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 Higher Secondary (First Year)
IT MATHS LAB
Teacher’s Handbook

2019

State Council of Educational Research and Training

Poojappura PO
Thiruvananthapuram - 695012

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Foreword

It is now a visual treat, inviting the students to explore the treasure troves of Mathematics. We have

introduced IT Maths lab at the Higher Secondary level to maintain the continuity so that children

could come up with a clear concept of the contents in the syllabus. The Teachers’ Handbook to

the IT Math lab manual explains each lab activity in clear and easy steps to facilitate the teacher

while guiding the activities. There is room for innovation and creative intervention in each activity.

We wish the teachers and students all success in these activities.

Dr.J.Prasad,

Director,

SCERT Kerala

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The Team

Development Team

1. Achuthan C G, GHSS Karakkurissi, Palakkad

2. Dr K Shanavas, Master Trainer, KITE, Malappuram
3. Jayadas T, TRKHSS Vaniyamkulam, Palakkad

4. M A Rafi, AMHSS Poovambayi, Kozhikode

5. Pramod M K, GMMGHSS Palakkad
6. R Ramanujam, MNKM Govt.HSS Pulappatta, Palakkad
7. Sajeev C S,Govt.Girls VHSS ,Manacaud , Thiruvananthapuram

8. Sajith K, Nochat HSS, Kozhikode

9. Sudeep P, Dr K B Menon Memorial HSS, Thrithala, Palakkad
10. Vinod Kumar A, PKMMHSS, Edarikode, Malappuram

11. Vinod Kumar K, GVHSS Krishnapuram , Alappuzha

Experts

1. Dr. E Krishnan, Retd Professor, University College, Thiruvanthaparam

2. Prof. Sukesh A, Govt. College of Engineering, Kannur

3. Dr. Sarathchandran T G, Retd Deputy Director of Collegiate Education, Kerala

Programme Coordinator:
Dr K S Sivakumar
SCERT Thiruvananthapuram

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Preface

The most important aim of mathematics education, as put forth by the National Curriculum
Frame work 2005, is the mathematization of children’s thoughts and ideas. KCF 2007 has observed
that man is basically not only a recipient of knowledge but also a creator. The generation of any
new knowledge comes naturally and thereby has a gladdening effect. It could be a fact long
discovered, but if a child is able to wend his way to it on his own, he himself is the discoverer
of the fact, as far as his thoughts go. It should instill in him no end of self-confidence and self-
esteem. One of the ways in which this could be made to happen is to make mathematics learning
as practical oriented as possible to help them see and feel what it is all about. At the primary
level, mathematics is an exposition of concrete facts and their explanation. Hence there is more
room for practical work at this level. When one moves on to the secondary and higher secondary
levels the methodology of mathematics becomes abstract and technical and this limits the scope
for introduction of practical oriented concepts. For example Calculus which deals with the study
of rate of change is traditionally taught using methods that have, in sharp contrast, a stationary
feel. We were able to bring in a move for the better with the introduction of geogebra, a software
that keeps things on the move, to aid the study of calculus and similar topics. Even in classes
where such changes, though on a small scale, could be effected, the students were just onlookers. It
is with a view to over coming such constraints that the IT math Lab was conceived at the Higher
Secondary level.
The lab activities have been explained in great detail in the manual so that a student who learns
the basics of geogebra from Lab 0 can easily work out the lab activities on his own. When students
are thus engaged in these activities, there is room for the teachers’ intervention in each activity.
The Teacher’s Handbook has been prepared specifically to help the intervention. The Teacher’s
Handbook also gives models of questions to be given for lab evaluation. There are skills that
students should acquire through each activity. This book will help the teachers in guiding students
to achieve such skills and to discuss related matters with students. These areas are marked with
an asterisk (*) and explained. For example in Lab-2 Shifting of graph: f (x) + a we find ’Discuss
the reason for vertical shift*’. It is explained at the bottom of the page under *, why the vertical
shift takes place together with diagrams. This not only enhances the skills in lab activities but
also helps class room teaching to a great extent.
All the labs in the manual need not be done in the lab. But, as the lab activities of each chapter
are closely linked to class room activities, the lab manual could be used to construct applets which
could be used to supplement class room work.
The capacity of children to adapt themselves quickly and easily to new technology could be
useful in IT Math lab. The Teacher’s Handbook has been so designed as to help teachers in the
lab activities of students.
We earnestly hope that each teacher will be able to guide his students to fruition in the math
lab activities, with all confidence. We wish the students and teachers a happy journey.

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How To Use This Book

Some symbols are used in this book extensively for creating a new experience of reading. The
meaning of the symbols is summarized below.
Symbol Meaning

Student Activity
Indicates student involvement or action
This could be the implementation of an instruction from the manual
Teacher’s involvement
The teacher interfere’s in the student’s learning process
The involvement of the teacher should be to guide the student
to achieve a specific result
Findings
The findings of the student which has emerged out of the joint
effort of both the teacher and student
The results of this section would be the outcome of
a typical active learning process
Discourse
Here aid is provided to the teacher on elaborating
certain key concepts to the students
Typical classroom teaching is involved in this section

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Contents

Foreword iii

The Team iv

Preface v

How To Use This Book vi

Basic Concepts 1
Activity 0.1 GeoGebra Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Activity 0.2 Graph of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Activity 0.3 Standard Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Activity 0.4 Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Activity 0.A Polynomial Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Activity 0.B Functions With Rational Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1 Value of functions 5
Activity 1.1 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Activity 1.2 Values of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Activity 1.3 Function Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Additional Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Activity 1.A Temperature Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2 Shifting of Graphs 8
Activity 2.1 Shifting of graphs : f (x) + a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Activity 2.2 Shifting of graphs : f (x + a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Activity 2.3 Reflection of a Graph : −f (x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Activity 2.4 Reflection of a Graph : f (−x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Additional Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Activity 2.A Translations of Graphs:1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Activity 2.B Translations of Graphs: 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Activity 2.C Family of curves - using sequence command . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 Domain and Range 13

Activity 3.1 Domain and Range of Functions from their Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Activity 3.2 Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Activity 3.3 Piecewise Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Additional Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Activity 3.A Leaking Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Activity 3.B The Volume of a Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Activity 3.C Some Familiar Graphs from Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Activity 3.D Domain and Range of Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

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CONTENTS viii

4 Trigonometric Functions 21
Activity 4.1 Values of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Activity 4.2 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions - 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Activity 4.3 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions - 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Activity 4.A k sin(x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Activity 4.B k sin(2x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

5 Trigonometric Identities 24
Activity 5.1 sin( nπ
2 + x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Activity 5.2 sin( nπ
2 − x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Activity 5.3 Geometrical Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Additional Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Activity 5.A cos(x + y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Activity 5.B Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

6 Solutions of trigonometric equations 28

Activity 6.1 Solution of sin x = a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Activity 6.2 Solution of cos x = a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Activity 6.3 Solution of tan x = a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Activity 6.4 Solution of trigonometric equations in general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

7 Shifting and scaling of graphs of trigonometric functions 32

Activity 7.1 Shifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Activity 7.2 Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Activity 7.3 Periods of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Activity 7.4 Shifting and Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Additional Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Activity 7.A Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Activity 7.B Music and Maths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Activity 7.C Harmonic Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Activity 7.D Blood Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

8 Straight lines 38
Activity 8.1 General Form of Straight Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Activity 8.2 Intersection of Two Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Activity 8.3 Normal Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Activity 8.4 Shifting of Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

9 Conic Sections 42
Activity 9.1 Cutting of a Cone by a Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Activity 9.2 Locus of a point moving equidistant from given points . . . . . . . . . . 43
Activity 9.3 Locus of a point the sum of whose distances from two given points is a
constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Activity 9.4 Locus of a point the difference of whose distances from two given points
is a constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Activity 9.5 Locus of a point equidistant from a point and a fixed line . . . . . . . . 45
Activity 9.A Focus - Directrix Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Activity 9.B Apollonius Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

10 Circle and Parabola 46

Activity 10.1 Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Activity 10.2 Parabola 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Activity 10.3 Parabola 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Activity 10.A Family of Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Activity 10.B Parabola with Given Focus and Directrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

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CONTENTS ix

11 Ellipse and Hyperbola 51

Activity 11.1 Ellipse 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Activity 11.2 Ellipse 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Activity 11.3 Hyperbola 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Activity 11.4 Hyperbola 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Activity 11.A Conic Sections in General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Activity 11.B Locus of a Point on a sliding Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

12 Basics of 3D 56
Activity 12.1 Octants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Activity 12.2 Movement of a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Activity 12.3 Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Activity 12.4 Section of a Line by Coordinate Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Additional Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Activity 12.A Construction of a Box by Cutting Squares from Corners and Fold-
ing up the Flaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Activity 12.B Platonic Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

13 Limits 61
Activity 13.1 Geometrical Interpretation of Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Activity 13.2 Limit of Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Activity 13.3 Limit of Piecewise Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Activity 13.4 Limit of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Activity 13.5 Limit of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Activity 13.A Some more problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

14 Derivative at a point 67
Activity 14.1 Geometrical Meaning of Derivative at a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Activity 14.2 Derivative at a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Activity 14.3 Non Differentiability - Geometrical Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

15 Derivative of a function 71
Activity 15.1 Relation Between a Function and its Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Activity 15.2 Graph of Derived Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Activity 15.3 Equation of Derived Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Activity 15.4 Derivative Using Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Activity 15.A Derivative Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

16 Miscellaneous 74
Activity 16.1 Complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Activity 16.2 Sequence and Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Activity 16.3 Sum to n terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Activity 16.4 Graphical Solution of Linear Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Activity 16.A Sum of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Activity 16.B Product of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Activity 16.C Square Root of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Appendices 78

