WEEK 1

Nursing Research
● Systematic process of inquiry Description How What are the
● uses rigorous guidelines to produce prevalent is dimensions of
guidelines to produce unbiased, the the
trustworthy answers to questions phenomeno phenomenon?
n? What is
about nursing practice.
How often important
Purpose of Research (SEFT) does the about the
● Synthesize the findings of others phenomeno phenomenon?
● Explore and describe phenomena n occur?
that affect health What are
● Find solutions to existing and the
characteristi
emerging problems
cs of the
● Test traditional approaches to patient phenomeno
care for continued relevance and n?
effectiveness.
Peer review Exploration What What is the full
● Process of subjecting research to factors are nature of the
related to phenomenon?
the appraisal of a neutral third party
the What is really
● Done for selecting research for phenomeno going on here?
conferences and evaluation n?
research manuscripts for publication. What are
Blinded Review the
● A type of review in which the peer antecedents
reviewer is unaware of the author’s of the
phenomeno
identity, so personal influence is
n?
avoided.
Replication
● repeating a specific study in detail Prediction and If
on a different sample. When a study Control phenomeno
has been replicated several times n X occurs,
will
and similar results are found, the
phenomeno
evidence can be used as n Y follow?
coincidence. How can we
Importance of Research in Nursing make the
● Provide strong evidence for phenomeno
informing nurses’ decisions and n occur or
actions alter its
prevalence?
● Provide high quality nursing care
Can the
● Elevate the standards and reputation phenomeno
of the nursing profession n be
● Increase body of knowledge prevented
● Improve personal and professional or
development controlled?

Explanation What is the How does the

Research Purposes and Types of underlying phenomenon
Research Questions cause of work?
the Why does the
phenomeno phenomenon
Purpose Quanti Quali n or the exist?
causal How did the
Identification What is this
pathway phenomenon
phenomenon?
through occur?
What is its
which the
name?
 Methodological Foundation: Different
phenomeno
n unfolds? Types of Research
Does the
theory PURP NATURE PHILO TIME
explain the OSE OF SOPHY
phenomeno DESIGN
n?
Basic Experime Quantit Cross-S
ntal ative ectional
Roles of Nurses in Research
● Function of the Nurse Applie Non-expe Qualitati Longitu
○ The nurse participates in d rimental ve dinal
scientific investigation and
uses research findings in Basic vs. Applied Research
practice A. Basic Research
○ Nurses often use research to • The researcher tries to find the
improve client care truth
● The nurse need to: • The research meant to seek
○ Have some awareness of the knowledge simply for
process and language of knowledge’s sake
research • Also termed as “ Library or Desk
○ Be sensitive to the issues Research”
related to protecting the Example: “Exploring the grieving Process of
rights of human subjects Families with Patients Died with COVID-19”
○ Be a discriminating
consumer of research
findings B. Applied Research
Research is critical in nursing for the • Practical application of
following reasons: knowledge to everyday situations
● The use of research is inherent to • Also termed as “Action
the definition of a profession Research”
● Nurses are accountable for Example: “The Effect of Social Support
outcomes Boosting Interventions on Stress, Coping
● Consumers are demanding and Social Support in Caregivers of
evidence-based care Children with HIV/AIDS”
Nurses may play a variety of roles in
research, including the following : Experimental and Non-Experimental
● Informed consumer of research Research
● Participant in research-related 3 Types of Experimental Research
activity, such as journal 1. True Experimental
● Contributor to a systematic review Has three properties namely manipulation,
● Data collector for a research project control and randomization
● Principal investigator for a research ● Manipulation is achieved when the
study experimenter does “something” to at
least some study participants
● Control is achieve when the
experimenter introduces controls
over the experimental situation by
manipulation, by applying the
principle of randomization, by careful
preparation of the experimental
protocols and by used of control
group
● Randomization or random
assignment or when the
 experimenter assigns subjects to be efficient products, treatment or procedures
part of either a control or or methods
experimental group on a random
basis. The most trustworthy and 3. Evaluative Research- tests the quality,
acceptable method of equalizing effectiveness and efficiency of products,
groups is randomization treatments or procedures, or methods

