Expt no:

Date:

5. A) POTENTIAL DIVIDER CONNECTION AND STUDY OF THE

DEPENDENCE OF OUTPUT VOLTAGE UPON THE VALUE OF THE LOADING
RESISTANCE.

Aim:

To measure output voltages for varying load resistance using a potential divider circuit.

Apparatus required:

Sl. No Apparatus Specifications Quantity

1. Rheostat 1.7A, 200Ω 1
1.2A, 500 Ω 1
2. Ammeter (0-500 mA) PMMC 1
3. Voltmeter (0-30V) PMMC 1
4. DC source 30V 1
5. DPST switch 1
6. Fuse 2A 2

Table 1 Apparatus Required

Theory

A voltage divider is a simple circuit which can create an output voltage that is a fraction of the input. The
potentiometer can be used as a voltage divider to obtain a manually adjustable output voltage at the slider (wiper)
from a fixed input voltage applied across the two ends of the potentiometer.

The equation to calculate the output voltage,

𝑅2
Vout= Vin
𝑅1+𝑅2

By varying the slider, R2 can be varied which in turn

varies the output voltage.
  Loaded Condition

The output voltage across the load when load resistor RL is connected

R2 in parallel with RL

𝑅2||𝑅𝐿
Vout= Vin 𝑅1+𝑅2||𝑅𝐿

𝑅2∗𝑅𝐿
= Vin
𝑅1(𝑅2+𝑅𝐿)+𝑅2𝑅𝐿

Procedure:

 Make connections as shown in the figure 2

 Switch on the 30V DC supply
 By varying the potential divider (RS) slider position, tabulate the voltmeter and ammeter readings
and plot the graph.
 Switch of the supply and dismantle the connections.

b) By varying the load resistance

 Make connections as shown in the figure 2

 Switch on the 30V DC supply
 By varying the potential divider slider position (RL), tabulate the voltmeter and ammeter readings
and plot the graph.
 Switch of the supply and dismantle the connections.
Pre-experimental report:
How can we get a variable DC voltage from a fixed DC voltage?
Can you create/obtain a dc output voltage from a potential divider circuit if the input is ac?
Does potential divider circuit satisfy the law of conservation of charge and Kirchhoff’s Voltage law?
What are the applications where potential divider circuits can be used?
Post -experimental report:
1. What is the reason for the variation of the output voltage with different load resistances?
2. The diagram Figure 1 shows a potential divider circuit designed to provide a variable output. What is the
available range of output voltage?
3. If we are connecting a dc motor to the output of potential divider circuit will it work?

Figure 2 Potential divider circuit.

Result:
Circuit Diagram:

Potential divider circuit

Figure 3 Experimental set-up for Potential divider circuit.

Tabular column
Sl no. Output current (mA) Output voltage (V)

Table 2. Experimental Result

b) By varying the load resistance

Sl no. Output current (mA) Output voltage (V)

Table 3. Experimental Result – By varying the load resistance

Expt no:
Date:
5. B) METHODS OF MEASUREMENT FOR LOW- MEDIUM-HIGH
RESISTANCE USING VOLTMETER AND AMMETER.

Aim:

To measure the value of the resistance using voltmeter and ammeter.

Apparatus required:

Sl. No Apparatus Specifications Quantity

1. Rheostat 1.7A, 200 Ω 2
5A, 50 Ω 1
0.1 Ω 1
1.2A,500 Ω 1
2. Ammeter (0-500mA) PMMC 1

(0-20mA) PMMC 1
3. Voltmeter (0-30V) PMMC 1
(0-500 mV) PMMC 1
4. DC source 30V 1
5. DPST switch 1
6. Fuse 2A 2
Table 4 Apparatus Required

Theory

Loading error is an important concept to consider when measuring resistances, especially with voltmeters and
ammeters. It arises when the measuring instruments themselves affect the circuit or the resistor being measured.
This effect varies based on the resistance range: low, medium, and high resistances. Low resistances can be
significantly affected by the internal resistance of the ammeter. The internal resistances of both the ammeter and
voltmeter can influence the measurements. For medium resistances, the impact of these resistances becomes more
pronounced and can introduce errors. High resistances are highly sensitive to the voltmeter’s input impedance.
There are 2 configurations for measuring the resistances:
1) Voltmeter in parallel with load

2) voltmeter in parallel with ammeter and load

Procedure:

(a) Low Resistance Measurement

 Make connections for low resistance (0.1 Ω ) as shown in the figure 3
 Switch on the 30V DC supply
 By varying the potential divider (RS) slider position, tabulate the voltmeter and ammeter readings
 plot current versus voltage and calculate the resistance.