A Statistics using LibreOffice Calc 79

Activity A.1 Mean and Median . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Activity A.2 Measures of Dispersion of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Activity A.3 Varience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Activity A.4 Standard Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

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CONTENTS x

B Using Python in Mathematics Instruction 85

Activity B.1 Installing and opening Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Activity B.2 Starting Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Activity B.3 Playing with factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Activity B.4 The Collatz sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Activity B.5 A taste of primes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Activity B.6 Square of Digits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Activity B.7 Other Areas of Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

C An insight into the Observation Book 95

D Model Practical Evaluation Questions 97

E Geogebra Basic Tools 105

E.1 Arrangement of Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
E.2 Movement Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
E.3 Point Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
E.4 Line Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
E.5 Special Line tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
E.6 Polygon Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
E.7 Circle and Arc Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
E.8 Conic section Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
E.9 Measurement Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
E.10 Transformational Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
E.11 Special Object Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
E.12 Action Object Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
E.13 General Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
E.14 Additional Tools for 3D Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

F Geogebra Commands 114

F.1 Using Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
F.2 Point Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
F.3 Line Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
F.4 Special Line Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
F.5 Polygon Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
F.6 Circle and Arc Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
F.7 Conic section Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
F.8 Measurement Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
F.9 Transformational Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
F.10 3D Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

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Basic Concepts

We explore different possibilities of using the software GeoGebra in our labs. GeoGebra is a
software combining Geometry and Algebra and is very useful for visualizing various equations,
functions etc. though not limited to these features. Even though most of the students are already
familiar with GeoGebra from their high school classes we start from the basics. Different interfaces
of GeoGebra and some basic tools and input commands - which are frequently used in the labs -
are discussed here. Some Mathematical concepts are also discussed through different activities to
familiarise the methods of an IT based Maths Lab. We also discuss about Activities, Additional
Activities, Observation Book and the entries to be made in it ( some models are given in the
appendix ) and the methods of saving the products of each lab ( GeoGebra applets ).

Activity 0.1 GeoGebra Interface

After giving a brief description about the interfaces and tools to the students, give some simple
activities to familiarise important tools and their uses. Some examples are given below. Name
of new tools are given in italics. The most important tool in GeoGebra is the Slider tool which
is introduced in the next activity, Conic Section tools and 3D tools are discussed in detail in the
relevant chapters, whose discussion is not attempted here.

Activity Tools
Draw a triangle, find the length of its Polygon, Distance or Length, Angle,
sides, perimeter, angles and area Area. 1
Draw a triangle of sides 5, 6 and 7 units Segment with Given length, Circle with
Centre and Radius, Intersect, Polygon 2
Draw 4ABC with AB = 6 units, ∠A = Segment with Given length, Angle with
60◦ and ∠B = 50◦ Given size, Ray, Intersect, Polygon. 3
Draw a rectangle of sides 5 and 6 units Segment with Given length, Perpendicu-
lar Line, Circle with Centre and Radius,
Intersect, Polygon
Draw a parallelogram of sides 5 and 4 Segment with Given length, Parallel
units Line, Intersect, Polygon. 4
Draw the pattern Segment with Given length, Angle, Par-
allel Line, Intersect, Polygon, Reflect
about Line. 5

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0 Basic Concepts 2

1. Using Distance or Length tool click on each side to get length of the sides and click
inside the triangle to get its perimeter. Using Area tool and Angle tool click inside
the triangle to get the area and different angles of the triangle. While constructing
the triangle make sure click the vertices in the anti-clockwise direction. Otherwise
when we use the angle tool to get the angles of the triangle, it may show the exterior
angles. We can draw a polygon either using Polygon Tool or using line segments.
Discuss the difference between these two constructions. If we use line segments it will
not be considered as polygon. We can’t find its area or perimeter.
2. Discuss the methods of hiding the objects used for the construction. We can do it
from the Algebra view by clicking on the bullet given on the left side of the object or
by right clicking on the object and unchecking the item Show Object. Name of the
object may be displayed in the graphics view. We can hide it by right clicking on the
object and unchecking the item Show Label.
3. While using Angle with given size tool remember to select counter clockwise or clock-
wise as is the requirement.
4. This parallelogram is not unique.

5. Draw a Rhombus with one angle as 45◦ . Using Reflect about Line tool take its
reflection on one of its sides. Repeat the process and complete the pattern.

Activity 0.2 Graph of a Function

Aim of this activity is to introduce the Slider tool, Trace and Input Box. Students also get a clear
idea about the graph of a function f as the set of points (x, f (x)).

Discuss the fact that the curve traced by the point A(a, a2 ) is the graph of the function f (x) = x2 .
(a, a3 ) gives the graph of f (x) = x3 and so on
More examples may be given to get a practice on Slider tool and Trace. Some are given below.

Draw the following patterns

Construction of the patterns

Both patterns are constructed using circles.
Pattern 1

Create a slider a with Min=2, Max=5 and increment 0.05

Draw a circle of radius a, centered at a point A. Plot a point B on it.

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0 Basic Concepts 3

Plot another point B 0 on the circle so that ∠BAB 0 = 45◦ (Use Angle with given size tool
or Rotate about a Point tool). Repeat this until we get eight equidistant points on the circle.
Draw circles centered at above points and passing through A.
Select a suitable colour for above circles and Trace on them
Hide the base circle, points and angles.
Give animation of the slider.
To get a dynamic colour to the pattern, do as follows
create three sliders r, g, and b with Min=0, Max=1 and different increments say 0.01, 0.02,
and 0.015.
Select all circles (using Move tool right click and drag), right click inside the selection →
Object properties → Advanced → Dynamic Colors → fill the columns of Red, Green and
Blue by r, g and b.
Animate all sliders.
Pattern 2

Draw a circle of convenient radius (say 3) with center at the point A and plot a point B on it.
Create an angle slider α
Plot another point B 0 on the circle so that ∠BAB 0 = α
Draw the circle centered at B 0 and passing through B.
Select a suitable colour for above circle and Trace on it
Hide the first circle, the points and angle.
Animate the slider.

Activity 0.3 Standard Functions

Aim of this Activity is to familiarise the use of input box by drawing the graphs of some standard
functions. More input commands are given in the appendix.
Ceiling function and Floor function are discussed. Graph of the Ceiling function is obtained by
shifting the graph of the greatest integer function (Floor function) upwards by one unit. Notation
of the Ceiling function is dxe and that of the floor function is bxc (we use the notation [x]). dxe is
defined as the least integer which is not less than x
Discuss the methods of finding domain and range of functions from their graphs.

Activity 0.4 Domain and Range

We discuss the domain and range of f (x) = xn when n is a natural number, and the behaviour of
the graph as n increases.

Domain of f (x) = xn is R for all values of n (natural number)

Range is R if n is odd
Range is [0, ∞) if n is even
As n increases, the portion of the graph in (−1, 1) approaches more and more close to the x
axis. This is because of the reason that if x ∈ (−1, 1), xn approaches to 0 as n increases to ∞.

Activity 0.A Polynomial Function

In this activity we discuss how the domain and range of a polynomial function related to its degree.

Domain of all polynomial functions is R

Range of a polynomial function of odd degree is R
Range of a polynomial of even degree (n) is of the form [a, ∞), if the coefficient of xn is positive.
If it is negative, range is of the form (−∞, a], where a is a real number

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0 Basic Concepts 4

Activity 0.B Functions With Rational Powers

1
Here we discuss the nature of the function f (x) = x n , where n is a natural number
If n is even, graph of the function appears only on the positive side of the x axis.
If n is odd, graph of the function appears on both sides of the x axis.
If n is even, domain of the function is [0, ∞), and range is R.
If n id odd, domain and range is R
1
If n is odd graph of x n is obtained by reflecting the graph of xn on the line y = x
1
If n is even, graph of x n is obtained by reflecting portion on the positive side of the x axis of
n
the the graph of x on the line y = x.

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Lab 1

Value of functions

This lab consists of three activities and an additional activity. All these activities help the student
to get a clear graphical idea about functions and functional relationship between two variables.

Required Concepts

Image of a real number under a function f

Graph of a function f is the set of points (x, f (x)) for all x in the domain of f

Aim

Students construct a simple applet for which they use above concepts. Using the applet they
establish, graphically, the relation between a real number and its image under the function f and
use the applet to find images of some real numbers. Activities 1.1 and 1.2 helps them to concretise
above concepts.
In Activity 1.3 with the help of a GeoGebra applet we compare a function with a machine which
gives an output, according to the definition of the function, for a given input

Activity 1.1 Functions

In this activity we use the function f (x) = x2

Drag the point A

along the x axis and What happens to C while A moves C moves along Y axis as A
observe the move- ? moves along X axis
ment of C What is the relation between the x y coordinate of C is the
coordinate of A and y coordinate of square of x coordinate of
C ? Why ? A, because the function is
f (x) = x2

Problems How can we use this applet to find the Adjust the slider so that the x co-
square of a number ? ordinate of A becomes the given
number and find the correspond-
ing y coordinate of C

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1 Value of functions 6

Activity 1.2 Values of Functions

1
Set a suitable func- Discuss different methods of doing the Completes the table.
tion and finds re- problem. For example, we can find the
1
quired values value of 3 3 either by setting the func-
1
tion as x 3 and the value of the slider as
3 or by setting the function as 3x and
the value of the slider as 13 (if exponen-
tial functions are already discussed )
Observe the move- What happens to the value f (a) as a When a approaches zero from
ment of the point approaches zero from right as well as the right side, f (a) increases to
C when the point from left ? The concept of limit and its infinity and when a approaches
A comes closer and relevance may be mentioned zero from the left, f (a) decreases
closer to the origin to negative infinity
from both sides of
origin
Change the func- Discuss the range of f (x) = [x]
tion to f (x) = While A moves in between
[x] and observe the two integers, C stay on the
movement of C ac- least integer among them and
cording to A jumps to the next integer as
A moves to the next interval
Range of f is the set of inte-
gers

1. The completed table is shown here

1 √ 2
p√ −3
33 1.8 23 5 (3.46) 2
1 √ 2 √ −3
Function x3 x x3 √ x x 2
Input(x) 3 1.8 2 5 3.46
value of f(x) 1.4422 1.3416 1.5874 2.2361 0.1554

Activity 1.3 Function Machine

By giving the val- Identifying the values for which

ues as inputs,in the Compare a function with an input the warning light of the machine
machine, obtain the output machine turns red
outputs. Discuss the domain of a function

Additional Activities

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1 Value of functions 7

Activity 1.A Temperature Scales

This is an example of a life situation in which a functional relationship between two varying
quantities are used and their comparison is done.Also this activity shows how mathematics is
related to other subjects.