2. Quasi-Experimental Research 4. Demonstration Research- shows how

-lacks at least one of the properties of true already-developed products, treatments or
experimental research, usually procedures or methods could be applied to
randomization or control groups specific situations or conditions.
-Involves the manipulation of an
independent variable, but lacks 5. Explanatory Research/Correlational- is
randomization to treatment groups which a scientific inquiry into how the variables of
characterizes true experiments a phenomenon relate to the variables of
another.
3. Pre- Experimental Research
-called non-equivalent control group, this 6. Problem-Solving Research-identifies
design is considered fundamentally weak. problems and generates alternative to solve
-rarely used because it lacks control these problems
strategies to compensate for the lack of a
comparison group or randomization 7. Decision-Making Research-scientific
inquiry that selects the most feasible course
NON EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH of action from given alternatives to solve
1. Descriptive Research- answers particular problem.
specific questions by describing and
elaborating a phenomenon 8. Natural Experiment- a non-experimental
● Surveys-collecting data by study that investigates a natural occurring
questionnaires and interviews event that has important health
● Feasibility study- for determining the consequences is presumed to have
viability of a business venture, implications on people’s behavior or
project etc. conditions comparing people exposed to the
● Case study- involves in-depth event with non-exposed group
investigation and analysis of a single —-------------------------------------------------------
entity-an individual, group or
community, institution or unit for
understanding issues.
● Content analysis- investigates
documents for purposes of
dissecting messages embodies in
them
● Correlational study- examine the
extent of the relationship between
variables by determining how
changes in one variable relate to the
changes in another
● Comparative study- examines
several intact groups to identify the
differences between them in certain
dependent variables.

2. Developmental Research-satisfies felt

needs and answers questions by
developing new and more effective and
 WEEK 2 determine
Classification of Research meaning
1. Quantitative Research-a traditional
Generali Use inference Transfer
approach to research in which variables
zation to generalize knowledge
are identified and measured in a valid from a sample from case
and reliable way. to a defined analysis to
population similar cases
2. Qualitative Research- a naturalistic
Reports Objective, Interpretive
approach to research in which the focus is
impersonal reports that
on understanding the meaning of an reports in reflect the
experience from the individual’s which the researcher’s
perspective. researcher’s reconstruction
opinions are of the meaning
undetectable of the data

Element Quantitative Qualitative

3. Mixed Methods- a research approach
that combines qualitative and quantitative
elements; it involves the description of the
View of Reality is Reality is measurable state of a phenomenon and the
reality objective and constructed by individual’s subjective response to it.
can be seen the individual
and measured
View of Reality is Reality is
time relatively continuously
constant constructed QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Context Reality can be Reality is • Quantitative Analysis can be used for
separated from embedded in the following purposes:
its context its context
• Determine the effects of an
Researc Objective, Personally
her detached involved intervention
approac • Measure the relationships
h between variables
• Detect changes over time
Populati Samples that Individual
ons represent cases,
studied overall represented as QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
populations as informants P-opulation of interest
subjects I-ntervention under study
C-omparison that makes up the control
Measure Human Study the
s behavior or meanings that O-utcome of interest
other individuals
observable create CHARACTERISTICS OF A
phenomena QUANTITATIVE DESIGN
Observat Analyze reality Make holistic • Relying on numbers to measure and
ions as definable observations quantify variables
variables of the total • Studying objective to measure and
context quantify variables
Design Preconceived Emergent and • Comparing groups of subjects in some
and highly fluid, way
controlled adaptable to • Applying interventions to samples to
informants’ generalize the study results to broader
views populations
Analysis Descriptive Analytic • Aiming to determine effects of an
and inferential induction to intervention through a high level of
statistics control
 • Data may be collected at a single point
in time, at a baseline and again after
intervention, or over time periods

COMPARISON OF GROUPS
• Comparison may be done between the
following groups:
• An intervention group and a
control group
AN INTEREST IN VARIABLES • A group with a risk factor and a
matched group without that risk
• Independent ( an intervention) factor
• Dependent ( an outcome) • The same group at baseline and
• In this case, the researcher is interested after treatment
in the effect of the IV to DV.
A PRIORI SELECTION OF A DESIGN
• Example: the objective characteristics of • Quantitative designs can be classified in
health can be measured in the form of the following ways:
blood pressure, heart rate, serum • Experimental designs answer
cholesterol and other indicators such as questions about the
cardiac risk effectiveness of interventions
• Quasi-experimental designs
• Extraneous variables- are mot part of answer questions about the
the central study, but still exert an effect relationships among variables
on the outcome • Comparisons of intact groups
answer questions about
CONTROL OVER VARIABLES differences in the characteristics
of groups
• Quantitative studies exhibit a high level • Time series designs answer
of control over the variables of interest questions about the
effectiveness of interventions
• An independent variable is controlled by over time
the researcher. It is introduced into a
patient care situation and manipulated to THE GOLD STANDARD: EXPERIMENTAL
determine its effects DESIGN