(b) Medium Resistance Measurement

 Make connections for medium resistance (200 Ω ) as shown in the figure 4

 Switch on the 30V DC supply
 By varying the potential divider (RS) slider position, tabulate the voltmeter and ammeter readings
 plot current versus voltage and calculate the resistance.

(c) High Resistance Measurement

 Make connections for high resistance (3900 Ω ) as shown in the figure 5

 Switch on the 30V DC supply
 By varying the potential divider (RS) slider position, tabulate the voltmeter and ammeter readings
 plot current versus voltage and calculate the resistance.
 Pre-experimental report:

1. How will you classify resistances as Low, Medium and High resistances, give examples for each?
2. What is voltmeter – ammeter method.?
3. What is ammeter - voltmeter method?
Post -experimental report:

1. Which configuration is preferred for low resistance measurement and why?

2. What is the reason for the variation of output voltage with different load resistances?
3. What is the ideal value of the meter resistance Rm to avoid loading errors?
4. Instead of the load resistance, assume that you have connected a voltmeter of resistance R, the
potential divider resistance has a value of Rp the resistance of the potential divider across where
output is taken is Ro , derive an expression of the output voltage to the input voltage in terms of the
given three resistors.
5. How do we avoid loading effect?

Result:
Circuit Diagram:
Potential divider circuit - Low Resistance Measurement (a)

Figure 3 Experimental set-up for Potential divider circuit -Low Resistance Measurement

Potential divider circuit - Medium Resistance Measurement (b)

Figure 4 Experimental set-up for Potential divider circuit -Medium Resistance Measurement.
Potential divider circuit - High Resistance Measurement (c)

Figure 5

3900Ω,
.9 A

Experimental set-up for Potential divider circuit -High Resistance Measurement

Tabular column
Sl no. Low resistance Medium resistance High resistance
Voltage current Voltage (V) current Voltage (V) current (mA)
(mV) (mA) (mA)

Table 5 Experimental Result

Expt No.
Date:

6. VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION THEOREM AND MAXIMUM POWER

TRANSFER THEOREM.

Aim:

To verify superposition and maximum power transfer theorem

Apparatus required:

Sl. No Apparatus Specifications Quantity

1. Rheostat 100Ω, 2.8A 2
500Ω, 1.2A 1
300Ω, 1.7A 1

2. Ammeter (0-500 mA) PMMC 1

(0-250 mA) PMMC 1
(0-100 mA) PMMC 1

3. Voltmeter (0-250V) PMMC 1

4. wattmeter 250 V, 2.5 A, UPF 1

5. DC source 30 V DC 1
6. DC source 15 V DC 1
7. DC source 230 V DC 1
8. DPST switch 2
9. Fuse 1 A, 5 A 1 A – 2 nos.,5 A 2 Nos

10. Multimeter 1

Superposition theorem

In any linear resistive network, the voltage across or the current through any resistor or source may be calculated
by adding algebraically all the individual voltages or currents caused by the separate independent sources acting
alone, with all other independent voltage sources replaced by short circuits and all other independent current
sources replaced by open circuit

Maximum power transfer theorem

An independent voltage source in series with a resistance Rs, or an independent current source in parallel with
a resistance Rs, delivers maximum power to a load resistance RL such that RL = Rs. On the other words" A
resistive load will be consumptive maximum power from the supply when the load resister RL is equal to the
 equivalent (Thevenin’s) network resister, Rth.
𝑉𝑡ℎ
Load Current 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑅
𝑡ℎ +𝑅𝐿
For maximum power transfer, 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑉𝑡ℎ 𝑉
Therefore , 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑅 = 2𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑡ℎ +𝑅𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ

𝑉2
Where, 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝐿2 𝑅𝐿 = 4𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑡ℎ

Pre-lab work

Perform the theoretical calculation for the given circuits.