We may need to zoom out the graphics view to view the graph. Coordinates of the point of
intersection of the graph with coordinate axes gives the answer to the questions given in the
manual.

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Lab 2

Shifting of Graphs

In this Lab there are four activities and three additional activities. All the activities deals with
the graph of functions obtained by translation or reflection of graph of a given function.

Required concepts

Graph of a function

Aim
This Lab helps the students to imagine the graph of functions which are obtained by translation
and reflection of the graphs of standard functions and hence to find their domain and range.
Activity 2.1 and 2.2 deals with shifting of graphs parallel to coordinate axes. Concept of family of
curves is also discussed here.
Activity 2.3 and 2.4 deals with reflection of graphs on coordinate axes.
Translation of graphs, which are not parallel to coordinate axes are discussed in Additional activ-
ities 2.A and 2.B
Additional activity 2.C deals with the construction of family of curves using sequence command.

Activity 2.1 Shifting of graphs : f (x) + a

Observe the move-

ment of the graph Discuss the reason for vertical shift Graph of f (x) + a is obtained
1
of f (x) + a accord- by shifting the graph of f (x)
ing to a for different Let the students imagine and draw by a units vertically upwards
functions rough sketch of the graphs of some if a is positive and vertically
functions such as downwards if a is negative.
x2 + 3, x2 − 2, |x| − 3, |x| + 1, x3 + 2, Finds the domain and range
1 of functions from their
+ 4, [x] + 2 etc. and check their
x graphs. Realise that vertical
answer using GeoGebra shift doesn’t change the
Discuss the domain and range of domain and may change the
above functions. range.
Discuss the concept of family of
curves represented by the equations
x2 + a, |x| + a etc.

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2 Shifting of Graphs 9

1. Consider the functions f (x) = x2

and g(x) = x2 +2 ( g(x) = f (x)+2).
For a fixed x, say x = 1, f (1) = 1
and the corresponding point on the
graph of f is P(1,1). g(1) = f (1) +
2 = 3 and the corresponding point
on the graph of g is (1,3).That is,
P is shifted vertically upwards by 2
units. Thus the graph of g is ob-
tained by shifting each point on the
graph of f , that is, the graph of f
itself, vertically upwards by 2 units.

Activity 2.2 Shifting of graphs : f (x + a)

Observe the move-

ment of the graph Discuss the reason for horizontal Graph of f (x + a) is obtained
of f (x + a) accord- shift 1 by shifting the graph of f (x)
ing to a for different Let the students imagine and draw by a units parallel to x axis
functions rough sketch of the graphs of some towards left if a is positive
functions such as and towards right if a is neg-
(x + 3)2 , (x − 2)2 , |x − 3|, |x + 1| + 2, ative.
1 Finds the domain and range
1+(x+2)3 , , [x−2], [x−3]−1
x+4 of functions from their
etc. and check their answer using graphs. Realise that hori-
GeoGebra zontal shift doesn’t change
Discuss the domain and range of the range and may change
above functions. the domain
Discuss the concept of family of
curves represented by the equations
(x + a)2 , |x + a| etc.

1. Consider the functions f (x) = x2

and g(x) = (x + 3)2 (that is g(x) =
f (x + 3)). Since 22 = 4, P(2,4) is
a point on the graph of f . And
since (−1 + 3)2 = 4 , (−1, 4) is
the corresponding point, that is the
point with same y coordinate, on the
graph of g. That is, P is shifted
horizontally towards left by 3 units.
Thus the graph of g is obtained by
shifting each point on the graph of
f , that is, the graph of f itself, hor-
izontally towards left by 3 units.

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2 Shifting of Graphs 10

Activity 2.3 Reflection of a Graph : −f (x)

Observe the graph

of −f (x) for differ- Discuss the reason for reflection 1 Graph of −f (x) is obtained
ent functions Let the students draw rough sketch by reflecting the graph of
of the graphs of some functions such f (x) on x axis.
as −(x + 3)2 , −(x − 2)2 , −|x − 3|, Finds the domain and range
1 of functions from their
2 − |x + 1|, 1 − (x + 2)3 , − ,
x+4 graphs. Realise that reflec-
−[x − 2] etc. and check their answer tion on x axis doesn’t change
using GeoGebra the domain and may change
Discuss the domain and range of the range.
above functions.

1. Consider the functions f (x) = x2 and g(x) =

−x2
( g(x) = −f (x)). For a fixed x, say x = 2,
f (2) = 4 and the corresponding point on the
graph of f is P(2,4). g(2) = −f (2) = −4 and
the corresponding point on the graph of g is
(2,-4).That is, P is reflected on x axis. Thus
the graph of g is obtained by reflecting each
point on the graph of f , that is, the graph of
f itself, on x axis.

Activity 2.4 Reflection of a Graph : f (−x)

Observe the graph

of f (−x) for differ- Discuss the reason for reflection 1 Graph of f (−x) is obtained
ent functions Let the students draw rough sketch by reflecting the graph of
of the graphs of some functions such f (x) on y axis.
as (2−x)2 , |3−x|, |x−1|, 1−(2−x)3 , Finds the domain and range
1 of functions from their
− etc. and check their answer
4−x graphs. Realise that reflec-
using GeoGebra
tion on x axis doesn’t change
Discuss the domain and range of
the range and may change
above functions.
the domain.
Discuss the concept of even and odd
functions and their graphs 2

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2 Shifting of Graphs 11

1. Consider the functions f (x) = (x − 1)2 and g(x) = (−x − 1)2 (that is g(x) = f (−x)).
For x = 3, image of f is (3 − 1)2 = 4 and the corresponding point on the graph of
f is P(3,4). g attains this image at x = −3, (g(−3) = (−(−3) − 1)2 = 4), and the
corresponding point on the graph of g is (-3,4). That is, P is reflected on y axis.
Thus the graph of g is obtained by reflecting each point on the graph of f , that is,
the graph of f itself, on y axis.

Note :- In the case of f (x) = x2 , students may not feel the reflection on y axis
(because (−x)2 = x2 ) and in the case of f (x) = x3 they may feel the reflection is
on x axis (because (−x)3 = −x3 ). So it is better to consider the functions such as
f (x) = (x − 1)2 , f (x) = x3 + 1 etc.

2. If f is even, f (−x) = f (x), which shows that reflection on y axis doesn’t change the
the graph. So the graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to y axis. eg.
x2 , |x| + 2 etc.

If f is odd, f (−x) = −f (x) ⇒ −f (−x) = f (x).

Now, graph of −f (−x) is obtained by reflecting the graph of f (x) on x axis and then
on y axis. In effect, the graph of f is reflected about the origin. So, for an odd
function, −f (−x) = f (x) ⇒ reflection about origin doesn’t change the graph. So the
graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin. eg. x3 , x1 , etc.

There are functions which are neither odd nor even. eg. x3 + 1, (x − 2)2 etc.

Additional Activities

Activity 2.A Translations of Graphs:1

Observe the move- Discuss the reason for the shifting of Realise that the graph moves
ment of the graph curve parallel to the line y = x 1 parallel to the line y = x
of f (x − a) + a ac-
cording to a
Changes the func- Discuss the reason for the shifting of Realise that the graph moves
tion to f (x − a) − a, curve parallel to the lines y = −x, parallel to the lines y = −x,
f (x − a) + 2a) etc. y = 2x etc. 2 y = 2x etc.
and observe the
movement of their
graphs according
to a.