• The researcher then puts measures in • Highly structured study of cause and
place to identify when the dependent effect applied to determine the
variable has occurred and quantify that effectiveness of an intervention
response. • These studies are considered the “gold
standard” for evidence-based practice
THE USE OF MEASUREMENT because they provide convincing
• Measurements can be direct or indirect support for the value of treatment
• Values may be collected prospectively (Bloomfield & Fisher, 2019).
or retrospectively • Experimental designs are referred to as
• Data may be gathered primary or randomized controlled trials because
secondary these designs have in common the
• The measures themselves must be random assignment of subjects and a
reliable and valid to rule out high level of control
measurement error as an extraneous • Because subjects are randomly
effect assigned to groups, the researcher can
• Quantitative studies are characterized assume the groups are basically similar
by data collection using instrumentation in both ways. Sometimes it is called
that yields numerical data “Clinical trials”
 • Experimental designs are considered • How will differences between the groups
the strongest evidence for practice and be quantified?
are at the top of the evidence pyramid
STRENGTHS OF EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGN
• Studies based on experimental designs
are considered the strongest evidence
for practice
• These designs are the only ones that
THE EVIDENCE PYRAMID allow a definitive conclusion about
cause and effect, so they are ideal for
testing the effectiveness of interventions
• ED are recognized and valued by other
disciplines
• ED are generally understood by public
and patients

LIMITATION OF EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS
• Complex and difficult
• Requires substantial resources of time,
researcher, skill and access to subjects
• Many aspects of health care cannot be
manipulated (for example, the presence
of a risk factor, the worsening of a
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE disease)
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN • Increase control means the experiment
becomes more artificial, so
• Three conditions must be met to draw generalizability of the findings may be
conclusions about cause and effect limited as a result.
1. The cause must precede the
effect in time QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
2. Rival explanations for the • Studies of cause and effect similar to
outcome must be ruled out experimental designs but using
3. The influence of the cause on convenience samples or existing groups
the effect must be demonstrated to test interventions
IN EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN .. • The primary difference of experimental
1. The independent variable is artificially and quasi is the lack of random
introduced assignment for treatment groups
2. Subjects are randomly assigned to • This weakens the quasi-experimental
groups design because with randomization, it
3. Experimental conditions are highly could not be assumed that the
controlled intervention and comparison groups are
4. Results are quantitatively analyzed equivalent at the beginning of the study
• No clear conclusions about the cause
QUESTIONS THAT ARE BEST and effect could be drawn
ANSWERED WITH EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGN
• What is the population of interest?
• How will the subjects be assigned to
groups?
• How will the intervention be applied?
• What will be the comparison?
• How will the outcome be measured?
STRENGTHS OF THE
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
• More feasible than true experiments in
an applied settings
• Introduce a level of control that reduces
the effect of extraneous variables
• Accessible subjects can be used for the
study so that larger samples may be
obtained