Procedure:

Superposition theorem

 Make connections as shown in the figure

 Connect the 30V DC supply (E1) only and turn on the DPST switch
 Note the ammeter readings A1, A2 and A3
 Now turn off the DPST switch, disconnect the E1 (30V DC) supply and connect the circuit to E2
(15V DC) supply and turn on the DPST switch
 Note the ammeter readings A1, A2 and A3
 Turn off the DPST switch, reconnect the circuit with both sources E1 (30 V DC) and E2 (15 V DC), and
turn on the DPST switch
 Tabulate ammeter readings A1, A2 and A3 and check whether the ammeter readings are algebraic sum.
 Verify the experimental reading with the theoretical results.

Maximum power transfer theorem

 Make the connections as given in the diagram. Turn on the 230 V DC voltage source and set a particular
voltage.
 Vary RL and note down the corresponding wattmeter reading.
 Repeat the procedure for different values of RL & Tabulate it.
 plot the graph connecting the power output v/s load resistance
 Compare the theoretical and experimental results

Pre-experimental report:

1. Review the superposition theorem and illustrate its application with a circuit problem
2. What is the importance of this theorem?
3. State the difference between linear and non-linear circuits. Give some examples of linear and non-linear
 elements in circuit theory.
4. To what type of circuit does superposition apply?
5. State maximum power transfer theorem
6. What can you say about efficiency of a circuit under maximum power transfer theorem? Prove the
result, is it applicable in power circuit, if not why?
7. What are the limitations of Superposition theorem?
Post -experimental report:

 What is meant by impedance matching audio circuits? How will you ensure maximum power transfer
in such circuits?
 A loud speaker with resistance of 16 ohms is the load connected to an audio power amplifier circuit.
The amplifier has an output resistance of 5000 ohms. How can you achieve maximum power to be
transferred to the load? What type of device is used and how the mismatch corrected?
 What are the advantages and disadvantages of the maximum power transfer theorem?
 Does maximum power transfer imply maximum efficiency? Under the condition of maximum power
efficiency is?
 Name some devices where maximum power has to be transferred to the load rather than maximum
efficiency?
 Transform a physical voltage source into its equivalent current source.
 Using superposition theorem, determine the voltage drop and current across the resistor 3.3 k as shown
in the figure below

Result:
Circuit diagram:

Circuit diagram- Superposition theorem

(0-500 mA) (0-250 mA)

DPST 1A Fuse PMMC PMMC
+ + A - + A - +
100Ω, 2.8A Ammeter 100Ω, 2.8A
Ammeter

(0-100mA)
A2
A1 +

Ammeter
PMMC
A

A3
30 V DC 15 V DC
Supply - Supply
E1 E2

500Ω, 1.2A

_
_
1A Fuse

Circuit diagram - Maximum power transfer theorem

(0-2 A) 250 V, 2.5 A, UPF

+ PMMC
DPST 5A Fuse M L
+ A -
100Ω, 2.8A
Rth C V

+
V (0-250V) RL
300Ω, 1.7A

220 V DC PMMC
Supply -

_ 5A Fuse

\
 Tabular column
Super position theorem
Source voltage Ammeter reading (mA)
(V) A1 A2 A3
E1 (30V DC) Theoretical
only
Experimental
E1 (15 V DC) Theoretical
only Experimental

Both E1 (30 V Theoretical

DC)& E2 (15 V Experimental
DC)

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Theoretical results
Sl no. Load resistance(Ω) Ammeter reading Voltmeter Power dissipated(W)
(A) reading(V)
1
2
3
4

Experimental results

Sl no. Load resistance(Ω) Ammeter reading (A) Voltmeter Power

reading(V) dissipated(W)
1
2
3
4