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2 Shifting of Graphs 12

1. If a is positive, graph of f (x − a) + a is obtained by shifting the graph of f (x) by a

units parallel to x axis towards right and then by a units parallel to y axis upwards.
That is each point on the graph is shifted along a line having slope 1. So the entire
graph is shifted parallel to the line y = x. (If a is negative, then also the shifting is
parallel to the line y = x, but in the opposite direction)
2. If a is positive, graph of f (x − a) − a is obtained by shifting the graph of f (x) by a
units parallel to x axis towards right and then by a units parallel to y axis downwards.
That is each point on the graph is shifted along a line having slope -1. So the entire
graph is shifted parallel to the line y = −x.
If a is positive, graph of f (x − a) + 2a is obtained by shifting the graph of f (x) by a
units parallel to x axis towards right and then by 2a units parallel to y axis upwards.
That is each point on the graph is shifted along a line having slope 2. So the entire
graph is shifted parallel to the line y = 2x. (If a is negative, then also the shifting is
parallel to the line y = 2x, but in the opposite direction)

The pattern given in the Manual is obtained by tracing the curves (x − a)2 + a and
(x + a)2 + a

Activity 2.B Translations of Graphs: 2

Observe the move- Discuss the reason for the shifting of Realise that the graph moves
ment of the graph curve parallel to a line having slope − ab parallel to a line having slope − ab
of f (x + a) + b ac-
cording to a and b

Activity 2.C Family of curves - using sequence command

Draw patterns Discuss the the logic of input com-

using input com- mands Draw different patterns
mands Finds different input com-
mands to draw their own pat-
terns

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Lab 3

Domain and Range

In this lab we have three activities and four additional activities. We discuss the domain and range
of functions using their graphs, rational functions and piecewise defined functions. In additional
activities some applications in Mathematics and Physics are discussed. Domain and range of rela-
tions are also given as an additional activity.

Required concepts

Graph of a function, Domain and Range, Shifting of the graph

Aim

Graph of a function can tell a lot of its properties such as domain, rage, maxima, minima,
increasing/decreasing etc. Having a knowledge about the relation of the graph with its domain
and range of some standard functions, students can explore it to more functions with the help
of shifting reflection and scaling of graphs. In Activity 1 students get an opportunity to think
about domain and range from graphs of functions and verify it using GeoGebra.
In Activity 2 Rational functions and their behaviour at the points where they are not defined
are discussed.
Activity 3 deals with piecewise defined functions, their domain and range.
Some practical problems are discussed in Activity 3.A, 3.B and 3.C which helps the students
to relate Mathematics and Physics.
Activity 3.D deals with the domain and range of relations graphically.

Activity 3.1 Domain and Range of Functions from their Graphs

Imagines the graph Discuss the logical approach to the

of the functions, problems * Gets a clear idea about find-
their domain and ing domain and range from
range graphs.
Finds the domain and range.

13

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3 Domain and Range 14

Function Discussion Domain Range

No:
i x2 + 2 Vertical shift of x2 by 2 units upwards R [2, ∞)
ii x2 − 3 Vertical shift of x2 by 3 units down- R [−3, ∞)
wards
iii 3 − |x| read as −|x| + 3. Reflection of |x| on x R (−∞, 3]
axis and an upward shift of 3 units
iv (x + 2)2 − 1 Left shift o x2 by 2 units and down shift R [−1, ∞)
by 1
v x2 − 6x + 12 Re write as (x−3)2 +3. Right shift and R [3, ∞)
up shift of x2 by 3 units
vi |x − 2| Right shift of |x| by 2 units R [0, ∞)
vii |x − 2| + 3 Up shift of the previous graph by 3 R [3, ∞)
units
viii 2x2 − 8x + 5 Re write as 2(x − 2)2 − 3. Right shift R [−3, ∞)
of x2 by 2, multiplication by 2 do not
change the domain and range (this is
not the general case)1 . Down shift by
3.
1 n
ix 2 [x] Since [x] is defined for all real numbers R {x : x = 2,n ∈
1
2 [x] is also defined for all real numbers. Z}
Range of [x] is Z, so the range of 12 [x] is
the set of half of integers. Discuss the
change in the shape of the graph2
x [ x2 ] Whatever may be in the bracket, we get R Z
its value as an integer and if we take
x = 2n, we get n as its image, for any
natural number n. Discuss the change
in the shape of the graph3
xi x − [x] Defined for all values of x. For any x R [0, 1)
its integer part will be get cancelled. So
f (x) ∈ [0, 1). Discuss the graph4
xii 3 − x2 Read as −x2 + 3. Reflection of x2 on x R (−∞, 3]
√ axis and an up shift by 3
xiii x−2 Domain: x − 2 > 0 ⇒ x > 2. Range : [2, ∞) [0, ∞)
minimum value of the function is 0 and
it increases to ∞ as x increases. Discuss
√ the graph5
xiv 4−x Domain: 4 − x > 0 ⇒ x 6 4. Range (−∞, 4] [0, ∞)
: minimum value of the function is 0
and it increases to ∞ as x decreases.
Discuss the graph6
1 1
xv Right shift of x by 2 units R − {2} R − {0}
−
√ 2
x
xvi x2 − 4 Domain : x2 > 4 ⇒ x 6 −2 or x > 2 R − (−2, 2) [0, ∞)
Range : minimum value of the function
is 0 and it increases as x increases to
+∞ or decreases to −∞. Discuss the
√ graph7
xvii 9 − x2 Domain : x2 6 9 ⇒ −3 6 x 6 3 [−3, 3] [0, 3]
Range : minimum value 0 and maxi-
mum value 3. Discuss the graph8
1
xviii x2 −9 Discuss Domain and range9 R − {−3, 3} R − (− 19 , 0]
x2
xix x2 +1 Discuss Domain and range10 R [0, 1)

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3 Domain and Range 15

1. In this case the domain of the function f is R so the domain of 2f is also R. The range
of f is [0, ∞) so the range of 2f is also [0, ∞) (in both cases the minimum value of the
functions is 0 and their value increases to ∞ as x increases). Consider the functions
f (x) = x2 + 2. Its domain is R and so the domain of 2f is also R. The range of f
is [2, ∞) so the range of 2f is [4, ∞) (in this case the minimum value of f is 2 hence
that of 2f is 4. Both the functions increases to ∞.)

2. The graph is vertically compressed to half. That is the space between the steps is
reduced to half of the original.
3. The graph is horizontally elongated to twice. That is the length of each step is
doubled.

4. In such examples (if functions are discontinuous) it is not easy, by mere observation of
the graph, to say whether some points are on the graph or not. For example we may
doubt whether (2,0) or (2,1) are on the graph of the above given function. In such
situations either we can go back to the definition of the function or using an input
command to get a clarity. Input f (2), we can see its value in the algebra window as
0. which means (2, 0) is on the graph hence (2, 1) is not. If we input (2, f (2) we get
the point (2, 0) on the graph. Suppose 2 is not in the domain of a function f, while
we give the input, algebra window will show it undefined.
√
5. We can come back to this discussion after the chapter Conic Sections. y = √x − 2 ⇒
y 2 = x − 2 which is a shifting of the parabola y 2 = x. So, starting from y = x which
represents
√ the upper part of the parabola y 2 = x, we get the graph of the function
y = x − 2 by shifting above graph by two units right.
√
6. y = √4 − x ⇒ y 2 = 4 − x. So we start from the parabola y 2 = −x. The function
y√ = −xprepresents the upper half of above parabola. Hence the graph of y =
4 − x = −(x − 4) is obtained by shifting above graph by 4 units right.
√ 2 2
7. y = x2 − 4 ⇒ x4 − y4 = 1 is a Hyperbola with vertices (±2, 0). So the given
function represents the upper half of this Hyperbola.
8. y = 9 − x2 ⇒ x2 + y 2 = 9 is the circle of radius 3 centered at the origin. So the given
function represents the upper half of this circle.

Domain : R − {−3, 3}
Range : x2 − 9 takes all positive values so x21−9
also take all positive values (as in the case of
1 2
x ). On the negative side (that is when x − 9
2
is negative), x − 9 takes the values from −9 to
0 . So x21−9 takes the values from −∞ to − 19 .
Hence the range is (−∞, − 19 ] ∪ (0, ∞). That is
9. R − (− 19 , 0]
It may feel difficult to identify the maximum
value of the function on the negative side by
mere observation. Here we can use the Func-
tion Inspector tool. Using the tool, click on the
graph, a window will appear. Adjust the value
of x between any two numbers in (−3, 3) say as
−2 6 x 6 2. We get the maximum and mini-
mum values of the function in that interval.

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3 Domain and Range 16

1. Domain : R
Range : Since the numerator and denominator are positive, value of the function
is positive. It takes the value 0, when x = 0. Since the denominator is greater
than the numerator, value of the function is less than 1. Now the question remains
is that does it take all values in [0, 1). We can consider the function as 1 − x21+1 .
Since x21+1 takes all values in (0, 1], 1 − x21+1 takes all values in [0, 1).
If it feel difficult to identify the maximum value of the function on the negative
side by mere observation of the graph, use Function Inspector tool. Using the
tool click on the graph. A window will appear. Adjust value of x between any
two numbers in (−3, 3) say as −2.9 6 x 6 2.9. We can see the maximum value of
the function in (−2.9, 2.9).

Activity 3.2 Rational Functions

Creates the applet, Discuss the difference between the func-

Observes the move- tions1 Identifies the difference be-
ment of the point tween the functions.
along the graphs.

1. Even though the graphs of the functions seems to be the same they are not actually
like that. Since the first function is not defined at 2, (2,4) is not a point on the first
graph. That is why the point disappears at x = 2. But (2,4) is on the second graph.