LIMITATIONS OF QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL

• Inappropriate to draw from conclusion

about cause and effect without random
assignment to groups
• Groups may not be equivalent in
characteristics, such that extraneous
variables are introduced
• Rival explanations for the outcome exist
and may weaken confidence in the
results
—-------------------------------------------------------
WEEK 3 2. The time dimension
NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH -some studies explore data collected
1.Descriptive Research Studies- address from a sample data single point in time,
two basic types of questions: whereas others follow subjects or individual
-Descriptive questions are designed to cases overtime
describe what is going on or what exists
“ What percentage of school-age FOUR MAJOR STEPS IN DESIGNING A
children are fully immunized in a school GENERAL DESCRIPTIVE SURVEY
district?” 1. Select an appropriate sample
-Relational questions are designed to 2. Plan and develop instrumentation
investigate the relationships between two or 3. Administer the instrument and collect
more variables or between subjects. data
“What is the relationship between 4. Analyze the findings
immunization rate and socioeconomic
status in school district?” 2. SURVEY DESIGN
4 Major Stages
- The descriptive question includes some 1. Selecting an appropriate sample
common elements: 2. Planning and developing
◦ -population of interest is specified, instrumentation
as is the phenomenon of interest 3. Administering the instrument and data
◦ -if the question is relational, two collection
variables is identified 4. Analyzing the findings
◦ -no intervention
◦ -no comparison group or expected STRENGTHS OF SURVEY STUDIES
outcome 1. Survey content is flexible and the scope
is broad
2. Surveys are cost-effective methods for
reaching large populations
3. Subjects have greater sense of
anonymity and so may respond with more
honesty
4. Questions are predetermined and
standardized for all subjects, minimizing
researcher bias
5. Large sample sizes are possible
CHARACTERISTICS OF A DESCRIPTIVE
6. A large volume of data can be collected
DESIGN
1. Include procedures that enhance the
LIMITATIONS OF THE SURVEY STUDIES
probability of generating trustworthy data
1. The information obtained may be
2. Demonstrate appropriateness for the
superficial and limited to standard
purpose of the study
responses
3. Be feasible given the resources
2. A survey cannot probe deeply into
available to the researcher and the
complexities of human behavior or explore
constraints
contradictions
4. Incorporate steps that are effective in
3. Content is often limited by subject
reducing threats to validity
recall, self-knowledge, and willingness to
respond honestly
CLASSIFICATION OF DESCRIPTIVE
4. Questions may be misinterpreted by
DESIGNS
subjects, resulting in unreliable
1. The number of subjects
conclusions
◦ -it may involve study of an entire
5. Respondents may respond with socially
population, a sample, or multiple
acceptable responses to sensitive
samples.
questions instead of honest answers
◦ They may also focus on single
subjects or individual cases.
3. CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGNS - It may answer questions about the way
-used to examine simultaneously groups that characteristics of populations change
of subjects who are in various stages of over time, or they may quantify
development, the intent is to describe relationships between risk factors of a
differences among them disease
-a cross-sectional study assumes that the -They are often exploratory, seeking to
stages identified in different subjects at a answer questions about the nature of
single point in time are representative of health conditions at various stages of
the process that progresses over time. human development
-a researcher may select subjects who -It tracks a group of people over time to
have risk factors but not yet developed a determine if their outcomes or risk differ.
disease, subjects who have early stage -It involve repeated measures over time
disease, and subjects who have the taken from the same group of subjects
disease in chronic form.
-example: Studies on prevalence Cohort studies examine the following
variables:
STRENGTHS OF CROSS-SECTIONAL 1. Sequences
STUDIES 2. Patterns of change
1. Practical and economical 3. Growth or trends over time
2. There is no waiting for the outcome of
interest to occur a.Retrospective Longitudinal Design
3. It enables exploration of health 1. Identifies a suitable cohort that has
conditions that are affected by human been evaluated in the past
development 2. Collects data on the expected causal
4. The procedures are reasonably simple variables from past records
to design and carry out 3. Obtains data about the hypothesized
5. Data are collected at one point in time, outcome from past to current measures
so results are timely and relevant b. Prospective Longitudinal Design
6. Large samples are relatively -answer research questions written in the
inexpensive to obtain future tense
7. There is no loss of subjects due to study -The researcher performs:
attrition 1. Recruits a sample from an
identified population
LIMITATIONS OF CROSS-SECTIONAL 2. Measures the hypothesized
STUDIES predictor variables
1. The transitory nature of data collection 3. Measures outcomes at
makes causal association difficult predetermined follow-up times
2. Cross-sectional studies do not capture
changes that occur because of
STRENGTHS OF LONGITUDINAL
environmental factors or other events that
STUDIES
occur over time
1. It can capture historical trends and
3. It may be difficult to locate individuals at
explore causal associations
varying stages of disease or condition
2. Retrospective longitudinal studies are
4. Cross-sectional designs are impractical
cost-effective and cost-efficient
for the study of rare diseases or
3. Prospective longitudinal studies can
uncommon conditions
document that a causal factor precedes an
outcome, strengthening hypothesis about
4. LONGITUDINAL DESIGNS
causality
-known as cohort design or panel design
4. Prospective studies provide the
-A longitudinal study follows one or more
opportunity to measure characteristics and
cohorts over an extended period of time.
events accurately and do not rely on recall
-These designs are powerful to assess the
effects of risk factors or the consequences
of health behaviors
LIMITATIONS OF LONGITUDINAL 6. SINGLE-SUBJECT DESIGN
STUDIES -Experimental version of a case study
1. the principal disadvantages are attrition -These designs are used-as are case
rates and the potential loss of subjects studies-to evaluate the unique responses
over time of individuals to treatments or conditions.
2. Retrospective longitudinal studies are -They differ from case studies, however
dependent on accurate, complete they are always quantitative in nature and
secondary data or the subject’s ability to involve distinct phases of data collection
recall past events -Graphic techniques are used to assess
3. Once a longitudinal study begun, it the data and draw conclusions
cannot be changed without affecting the -More structured in organization than case
overall validity of the conclusions studies because it has specific sequence
4. Prospective longitudinal studies are for measuring the baseline, introducing an
expensive to conduct and require time and intervention and evaluating its effects
