane potential is found to be at ca. -70mV – meaning that the inside of the neuron is more
negatively charged compared to the outside.

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Nerve impulses as action potentials

An action potential starts when Na+ ions suddenly rush into the neuron upon stimulation of voltage gated
membrane channels and reverse the membrane potential making it more positive. An action potential is
composed of two subsequent stages:

1. Depolarization: The cell membrane's

charge becomes positive to generate an
action potential. This is usually caused
by positive sodium ions going into the
cell.

2. Repolarization: The cell membrane's

charge returns to negative after
depolarization. This is caused by positive
potassium ions moving out of the cell.
Read through the information on the right
and answer the questions to check your
understanding:

State the 2 phases of an action potential:

Depolarization and Repolarization

What causes depolarization?

Cause by positive sodium ions going into the
cell.

What causes repolarization?

Causes by positive potassium ions moving out
of the cell.

The action potential then progresses along the whole

length of the axon fiber.

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Variation in the speed of nerve impulses:

Signal transmission in humans is at about 1m per second. This

speed is largely due to the small diameter (1µm). Some
animals have nerve fibres with larger diameters. A bigger
diameter reduces resistance and therefore increases
conduction speed.
Griant axons in squids have diameters of up to 500 µm. How
does this help the squid as an adaptation to life?
Larger diameter allows for rapid transmission of nerve impulses.
This adaptation enables quick reflexes and faster responses to
predators which helps in survival

Read the article and answer the questions on your sheet.

https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/myelin-a-specialized-
membrane-for-cell-communication-14367205/

What exactly is myelin?

Myelin is a fatty substance, made up of lipids (75%) and proteins (25%), that forms an insulating sheath around
axons. It helps speed up nerve impulse transmission.

What type of cells make myelin in the Peripheral Nervous System? Schwann cells.

Are all axons myelinated? Which ones are, which ones aren’t?
Not all exons are myelinated. It's probably myelinated when a neuron needs a fast nerve impulse transmission
for example large neurons. While small neurons are probably not myelinated because they don't need fast
nerve impulse transmission.

How does myelin insulation speed up signal transmission in nerve cells?

Myelin insulation speeds up signal transmission by allowing nerve impulses to skip the stage of the nodes of Ranvier.
This process happenes to only the not myelinated neurons (small neurons).

What type of diseases cause a damage to the myelin sheath, and what are the consequences?
Demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis (MS), involve damage to myelin, the protective coating of nerve
cells. Different diseases have different impacts like on vision loss and maybe slowing the process down.

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Mylination is another factor which affects the speed at which nerve impulses are transmitted. The axon fibres
of neurons can be mylinated or unmylinated. This refers to a lipid-rich substance surrounding the nerve fibre.

This coating is provided by a series of Schwann cells with gaps

between called nodes of Ranvier. In mylinated nerve fibers the
transmission can be up to 100m/s.

The presence of a myelin sheath surrounding the axon fibre increases the speed of transmission of the action
potential. Only at the junctions in the sheath (nodes of Ranvier) the axon membrane exposed. Elsewhere along
the fibre, the electrical resistance of the myelin sheath prevents depolarization of the nodes.

The action potentials actually ‘jump’ from node to node (this is called saltatory conduction, meaning ‘to leap’).
This greatly speeds up the rate of transmission.

Use the website below to investigate the effect of axon diameter and myelination on velocity of signal
transmission. https://ilearn.med.monash.edu.au/physiology/action-potentials/axon-diameter#simulation

1. Carry out the simulation with unmyelinated fibres.

2. Record the results in the table blow.
3. Then repeat the experiment with myelinated fibers.
Record the results.
4. Export the spreadsheet and produce a graph with a
line of best fit and R2 value.
5. What is the effect of axon diameter on speed?
6. What is the effect of myelination on speed?
7. Suggest why, for very small axon diameters, there is
little benefit of myelinated velocity.

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Synapses as junctions between neurons:
What is a synapse?
A synapse is the space between two neurons that allows a
signals to pass through them.

What parts is a synapse composed of?

A synapse is composed of the presynaptic terminal, the synaptic
cleft, and the postsynaptic membrane.

There are 3 main types of synapses:

• Synapses between neurons, in both the brain

and spinal cord.

• Synapses between neurons and muscle fibres

(effectors).

• Synapses between neurons and glands

(effectors).

Release of neurotransmitters from a presynaptic membrane:

An action potential cannot cross the synaptic cleft

between neurons, and instead the nerve impulse is
carried by chemicals called neurotransmitters.

What is a neurotransmitter?
A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that
transmits signals across the synaptic cleft from one
neuron to another.

Give an example of a neurotransmitter:

Acetylcholine

Where is a neurotransmitter made and where is it

stored?
It is made in the axon terminal and it is stored in
membrane-bound vesicles within the presynaptic
neuron.

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Generation of an excitatory postsynaptic potential:

The postsynaptic membrane contains specialized receptors. These neuroreceptors are protein channels embedded in the cell membrane of the postsynaptic
synapse. The receptors are chemical gated, allowing Na+ to rush into the neuron upon binding of the neurotransmitter to the binding site on the neuroreceptor-.

Annotate the diagram to explain how neurotransmitters result in the generation of a new excitatory action potential:

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Neuroreceptors are protein channels
embedded in the cell membrane of the
postsynaptic synapse. Upon binding of
the neurotransmitter to the binding
side of the receptor protein Na+ rushes
into the neuron.

Acetylcholine is one of the most

common neurotransmitters and is
used at many synapses, including
neuromuscular junctions.

Acetylcholine - Secretion and Reabsorption :

Acetylcholine is an organic molecule composed

of acetyl CoA and choline. It acts as a
neurotransmitter for both, PNS and CNS. In the
PNS, it is the main neurotransmitter in the
autonomic nervous system where it is
responsible for activating muscles.

To avoid overstimulation of the postsynaptic

neuro-receptor, Acetylcholine needs to be
broken down immediately.

What is the name of the enzyme responsible

for this action (Look at the diagram to the left)?

As a consequence, the ion channel of the receptor protein closes, and the resting potential in the post-synaptic
neuron is re-established.

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