Activity 3.3 Piecewise Functions

Draws the graphs of Help the students to identify the do- Finds the domain and range.
the functions, ob- main and range. *
serves the graphs
to find the domain
and range of the
functions.
Observes the given Discuss the function representing the Identifies the functions
graphs graphs **

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3 Domain and Range 17

No: Function
( Domain Range
2
x if x ≤ 2
1 f (x) = R [0, ∞)
2x + 1 if x > 2
(
x3 if x ≤ 0 1
2 f (x) = R R − (0, 1]
x2 + 1 if x > 0
(
x2 + 2 if x < 0 2
3 f (x) = R − {0} R − [−2, 2]
−x2 − 2 if x > 0
4 f (x) = x2 if x ∈ [−2, 1] [−2, 1] [0, 4]
5 f (x) = x3 if x ∈ [−2, 2] [−2, 2] [−8, 8]
6 f (x) = x1 if x ∈ [−1, 2] [−1, 2] − {0} R − (−1, 12 )

1. It is not possible to say whether the points (0, 0) or (0, 1) are on the graph, by mere
observation. From the definition of the function it is clear that f (0) = 03 = 0. Hence
(0, 0) is the point on the graph and (0, 1) is not. We can use input commands to see
it from the graph itself. Input f (0) shows its value on the algebra view, or the input
(0, f (0)) shows the point on the graphics view.
2. Input command for this function is If (x < 0, x2 + 2, x > 0, −x2 − 2).

**
Function( Input Command
x2 if x ≤ 1
a f (x) = If(x<=1,x^2,floor(x))
[x] if x > 1


 [−x] if x ≤ −1
2
b f (x) = x if − 1 < x < 1 If(x<=-1,floor(-x),-1<x<1,x^2,floor(x))

[x] if x ≥ 1


2

 (x + 2) if x ≤ −1
2 1
c f (x) = x if − 1 < x < 1 If(x<=-1,(x+2)^2,-1<x<1, x^2,(x-2)^2)

(x − 2)2 if x ≥ 1


|x + 4| − 1 if x ≤ −2

2
d f (x) = |x| − 1 if − 2 < x < 2 if(x<=-2,abs(x+4)-1,-2<x<2,abs(x)-1,abs(x-4)-1)

|x − 4| − 1 if x ≥ 2


We mayrestrict the function in [−3, 3] as seen in the given figure. That is

2
(x + 2)
 if − 3 ≤ x ≤ −1
f (x) = x2 if − 1 < x < 1

(x − 2)2 if 1≤x≤3


The corresponding input command is

If(-3<=x<=-1,(x+2)^2,-1<x<1, x^2,1<=x<=3,(x-2)^2)
If we want a continuation of the picture we can use the Sequence command as follows.
Create an integer slider m with min=0. Input the command
Sequence(If(2n - 1 ≤ x ≤ 2n + 1, (x - 2n)2 ), n, -m, m, 1)
As m increases we get a continuation of the picture
The logic behind above command is that the function is defined as (x − 2n)2 in the the interval
[2n − 1, 2n + 1]. Using Sequence command we join such functions defined in different intervals.
Note that the picture doesn’t represent a single function, but a sequence of functions.
We can restrict the function in [−6, 6] using the input command
if(-6<=x<=-2,abs(x+4)-1,-2<x<2,abs(x)-1,2<=x<=6,abs(x-4)-1)
The input command Sequence(If(4n-2<=x<=4n+2, abs(x-4n)-1),n,-m,m) gives a continu-
ation of the picture

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3 Domain and Range 18

Additional Activities

Activity 3.A Leaking Tank

x 2
Draw the graph of the function f (x) = 50(1 − 20 ) . f (0), f (5), ... gives the corresponding volume
of water in the tank at time 0, 5, ...
x 2
Domain of the function f (x) = 50(1 − 20 ) is
the set of real numbers R and its range is [0, ∞).
But it is not the case in the given situation. The
tank becomes empty in 20 minutes. So after 20,
the volume of water in the tank is 0. But the
function f increases from 0 after 20 (it is clear
from the graph). So the domain of the function
V (t) is [0, 20]. The range is the volume of water
in the tank with in the time interval 0 to 20
minutes. So the range is [0, 50].

Activity 3.B The Volume of a Box

Volume of the box is given by the function v(x) = (5 − 2x)(3 − 2x)x. Since x represents the length
of the square cut away from the cardboard, its minimum value is 0 and maximum value is 12 (either
we can exclude these numbers, because no box is there at these values or we can include them by
considering boxes of 0 volume). Hence we can take the domain as [0, 32 ] or (0, 32 ).
Range of the function is obtained from the graph. We can use the ’Function Inspector ’ tool to
find the maximum volume and the corresponding value of x.

Click on the graph with the ’Function Inspector’ tool and set the value of x in [0, 1.5]. The
maximum volume is obtained is 4.1044 at x = 0.6069 (both are approximate values).
The range of the function can be taken as [0, 4.1044] or (0, 4.1044].

Activity 3.C Some Familiar Graphs from Physics

All these graphs are related to motion on a straight line. Students are familiar with this kid of
graphs prom their Physics classes.

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3 Domain and Range 19

First graph represents displacement time graph of a ball thrown vertically upwards.

Second graph represents displacement time graph of a bouncing ball.

Third graph represents the velocity time graph of a bouncing ball.

Fourth graph : descriptions on the axes are not given. If we take the time along x axis and
the displacement along y axis, this may be considered as the displacement time graph of a car
moving along a straight road. It moves for some time, takes rest and again moves. Instead of
displacement, if we take velocity along y axis, we can describe its motion as, moves with an accel-
eration for some time, keeps a constant velocity and again moves with acceleration.

Construction of the graphs

Graph 1

Suppose the ball is thrown with an initial velocity of 10 m/s. Then

its equation of motion is h(t) = 10t − 4.9t2 . We can draw its graph
using the input command h(x)=10x-4.9x^2. We can restrict its
domain in to its time of motion as follows.
Plot the points of intersections A and B of the curve with the x axis.
Define the function f (x) = h(x) in between the x coordinates of A
and B using the command

f(x)=if(x(A)<=x<=x(B),h).

Create a slider t with min=0 and max=x(B). Plot the point

(t, f (t)) and animate t. We can see that above point moves along x
axis as a ball ball thrown vertically upwards.
Graph 2
Initial velocity of the ball decreases on each bounce.
Suppose the velocities are 12 , 8, 6, ... m/s. Graphically
each to and fro motion is represented by a parabola.
Second parabola starts where the first one ends and the
third starts where the second one ends and so on. Graph
of the first to and fro motion is obtained by the input
f(x)=12x-4.9x^2. Plot the points of intersections A and
B of the graph with x axis. Graph of the second to and fro
motion is obtained by shifting the graph of the function
8x − 4.9x2 so that it starts at B. Use the input command
g(x)=8(x-x(B))-4.9(x-x(B))^2. Plot the point of
intersection C of this graph with x axis. Use the command
h(x)=6(x-x(C))-4.9(x-x(C))^2 to get the third por-
tion.Now we can make it to a single graph by the command
if(x(A)≤x<x(B),f,x(B)≤x<x(C),g,x(C)≤x<x(D),h)

Graph 3

This graph is obtained by taking the derivative of the function representing Graph 2.

Graph 4

This graph is a combination of the parabolas y = −(x − 2)2 + 4, y = (x − 4)2 + 4 and the

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3 Domain and Range 20

straight line y = 4. It is obtained by the command

if(0≤x<2,-(x-2)^2+4,2<x<4,4,4≤x<6,(x-4)^2+4).

Activity 3.D Domain and Range of Relations

We can identify the domain and range from the regions represented by the relations.

Relation Domain Range

R1 [−2, 2] [−2, 2]
R2 [−2, 2] [−2, 2]
R3 R R
R4 R R
R5 R [2, ∞)

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Lab 4

Trigonometric Functions

This lab consists of three activities and two additional activities. By these activities,students get
a geometrical concept behind the definition of all the 6 trigonometric functions and their graphs.
We also discuss the behaviour of each trigonometric function in different quadrants.

Required concepts

Concept of circular functions, that is, the coordinate of a point rotates from (1, 0) along the unit
circle centered at the origin making an angle x radian at the centre can be taken as (cos x, sin x)
Definition of other trigonometric functions on the basis of sin(x) and cos(x)

Graph of the function f is a collection of points of the form (a, f (a)) for all values of a in its
domain
Aim
Students construct an applet in which they can rotate a point along a unit circle by a required
angle. They find the values of trigonometric functions for given numbers. They use the concept
of trigonometric functions for the construction of the applet.
Using the applet, discuss the domain and range of the trigonometric functions
With the help of the applet, plot the graphs of trigonometric functions (without using direct
input command)
Discuss the nature of trigonometric functions, such as Positive, Negative, Increasing, Decreasing
etc. in different quadrants.

Activity 4.1 Values of Trigonometric Functions

Creates the ap- Recalls the definition of sin x and Finds the domain and range
plet cos x of sin x and cos x
Observes the Discuss the domain and range of Finds the values of sinx and
coordinates of sin x and cos x 1 cos x for the given values of x
P What happens to the value of the and completes the table
Finds the val- functions when P reaches on the co- Identifies the values of x for
ues of sin x and ordinate axes? which sin x and cos x takes
cos x for given Extend above discussion to find the the values 0, 1 and −1
values of x, us- values of x for which sin x and cos x
ing the applet. takes the values 0, 1 and −1

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4 Trigonometric Functions 22

1. We may treat this as an input-output mechanism. We can input a value for the slider
a to get the corresponding output, the values of cos a and sin a, as the coordinates of
P. Set of possible values of input, that is, the possible values of a is the domain of the
functions. Even though we have created the slider with Min= −10 and Max= 10 we
can edit them to any real number. So the domain of sin x and cos x is the set of real
numbers. And the range is [−1, 1]

Note :- While analysing a graph of a function, we take the domain as the set of x
coordinates and range as the set of y coordinates. Don’t let the students to confuse
this with the above discussion.