commitment from both subjects and
researchers SINGLE-SUBJECT STUDY METHODS
5. Conclusions may be based on a limited AND PROCEDURES
number of observations 1. Continuous assessment of the variable
6. Large sample sizes are expensive to of interest
access 2. Assessment during a baseline period
7. Systematic attrition of subjects is before the intervention
possible due to long-term commitment 3. Continuing assessment of the
required responses of the individual after the
intervention
5. CASE STUDY DESIGN
- thorough assessment of an individual STRENGTHS OF SINGLE-SUBJECT
case over time in its real-life environment STUDIES
- it may involve observation, interaction, or 1. Useful in exploring behavioral
measurement of variables responses to treatment that might affect
- effective for answering questions about patient’s preferences and compliance
how individuals respond to treatment or 2. The unique responses of individuals can
react to health conditions help the nurse determine whether a
-questions related to the effects of specific particular therapy will be effective for a
therapeutic measures can be addressed specific kind of patient
with a case study, and this design is often 3. Flexible and involve multiple variations
used to demonstrate the value of therapy. that may answer an assortment of
questions
STRENGTHS OF CASE STUDIES 4. Explore real changes in a an individual
1. Can provide in-depth information about and can simultaneously serve as feedback
a unique nature of individuals about the progress for the patient
2. Responses and changes that emerge
5. Easier to implement than longitudinal
overtime can be captured and appraised
designs that require large samples
3. New insights can be obtained that can
6. Provide intimate knowledge of a
potentially generate additional studies.
person’s cognition, thoughts, actions,
intentions, and environment
LIMITATIONS OF CASE STUDIES
1. There is no baseline measurement that
LIMITATIONS OF SINGLE-SUBJECTS
can be captured with the intervention
STUDIES
outcome
1. They are not generalizable to larger
2. It is difficult to determine whether there
populations
is an improvement in outcome because
2. They are not considered sufficient
causation cannot be inferred
evidence for a practice change
3. Researcher objectivity is required when
3. Both researcher must be committed to
drawing conclusions because
measures over time
interpretations may potentially be biased.
 -(one that is not measured but it is related
7. DESCRIPTIVE CORRELATION to each variable in the relationship).
DESIGNS
-Use to answer questions about 8. PREDICTIVE DESIGNS
relationships or associations -Attempt to explore which factors may
-Attempt to describe the strength and influence the outcome
nature of the relationship between two -These studies may be used when a
variables without explaining the underlying researcher is interested in determining
causes of that relationship whether knowing a previously documented
-These designs cannot lead to a characteristic can lead to the prediction of
conclusion of causality because they do a later characteristic
not meet the requirement for temporality. -Sometimes called regression studies,
In short, the researcher cannot be sure based on the statistical test that is used for
which variable occurred first analysis
-Used to quantify the relationship between
two variables in a single data set STRENGTHS OF PREDICTIVE STUDIES
1. A great deal of information is yielded
CORRELATION DESIGNS ARE USEFUL from a single set of data
FOR CLINICAL RESEARCH BECAUSE: 2. The results of the study can provide
1. These methods can be used to study information about whole samples or can
phenomena or clinical practices that be applied to individual cases
cannot be manipulated, controlled, or
randomized 3. A variety of measurement may be used
2. Data can provide a solid base for in the predictive model
further experimental designs 4. The studies are relatively simple to
3. Results can serve as the foundations for design and implement, and they are
designs about prediction cost-effective
5. The data are used may be either
STRENGTHS OF CORRELATION prospective or retrospective.
STUDIES
1. Relatively uncomplicated to plan and LIMITATIONS OF PREDICTIVE STUDIES
implement 1. Although prediction can be quantified,
2. The researcher has flexibility in there is no assurance of causality,
exploring relationships among two or more suppressor variables may exist
variables 2. The researcher may “go fishing” or
3. The outcomes of correlation studies explore large numbers of variables without
often have a practical applications in a focused research question, resulting in
nursing practice an increased error rate
4. Correlation studies provide a framework 3. Regression analysis requires relatively
for examining relationships between large sample sizes, the need for which
variables that cannot be manipulated for becomes amplified as the number of
practical or ethical reasons variables increases.
—---------------------------------------------
LIMITATIONS OF CORRELATION
STUDIES
1. The researcher cannot manipulate
variables of interest, so causality can not
be established
2. Correlation design lack control and
randomization between variables, so rival
explanations may be posed for
relationships
3. The correlation that is measured may
be the result of a suppressor variable
WEEK 4 CLASSIFICATIONS OF QUALITATIVE
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH RESEARCH
-grounded in the belief that reality can 1. CASE RESEARCH METHOD
never be completely known because it is -in-depth study of single participant or single
constructed by each individual (Creswell & group over and extended period with the
Poth, 2017). goal of describing the impact of health and
illness to an individual (Creswell & Clark,
- The two sources of information in EBP 2021).
which are clinical experience and patient -This involves observation, interview and
preferences are addressed by qualitative instrumentation.
studies. -Useful in studying responses of individuals
and small groups related to interventions,
-Nursing is a humanistic and holistic health behaviors, and perception of illness.
approach and based in fundamental -It may be the only way to study individuals
elements of care that is why we need with rare conditions.
qualitative research.
STRENGTHS OF CASE RESEARCH
PURPOSE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 1. Practical method for studying individuals
1. To develop understanding of meaning or small groups
from the point of view of the informants. 2. Direct applicability to patient care
2. It attempts to discover the meaning of 3. Demonstrates the impact of health and
interpretations of events, phenomena or illness on individuals
experiences by studying cases intensively 4. Serve as a pilot study as the basis for a
in their natural settings and by subjecting more involved clinical trial
data to analytic interpretation
(Constructivist Research). LIMITATIONS OF CASE RESEARCH
3. Determine patient needs and 1. Attrition of the subjects limit the
preferences, and motives. usefulness of the entire study
4. Determine the acceptability of an 2. Studies only apply to individuals and are
intervention not generalizable to other groups or
5. Address a wide variety of research people
questions that focus on the needs, 3. Lack of control over extraneous
responses, and experiences of patients. variables

2. CONTENT ANALYSIS
-not a specific qualitative research design
-more accurately described as a data
analysis method
-commonly rely on data collected via
interviews or document analysis and the
use of interpretive coding to arrive themes
and patterns
- it is used when no other classification “fits”.
- discover and interpret meaning imbued in
words of respondents or in historical written
analysis
-analytic method used for traditions

STRENGTHS OF THE CONTENT

ANALYSIS
1. Uncomplicated to carry out

2. Extended periods for observation are

generally not needed; saturation may be
 achieved with relatively few interviews or 2. The reports of experiences may be
focus groups sensitive, protection of confidentiality is
paramount.
3. It results in identification of general 3. Bias is a potential problem in drawing
themes that allow the researcher to report conclusions and exploring experiences
and answer question in a straightforward, 4. Bracketing of researcher bias is difficult
concise way to accomplish if researcher is
inexperienced or has strong feelings about
LIMITATIONS OF CONTENT ANALYSIS the subject of interest
1.It relies on the informant’s recall, ability to 5. Interviews require a high level of skill in
report, and willingness to talk. eliciting clear and accurate responses
2.Selection effects may come into play from informants
because those individuals who agree to 6. Participants must be able to reflect on
participate in interviews may not be their experience and sharing of some
representative of those who are affected painful events may be stressful to
3.The researcher’s bias may affect the participants.
interpretation and coding of themes in the
data 4. ETHNOGRAPHY
- focuses on culture of a group of people
3. PHENOMENOLOGY - the assumption underlying this tradition is
- concerned with the lived experiences of that every group of individuals evolves a
humans in relation to a shared culture that guides the way members
phenomenon structure their experiences and view the
-used to describe how unique individuals world (Creswell & Clark, 2021)
respond to circumstances of their health -it gives the researcher an opportunity to
and illness conduct studies that attend to the needs
-may either be descriptive or interpretive and relationships of members of a culture
-based on the philosophical premise that it -In ethnography, participant observation is
is possible to capture and articulate the a the norm
“essence” of an experience that can be -the researcher is more than an observer,
explored and understood he become an active participant