π π π π
x 3 4 6 2 .3 .6 2 −1.5 −3.1 7.5
sin x 0.87 0.71 0.5 1 0.3 0.56 0.91 -0.997 -0.042 0.938
cos x 0.5 0.71 0.87 0 0.96 0.83 -0.42 0.07 -0.99 0.347

Activity 4.2 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions - 1

Observes the path Realise that the path of B is the

of B Recalls the concept that graph of graph of sin x
the function f is the set of points
(x, f (x))
(a, y(P )) represents the point
(a, sin a), hence its path gives the
graph of sin x

Activity 4.3 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions - 2

Observes the path

of B for different (a, x(P )) represents the point Identifies the graphs
cases (a, cos a), hence its path gives the Finds the definition of B to
graph of cos x get the graphs of sec x and
Recalls the definitions of other cot x
trigonometric functions. Finds the domain and range
1
Since y(P ) represents sin a, y(P ) of the trigonometric func-
represents cosec a. So the path of tions
1 Observes the behaviour of
B(a, y(P ) ) gives the graph of
cosec x and so on. the trigonometric functions
Discuss the domain and range of in different quadrants and
trigonometric functions. completes the table

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4 Trigonometric Functions 23

Activity 4.A k sin(x)

Creates the ap- Coordinates of points on a circle of Realise that the coordinates
plet radius k is (k cos x,k sin x). (Idea of of P is (k cos x, k sin x)
Observes the similar triangles may be used to es- Finds the domain and range
coordinates of tablish this) of the functions k sin x and
P Domain is R and range is [−k, k] - k cos x
Plots the func- discuss the reason.
tions k sin x and
k cos x

Activity 4.B k sin(2x)

Creates the ap- For any value of a, rotation of P Realise that if a = x,

plet is 2a. Hence the coordinates of P the coordinates P is
Observes the is (k cos 2a, k sin 2a). Hence its x (k cos 2x, k sin 2x).
coordinates of coordinate represents the function Creates the required applet
P k cos 2x and y coordinate represents
Plots the func- the function k sin 2x.
tions k sin 2x Create a slider b and edit the rota-
and k cos 2x tion of P as ab to create the applet
to describe the functions k sin ax
and k cos ax

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Lab 5

Trigonometric Identities

In this lab we derive some trigonometric identities geometrically and discuss their use in some
physical situations through three activities and two additional activities.

Required Concepts

Trigonometric functions are defined by means of coordinates of a point on the unit circle centred
at origin
Concept of congruent triangles

Aim

Students construct an applet by which they derive the relation between sin( nπ nπ
2 ±x), cos( 2 ±x),
nπ
tan( 2 ± x) with sin x, cos x, tan x for any natural number n. In Activities 5.1 and 5.2 they
observe the results numerically and in Activity 5.3 they derive the results in general using the
idea of congruent triangles.
In Activity 5.A, students derive the result cos(x + y) = cos(x) cos(y) − sin(x) sin(y).
I Activity 5.B we discuss Simple harmonic Motion (SHM)
π
In the following activities, even though the identities are true for all values of x, we take 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
for the convenience of discussion

Activity 5.1 sin( nπ

2
+ x)

Constructs the Discuss how the function changes Completes the table
applet for even and odd values of n 1 Establishes the relation be-
Observes the Discuss the method of finding the tween sin( nπ nπ
2 + x), cos( 2 +
coordinates of sign of the resultant function 2 x), sin x and cos x for differ-
sin x
the points P Use the definition tan x = cos x to ent values of n
and Q and finds derive the result of tan Establishes the relation be-
the relation tween tan( nπ2 + x), tan x and
between them. cot x for different values of n

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5 Trigonometric Identities 25

1. If n is even then the function is unaltered (the reason may be discussed in Activity
5.3). In this case we can write nπ
2 in the form nπ. So we can write the identities as
follows
sin(nπ ± x) = ± sin x, cos(nπ ± x) = ± cos x and tan(nπ ± x) = ± tan x

If n is odd then the function changes as follows.

sin( nπ nπ nπ
2 ± x) = ± cos x, cos( 2 ± x) = ± sin x and tan( 2 ± x) = ± cot x

2. Sign of the expression on the right side of the equation is same as the sign of the
expression on the right side which is determined by the quadrant in which the point
Q lies after the rotation nπ
2 .
For example
sin(3π − x) = sin x, because 3π − x lies in the second quadrant where value of sine is
positive
cos( π2 + x) = − sin x because π2 + x lies in the second quadrant where value of cosine
is negative

Activity 5.2 sin( nπ

2
− x)

Observes the co-

ordinates of the Discuss how the function changes Completes the table
points P and Q and for even and odd values of n Establish the relation be-
finds the relation Discuss the method of finding the tween sin( nπ nπ
2 − x), cos( 2 −
between them. sign of the resultant function x), sin x and cos x for differ-
ent values of n
Establishes the relation be-
tween tan( nπ2 − x), tan x and
cot x for different values of n

Activity 5.3 Geometrical Proof

Using the given Gets a geometrical picture of the

applet proves the Use the concept of congruent trian- identities
identities gles to get the results. 1
Discuss the reason that the func-
tions are unaltered when n is even
and changes when n is odd. 2
Discuss the relevance of such iden-
tities. 3

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5 Trigonometric Identities 26

1. Rotation of Q is π + x
Coordinates of P are (cos x, sin x)
and that of Q are (cos(π+x), sin(π+
x))
4OAP 4OBQ are congruent
So OA = OB and OP = OQ
Since Q lies in the third quadrant its
x and y coordinates are negative. So
we get the results
sin(π +x) = − sin x and cos(π +x) =
− cos x
Similarly we can derive the other re-
sults.

2. When n is even, and if x = 0 both the points P and Q lie on the x axis. If we gradually
increase the value of x we can see that both the points deviates from the x axis by
the same distance. So that their y coordinates are same (except in sign - may be). So
we get the result sin(nπ ± x) = ± sin x. Congruency of the triangles gives the other
result cos(nπ ± x) = ± cos x.
When n is odd, and if x = 0 P lies on x axis and Q lies on the y axis. If we gradually
increase the value of x we can see that the deviation of P from the x axis and that of
Q from y axis are same. So the y coordinate of P and the x coordinate of Q are same
(except in sign - may be). So we get the result cos(nπ ± x) = ± sin x. Congruency of
the triangles gives the other result sin(nπ ± x) = ± cos x.
3. Any real number y can be written in the form y = nπ 2 ± x for some non negative
integer n and 0 ≤ x ≤ π2 . So the behaviour of trigonometric functions in the set of
real numbers can be studied by observing them in [0, π2 ]

Additional Activities

Activity 5.A cos(x + y)

Derives the trigono- Triangles are congruent. So AC = BP. Gets the result cos(x + y) =
metric identity us- Derive the result using distance for- cos(x) cos(y) − sin(x) sin(y)
ing the applet mula.

Activity 5.B Simple Harmonic Motion

In this activity we create a point that moves along a straight line in SHM. For this we use the
concept that an SHM as a projection of a uniform circular motion on a straight line. We use the
concept trigonometric functions to derive the equation of motion of a body in SHM.

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5 Trigonometric Identities 27

Discuss the derivation of equation of Derives the equation of motion of

Creates the ap- motion of a particle in SHM 1 SHM
plet
Observes the
movement of C

1. We take the projection of B 00 on x axis. The rotation of B 00 from B is ωt + φ. So

the x coordinate of B 00 and hence that of C is A cos(ωt + φ). So the distance of
C from the origin at time t, that is x(t) is A cos(ωt + φ). That is the equation of
motion of C is x(t) = A cos(ωt + φ).
If we take the projection to y axis the equation becomes x(t) = A sin(ωt + φ).
But, by replacing φ by φ − π2 we can rewrite the equation as x(t) = A cos(ωt + φ).
In general, suppose we take the projection of B 00 on a line which makes an angle
θ with x axis (as shown in the first figure). Let the displacement of C at time t is
x.

Rotate B 00 and the line by an angle θ so that the line coincides with the x axis
(second figure ). Now the rotation of B 00 from B is ωt + θ + φ. So x = A cos(ωt +
θ + φ) is of the form x = A cos(ωt + φ). Thus we can conclude that the general
equation of SHM is x(t) = A cos(ωt + φ).

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Lab 6

Solutions of trigonometric
equations

This lab consists of four activities through which we discuss the principal and general solutions of
Trigonometric functions.

Required Concepts

Principal and general solutions of trigonometric equations.

Aim

In these activities students find principal and general solutions of trigonometric equations with
the help of graphs. They get more clarity of the concepts by these activities

Activity 6.1 Solution of sin x = a

Discuss the general solution in terms of

Observes the a principal solution using the dynamism Gets more clarity on the con-
points at which of the applet 1 cepts of principal and general
the graph of solutions
sin x − a cuts or If x1 is a principal solution of
touches the x the equation sin x = a then
axis the general solution is x =
Observes the nπ + (−1)n x1
deviation of Completes the table
above points, as
a changes, from
the multiples of
π

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6 Solutions of trigonometric equations 29

1. When a = 0 the graph meets the x axis at multiples of π (fig 1). As we increase the
value of a points of intersection deviates,by the same distance, from the multiples of
π.
If we take principal solution x1 shown in fig 2 we can see that the points of intersections
deviates towards left from odd multiples of π and towards left from even multiples of
π by x1 .
If we take principal solution x1 shown in fig 3, then x2 = π − x1 , x1 = 0π + x1 x3 =
3π − x1 , x4 = 2π + x1 etc.
In both cases we can write the general solution as x = nπ + (−1)n x1

Activity 6.2 Solution of cos x = a

Observes the points Discuss the general solution in terms of

at which the graph a principal solution using the dynamism Gets more clarity on the con-
of cos x − a cuts or of the applet 1 cepts of principal and general
touches the x axis solutions
If x1 is a principal solution
of the equation cos x = a
then the general solution is
x = 2nπ ± x1
Completes the table

1. Set the value of a as 1. Then the graph touches the x axis on even multiples of π.
As we decrease the value of a we can see that the points of intersection of the graph
with the x axis deviates from even multiples of π towards both sides. This implies
that the general solution is x = 2nπ ± x1 , where x1 is any principal solution.

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6 Solutions of trigonometric equations 30

Activity 6.3 Solution of tan x = a

Observes the points Discuss the general solution in terms of

at which the graph a principal solution using the dynamism Gets more clarity on the con-
of tan x − a cuts or of the applet 1 cepts of principal and general
touches the x axis solutions
If x1 is a principal solution
of the equation tan x = a
then the general solution is
x = nπ + x1
Completes the table

1. Set the value of a as 0. Then the graph cuts the x axis on multiples of π. As we
increase the value of a we can see that the points of intersection of the graph with the
x axis deviates towards right (if we decrease a the deviation will be towards left) from
multiples of π by x1 . This implies that the general solution is x = nπ + x1 , where x1
is any principal solution.

Activity 6.4 Solution of trigonometric equations in general

Observes the points Completes the table

at which the graph Discuss the the method of finding
of f (x) − g(x) cuts solutions
or touches the x Also discuss the method of finding
axis solution of the equation f (x) = g(x)
from the point of intersection of the
graphs of f (x) and g(x) 1

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6 Solutions of trigonometric equations 31

1. In some situations it is more convenient to visualise the solutions as the point of

intersections of the graphs of f (x) and g(x). For example, to find the solutions of the
equation sin x = cos x, since the students are familiar with the graphs of sin x and
cos x, they can visualise the graphs and their points of intersection in mind and easily
find the solutions. On the other hand it may not be easy to deal with the function
sin x − cos x because the students are not familiar with its graph.

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Lab 7

Shifting and scaling of graphs of

trigonometric functions

In this lab we discuss the trigonometric identities like sin( π2 + x) = cos x, cos(π + x) = − cos x etc.
graphically. We also discuss the periodicity of trigonometric functions and shifting and scaling
of graph of trigonometric functions. In the additional activities we discuss the applications of
trigonometric functions in some physical situations like study of waves, music etc.
Required Concepts
Graph of trigonometric functions
Periodicity of a function
Shifting of graphs

Aim
To deduce the trigonometric identities like sin( π2 + x) = cos x, cos(π + x) = − cos x etc.
graphically
To study the effect of the constants a, b and c of the trigonometric function a sin(bx + c) on
the graph of the function. Hence deduce the period of trigonometric functions.

Activity 7.1 Shifting

Observes the
change in the Recall the shifting of graphs dis- Gets a clear idea about the
graph of sin(x + a) cussed in Lab 2, Activity 2.2 periodicity of trigonometric
according to a Discuss the periodicity of a function functions.
Ask the students to guess the pe- Finds the period of sin x (2π)
riod of sin x and then verify it with
GeoGebra. 1

Draws the graphs

in Set-1, Set-2, and Ask the students to guess the Derives the reduced forms
Set-3 and compare graphs of the functions given in Set- Completes the tables
1 and Set-3 using the concept of Understands the method of
shifting and compare them with the finding the reduced forms in
graphs of the functions given in Set- general
2.(Do all these in mind ). Then ver-
ify their result using GeoGebra.
Discuss the results in general. 2

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7 Shifting and Scaling 33

1. By observing the value of the slider students may conclude that the period of sin x is
6.28. Make it clear that it is an approximate value of 2π. Give input 2pi in the input
box for the slider to get the exact graph.
2. sin(nπ ± x) = ± sin x , cos(nπ ± x) = ± cos x and tan(nπ ± x) = ± tan x. The sign
on the right hand side is determined by the quadrant in which nπ ± x lies.
For example sin(5π + x) = − sin x, because 5π + x lies in the third quadrant where
sine is negative
If n is odd, sin(n π2 ±x) = ± cos x, cos(n π2 ±x) = ± sin x and tan(n π2 ±x) = ± cot x.
Here also the sign on the right hand side is determined by the quadrant in which
n π2 ± x lies.
For example sin(3 π2 +x) = − cos x, because 3 π2 +x lies in the forth quadrant where
sine is negative.
Remark : Above discussion is based on the assumption that 0 < x < π2 . But the
result holds for any real value of x.
Above results are discussed in Lab 5 and their geometrical proof is discussed in
Activity 5.3

Activity 7.2 Scaling

Draws the graphs of

a sin x and a cos x A vertical elongation/compression Understands the change in
and observes their occurs to the graph of the functions the graphs of the functions
change according to as a increases/decreases. a sin x and a cos x
a Domain of a sin x and a cos x are in- Finds the domain and range
dependent of a (that is domain is of above functions
the set of real numbers ) and their
range is [−a, a]

Activity 7.3 Periods of Trigonometric Functions

Draws the graphs

of sin nx and cos nx A horizontal compression occurs to Understands the change in
and observes their the graph of the functions as n in- the graphs of the functions
change according to creases. And a horizontal elonga- sin nx and cos nx according
n tion occurs as n decreases. to n
Discuss the period of the functions. Finds the period of above
1
functions

Draws the graphs

of sin nx and cos nx A horizontal elongation occurs to Understands the change in
and observes their the graph of the functions as n in- the graphs of the functions
change according to creases. And a horizontal compres- sin nx and cos nx according to
n sion occurs as n decreases. n
Discuss the period of the functions.2 Finds the period of above
functions

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7 Shifting and Scaling 34

1. The period of the functions decreases as n increases.

For n = 1 the period of the function (sin x or cos x ) is 2π. As n changes to 2, the
graph is compressed along x axis. So it oscillates two times between 0 and 2π, so
its period is 2π
2 that is π. In other words it completes one full oscillation between
0 and π. Similarly for n = 3 the period is 2π 3 and in general the period of sin nx
and cos nx is 2πn .

2. The period of the function increases as n increases.

Period of the functions sin nx and cos nx is 2nπ

Activity 7.4 Shifting and Scaling

Draws the graphs Understands the effect of a, b and

of a sin(bx + c) and Recall the shifting, horizontal and c on the graphs of a sin(bx + c)
a cos(bx+c) and ob- vertical elongation/compression and a cos(bx + c)
serves the effect of discussed in above activities
a, b and c on them. Change in a ⇒ vertical elongation/-
compression by a times
Change in b ⇒ horizontal elonga-
tion/compression by b times
Change in c ⇒ horizontal shifting
by c units

Additional Activities

Activity 7.A Waves

In this activity we discuss Waves with the help of trigonometric functions.

From a physics perspective, wave motion is a transfer of energy and momentum without the shift
of particles actually involved. The particles involved would oscillate with an amplitude a which is
the maximum displacement of the particle from its equilibrium position. If the particles oscillates
in the direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave, we call the wave as a
transverse wave. If the particle oscillates in the same direction as that of wave propagation, we
call the wave as a longitudinal wave. The ripples formed on the surface of water is an example of
transverse wave and sound wave is an example of longitudinal wave.
From a Mathematical perspective, the displacement of a particle during the event of a wave can
be represented as a sinusoidal function. Consider a wave propagating along the positive direction
of the x axis. Consider a particle on x initially at a distance of x units from the origin. As the
wave propagates along x axis, this wave oscillates about its initial position (either perpendicular
or parallel to x axis). Its displacement from its initial position ( y ) depends on its initial position
( x ) and time t. It is given by

y = f (x, t) = a sin(kx − ωt)

where a is the amplitude, ω is the angular frequency and k is called the angular wave number
or scaling factor.

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7 Shifting and Scaling 35

Example of a transverse wave is shown in the following figure. Initial position of the points P
and Q are x1 and x2 respectively and their displacement from their initial positions at time t are
y1 and y2 . Then

y1 = f (x1 , t) = a sin(kx1 − ωt) and

y2 = f (x2 , t) = a sin(kx2 − ωt)

As the wave propagates along the positive direction of x axis all the particles on x axis oscil-
lates like this.

We can show the oscillation of a particle on x axis using the applet created by the students as
follows.
Take any point on x axis. Draw a line passing through this point and perpendicular to x axis.
Plot the point of intersection of this line with the curve f . Give animation to the slider t. As t
increases we can see that the wave moves along the positive direction of the x axis and the point
of intersection oscillates perpendicular to the x axis.

The wave represented by the equation g(x, t) = a sin(kx + ωt) propagates along the negative
direction of the x axis. In physics this wave is called the reflection of the first wave.

f + g represents the resultant of above two waves. Even though the particles vibrates, this wave
doesn’t move in any direction. Hence it is called a standing wave. We can observe standing wave
on a vibrating stretched string.

The applets MLHB7A1 and MLHB7A2 may be used to make above ideas more clear.

Activity 7.B Music and Maths

This activity will be interesting for the students those who have a taste in music.

We can play saptaswaras using GeoGebra with the help of PlaySound command as follows

For adjusting the base frequency create an integer slider f with Min=100 and Max=500.
Create 8 Buttons named as Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Da, Ni and Sa. Create one more slider to stop the
sound.