STRENGTHS OF PHENOMENOLOGY STRENGTHS OF ETHNOGRAPHY

1. The phenomenological tradition can be 1. Provie insight into the way unique
used to study a wide range of groups react to health and illness and give
phenomenon (common or uncommon the nurse information with which to design
experiences) effective interventions that will support
2. Serves to enhance holistic patient care, health
which is a characteristic of the nursing 2. Ethnography is a naturalistic inquiry that
profession enables the nurse to draw conclusions
3. It lends itself well to focus groups and, about health and illness are addressed in
as such may yield results that are more “real life”.
transferable than other types of qualitative 3. Enables the researcher to define
study different kind of cultures can be defined for
4. The procedures for phenomenological the purposes of ethnography
research are relatively straightforward, and
questions are usually more focused than LIMITATIONS OF ETHNOGRAPHY
the other types of qualitative study (Patton, 1. Labor intensive and time consuming.
2020) 2. Achieving rapport and intimacy
necessary for honest sharing of the lived
LIMITATIONS OF PHENOMENOLOGY experience may require years of
1. It generates large amounts of data that involvement on the part of the researcher
must be carefully managed.
 3. Some researchers spend their entire 3. GT studies are lengthy, are time
professional lives studying a particular intensive and require a great deal of effort
culture and skill on the part of the researcher (De
4. Researchers must take extreme care Chesnay, 2015b)
not to over interpret their observations but
report them objectively, otherwise, biased, MIXED METHOD RESEARCH
incorrect conclusions may result -involves the collection, analysis, and
5. Members of the culture may react to the integration of both qualitative and
quantitative data within a single study or
observer’s presence, inhibiting accurate series of studies
conclusions about natural behavior. -this approach allows researchers to draw
6. Extended contacts enables on the strengths of both methodologies,
HABITUATION or reverting to natural providing a richer, more nuanced
behaviors as members of the culture come understanding of the research problem
to disregard the observer’s presence and
no longer see the researcher as intruder BENEFITS OF MIXED METHODS
7. Observers may become so immersed in 1. Comprehensive Perspective: By
the culture that they change the cultural combining qualitative and quantitative
behaviors of the members data, researchers can gain a more
comprehensive view of the research
5. GROUNDED THEORY problem.
- discovery of a theory from data 2. Triangulation: Using multiple data
systematically obtained through qualitative sources enhances the validity and
means reliability of the research findings.
-it does not begin with a theory, bit rather 3. Flexibility: Mixed methods research
lead to development of a theory to explain allows for adaptability in addressing
the phenomenon. complex research questions.
-the intent is to discover a pattern of
reactions, interactions, and relationships 1. CONVERGENT PARALLEL
among people and their concerns
(Creswell & Clark, 2021) -In a convergent parallel design, you
-this complex type of qualitative research collect quantitative and qualitative data at
requires a high level of skill and the the same time and analyze them
capacity to suspend bias related to the separately.
topic of interest -after both analyses are complete,
compare your results to draw overall
STRENGTHS OF GROUNDED THEORY conclusions.
1. Provides a basis for testing theories Example: Convergent parallel design
about reactions and interactions
In your research on cycling safety in
2. Enables the exploration of human
Amsterdam, you undertake both sides of
actions and interactions related to subjects
your research simultaneously:
for which very little knowledge is available
-On the qualitative side, you analyze
3. Allows researchers to determine what is
cyclist complaints via the city’s database
rather than suggesting what should be
and on social media to find out which
4. These studies help build models that
areas are perceived as dangerous and
can be used to assess human reactions to
why.
nursing interventions
-On the quantitative side, you analyze
accident reports in the city’s database to
LIMITATIONS OF GROUNDED THEORY
find out how frequently accidents occur in
1. Difficult to conduct well and requires a
different areas of the city.
high level of competence on the part of the
researcher
2.Theoretical development is a complex
process and has many points at which the
investigator’s bias may interfere with
accurate theory development
2. EMBEDDED Then you can use the quantitative data to
-In an embedded design, you collect and test or confirm your qualitative findings.
analyze both types of data at the same Example: Exploratory sequential design
time, but within a larger quantitative or You first interview cyclists to develop an
qualitative design. initial understanding of problem areas, and
-One type of data is secondary to the draw preliminary conclusions.
other. Then you analyze accident statistics to
-this is a good approach to take if you test whether cyclist perceptions line up
have limited time or resources. with where accidents occur.
-you can use an embedded design to
strengthen or supplement your DISADVANTAGES OF MIXED METHODS
conclusions from the primary type of RESEARCH
research design
1.Workload
Example: Embedded design Mixed methods research is very
labor-intensive. Collecting, analyzing, and
-As part of a quantitative study testing synthesizing two types of data into one
whether the number of cyclist complaints research product takes a lot of time and
about an area correlates with the number effort, and often involves interdisciplinary
of accidents, you could “embed” a series teams of researchers rather than
of qualitative interviews with cyclists who individuals. For this reason, mixed
submitted complaints to further strengthen methods research has the potential to cost
your argument. much more than standalone studies.
-The bulk of your research remains 2. Differing or conflicting results
quantitative. If your analysis yields conflicting results, it
can be very challenging to know how to
3. EXPLANATORY SEQUENTIAL interpret them in a mixed methods study. If
-In an explanatory sequential design, your the quantitative and qualitative results do
quantitative data collection and analysis not agree or you are concerned you may
occurs first, followed by qualitative data have confounding variables, it can be
collection and analysis. unclear how to proceed.
-You should use this design if you think Due to the fact that quantitative and
your qualitative data will explain and qualitative data take two vastly different
contextualize your quantitative findings. forms, it can also be difficult to find ways
Example: Explanatory sequential to systematically compare the results,
You analyze the accident statistics first putting your data at risk for bias in the
and draw preliminary conclusions about interpretation stage.
which areas are most dangerous. —-----------------------------------
Based on these findings, you conduct
interviews with cyclists in high-accident
areas and analyze complaints qualitatively.
You can utilize the qualitative data to
explain why accidents occur on specific
roads, and take a deep dive into particular
problem areas.

4. EXPLORATORY SEQUENTIAL
-In an exploratory sequential design,
qualitative data collection and analysis
occurs first, followed by quantitative data
collection and analysis.
-You can use this design to first explore
initial questions and develop hypotheses.
WEEK 5

FINDING PROBLEMS AND WRITING

QUESTIONS

- Deductive- process of reasoning from

general to specific

- Inductive- a process of reasoning from

specific observations to broader
generalizations

- Concept- abstract idea or topic of interest

that must be narrowed a researchable
questions to be investigated

TRADITIONAL EVOLUTION OF THE

RESEARCH PROCESS

SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

1. Clinical practice observations
2. Educational processes and experiences
3. Consumer/ costumer feedback and
personal experience
4.Theoretical models and frameworks
5. Professional literature
6. Performance improvement studies
7. Databases (big data)
8. Research reports and priorities
9. Social issues

DIFFERENTIATING RESEARCH
PROBLEM STATEMENTS AND
RESEARCH PURPOSE STATEMENTS

THE LINK BETWEEN QUESTIONS AND

DESIGN

-Focusing the research question guides

how that question will be answered:
◦ -The question will lead to a sampling
strategy (Who is the patient
population?)
◦ -An intervention protocol (What
treatment is being tested)
◦ - Outcomes measured ( How will the
effect be demonstrated?)
FROM QUESTION TO HYPOTHESIS meta-syntheses, which are based on the
Hypothesis- a restatement of the research secondary author’s interpretation of the
question in a form that can be analyzed primary work
statistically for significance
Null Hypothesis- a statement of the A LITERATURE REVIEW WILL:
research question that declares that there 1. Add credence to the importance of the
is no difference between groups as a topic proposed for investigation
result of receiving an intervention or not 2. Identify studies that can be replicated,
receiving the intervention instruments that have been standardized
Non-directional hypothesis- a two-sided and tested, and procedures that can be
statement of the research question that is adapted
interested in change in any direction 3. Reveal appropriate theoretical
Directional Hypothesis- a one-sided frameworks
statement of the research question that is 4. Contribute to the body of knowledge or
interested in only one direction of change establish the lack of published research on
a subject
THE SUCESSFUL LITERATURE REVIEW
-A critical component of the research SCHOLARLY LITERATURE INCLUDE
process that provides an in-depth analysis THE FOLLOWING TYPES OF SOURCES:
or recently published research findings in Journals
specifically identified areas of interest. Books
-The review informs the research questions Conference proceedings
and guides development of the research Practice guidelines
plan Theses and dissertations
Government reports
PURPOSE, IMPORTANCE, AND SCOPE
OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW PRIMARY SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Scholar- concerned with or relating to -resources that publish the findings of
academic study or research original research and other types of
studies in their first and original form
Theoretical Literature- published 1. Clinical trials
conceptual models, frameworks, and 2. Dissertations/theses
theories that provide a basis for the -potential search tools and sources
researcher’s belief system and for ways 1. CINAHL
of thinking about the problem studied 2. MEDLINE/PubMed
3. PsycINFO
Empirical Literature- published works that 4. Cochrane Central Register of Controlled
demonstrate how theories apply to Trials
individual behavior or observed events
SECONDARY SOURCES OF
Seminal Work- a classic work of research INFORMATION
literature that is more than 5 years old and -resources that publish the findings of
is marked by its uniqueness and original research and other types of
continuous contribution to professional studies in their first and original form
knowledge 1. Systematic reviews
2. Meta-analyses
Primary Source- reports of original 3. Qualitative synthesis
research authored by the researcher and 4. Reviews of individual articles
published in a scholarly source such as 5. Clinical practice guidelines
peer-reviewed journal or scholarly book 6. Textbooks

Secondary Source- comments and

summaries of multiple research studies on
one topic such as meta-analyses,
POTENTIAL SEARCH TOOLS AND 8. Summarize and synthesize the findings
SOURCES:
1. CINAHL
2. MEDLINE/PubMed
3. PsycINFO
4. Cochrane Data Base of Systematic
Reviews
5. Evidence-Based Practice Center
Reports ( AHRQ)
6. Professional association databases of
practice guidelines
7. Clinical point-of-care tools (e.g.,
UpToDate)

ASSESING STUDY QUALITY AND ITS

INFLUENCE

Open Access- information that is freely

available online with few or no copyright
restrictions
Peer review- the process of subjecting
research to the appraisal of a third party.
Bibliometric- study of publication patterns

Journal Impact Factor- a way to measure

the visibility of research by calculating a
ratio of current citations of the journal to all
citations in the same time period

H-index- an indicator of a researcher's

lifetime impact in their field
Altimetric- the creation and study of new
metrics based on the Social Web for
analyzing and informing scholarship
Information literacy- the competencies
necessary to access, retrieve, and analyze
research evidence for application to
nursing practice

CREATING A STRONG LITERATURE

REVIEW
1. Identify the research problem and
question
2. Select the resources
3. Identify the inclusion and exclusion
criteria
4. Build the search strategy and conduct
the search
5. Screen the initial list of citations and
organize
6. Retrieve the full text and summarize
relevant articles
7. Critically appraise the study quality and
findings