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7 Shifting and Scaling 36

Create a function named as ‘Sa’ by giving input Sa=sin(f 2pi). Similarly create the following
functions.
Ri=sin(16f/15 2pi)
Ga=sin(5f/4 2pi)
Ma=sin(4f/3 2pi)
Pa=sin(3f/2 2pi)
Da=sin(8f/5 2pi)
Ni=sin(15f/8 2pi)
Sa2=sin(2f 2pi)

For the Button ‘Sa’ , Write the command as PlaySound[Sa,0,5] in the Scripting tab. For the Button
‘Ri’ Write the command as PlaySound[Ri,0,5] and so on. Also write the command PlaySound[False]
for the stop button.

Clicking on the first ‘Sa’ we can hear a sound of frequency f , which is taken as the base note
‘Sa’ ( Shadja ). Frequencies of all other swaras are defined in terms of this base note. Frequency
of ‘Ri’ is 16 16 5
15 times the frequency of ‘Sa’, that is 15 f , frequency of ‘Ga’ is 4 f and so on. The
freequency of the second ‘Sa’ is twice the frequency of the first one.

Note: Here we discuss the notes of the raga ‘MayamalavaGaula’ with which music students usually
starts their lessons. For other ragas the frequencies of some swaras, except that of ‘Sa’ and ‘Pa’,
may differ.

By clicking on the swara buttons we can play saptaswaras - the notes of ‘MayamalavaGaula’

The applet MLHB7B may be used.

Activity 7.C Harmonic Sound

Beats and harmonic sounds are discussed in Higher Secondary physics class. If a note of frequency
f is taken as the base note, then a note of frequency 2f is called the first harmonic and that of 3f
is called the second harmonic and so on. If we hear a note with its harmonics, we hear a sound
with the base frequency. If we slightly change the frequency of any one of the notes, we can hear
a beat.

The applet MLHB7C may be used.

Activity 7.D Blood Pressure

This activity relates trigonometric functions with another practical problem.

2π 2π 1
The period of f (x) = sin(nx) is n . So the period of p(t) = 115 + 25 sin(160πt) is 160π = 80

Number of heart beats per minutes is the frequency of the function, which is the reciprocal of
the period. Hence the number of heart beats is 80.

Since the maximum value of sine function is 1 and the minimum value is -1, the maximum value
of the BP is 115+25 = 140 and the minimum value is 115-25 = 90. That is the blood pressure of

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7 Shifting and Scaling 37

the person is 140/90, which is higher than the normal value 120/80.

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Lab 8

Straight lines

This lab consists of four activities. We discuss the change in the straight line according to the
changes in the coefficients and constant term of its general equation. We also discuss family of
straight lines, straight line passing through the intersection of two lines, normal form of a line and
shifting of origin.

Required Concepts

General equation of a straight line

Family of straight lines
Normal form of a straight line

Aim
In Activity 8.1 students construct a straight line in general form and establishes the effect of
coefficients and constant term in the nature of the line. In Activity 8.2 we discuss the family of
straight lines passing through the intersection of two lines. In Activity 8.4, geometry of the normal
form of a straight line and in Activity 8.5 Shifting of origin are discussed.

Activity 8.1 General Form of Straight Lines

Observes the pecu- Discuss the nature of the line for par- Establishes the nature of the line
liarity of the line ticular values of the coefficients and the for particular values of the coef-
ax + by + c = 0 for constant in the equation of the line.1 ficients and the constant in the
particular values of equation of the line
a, b, and c such as
a = 0, b = 0 , a = b
etc.
Observes the move- Discuss the peculiarity of family of lines Understands the concept of fam-
ment of the line obtained in each case 2 ily of straight lines
while changing the
value of only one of
a, b, and c

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8 Straight Lines 39

1. a = 0 : Line is parallel to x axis

b = 0 : Line is parallel to y axis
c = 0 : Line passes through the origin
a = b : Line is parallel to the line y = −x, x, y intercepts are same.
a = −b :Line is parallel to the line y = x, x, y intercepts are equal but opposite in
sign.
When a alone changes the line rotates about a point on y axis.
When b alone changes the line rotates about a point on x axis.
When c alone changes the line moves parallel to the initial line.

Activity 8.2 Intersection of Two Lines

Observes the move- Makes observations and under-

ment of the line as Discuss the values of k for which stands the concept of family of
k changes. the new line coincides with the given lines passing through the point
lines 1 of intersection of two lines and
Discuss the family of lines passing a general equation to represent
through the point of intersection of a member of that family.
two lines 2
Discuss the equation of family of lines
passing through a given point. 3

Observes the move- Observes that the third line is

ment of the third Discuss the reason that the third line parallel to the given lines.
line according to k is parallel to the first two lines.4
while the first two Discuss the values of k for which
lines are parallel. the new line coincides with the given
lines 5

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8 Straight Lines 40

1. When k = 0 the third line coincides with the first.

As the value of k increases (to ±∞)third line approaches the second line. But it
never coincides with it.
2. The equation k1 (2x−3y+4)+k2 (2x+5y−6) = 0 (a linear combination of the given
equations ) represents the family of all lines passing through the intersection of the
given lines. If k1 6= 0 we can write above equation as 2x−3y+4+k(2x+5y−6) = 0
(where k = kk21 ) which represent the family of all lines, except the second line,
passing through the intersection of the given lines.
3. A linear combination of equations of any two lines passing through the given
point (say (a, b))represents the family of lines passing through that point. For
convenience consider the lines x = a and y = b. Then the equation k1 (x − a) +
k2 (x − b) = 0 represents the family of lines passing through that point (a, b).
Ask the students to do this with GeoGebra.
4. Since the lines are parallel we can take their equations as ax + by + c1 = 0 and
ax+by +c2 = 0. Their linear combination is k1 (ax+by +c1 )+k2 (ax+by +c2 ) = 0.
That is (k1 + k2 )(ax + by) + k1 c1 + k2 c2 = 0. Which can be written in the form
ax + by + c = 0

5. When k = 0 the third line coincides with the first.

As the value of k increases (to ±∞)third line approaches the second line. But it
never coincides with it.

Activity 8.3 Normal Form

Creates the applet Discuss the method of finding normal Makes observations and gets the
and using it finds form 1 normal form
the normal form of
the equations of the
given lines
For given values of Completes the table.
ω and p finds the Discuss the method of finding the
normal form of the equations 2
lines and verifies Discuss the method of verification
the result using the of the answer 3
applet.

1. Draw the given line using input box.Write the equations in normal form using the
values of ω and p obtained from the figure.
2. Find the equations using x cos ω + y sin ω = p

3. Input the obtained equation in the input box of the applet to draw the line. Observe
the values of ω and p and verify whether it matches with the given values.

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8 Straight Lines 41

Activity 8.4 Shifting of Origin

1
Shifts the origin, Discuss the change in the equation Makes observations and gets a
parallel to the x clear idea about the transformed
axis or y axis and equation.
observe the changes
in the new equation
Guesses the new Completes the table.
origin and verify it. Discuss the method of finding the
new origin 2
Discuss the method of verification
of the answer 3

Finds the trans- Discuss the method mentioned in the Understands the method of find-
formed equation text book for finding the transformed ing the transformed equation.
without using the equation.
applet and then
verifies it using the
applet.

1. If the shift is parallel to x axis then only the terms of x changes in its equation
and if the shift is parallel to y axis, terms of y only changes.
If the origin is shifted horizontally by h units (towards right if h is positive and
towards left if h is negative ) then x becomes x + h.
If the origin is shifted vertically by k units (upwards if k is positive and downwards
if k is negative ) then y becomes y + k.
We can combine above two observations as follows.
If the origin is shifted from (0, 0) to (h, k) then the transformed equation is
obtained by replacing x with x + h and y with y + k
If the origin is shifted from (h1 , k1 ) to (h2 , k2 ) then the transformed equation
is obtained by replacing x with x + h and y with y + k where h = h2 − h1 and
k = k2 − k1
2. Since the transformed equation is independent of x and y terms, new origin should
be the centre of the circle, that is (3, 3).

3. Shift the origin to the point obtained by the guess of the students and verify
whether the transformed equation matches with the given equation.

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Lab 9

Conic Sections

In the first activity, we identifies the curves Circle, Ellipse, Parabola and Hyperbola as the section
of a cone. We study the curves as the locus of a point through the remaining four activities. Two
additional activities are also discussed in this lab.

Required concepts

Cone and its section by a plane

Locus of a point
Aim

Activity 9.1 deals with the conic section as the section of a cone. Students get a clear idea
about the formation of the curves, how the curves are related with the semi vertical angle of
the cone, the angle made by the cone with the axes of the cone and the position of the plane.
In Activity 9.2 we discuss a simple example to get the concept of locus.
Activities 9.3, 9.4 and 9.5 deals the curves as the locus of a point
Focus directrix definition of ellipse and hyperbola is discussed in the additional Activity 9.A
In Activity 9.B we discuss another example of locus of a point which gives a set of circles called
Apollonius Circles.

Activity 9.1 Cutting of a Cone by a Plane

Changes the Help the students to make a general Completes the table
value of β and conclusion about the formation of Makes a general conclusion
observes the the curves according to the values about the formation of the
curve. of the angles α and β. 1 curves according to the val-
Repeats the ac- Discuss the change in shape of the ues of the angles α and β.
tivity for differ- curves according to the position of Understands the change in
ent values of α the plane. 2 shape of the curves according
Discuss the change in the shape of to the position of the plane
the curve according to α 3

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9 Conic Sections 43

1. The relation between the curves and angles is as follows

Circle → β = 90◦
Parabola → β = α
Ellipse → α < β < 90◦
Hyperbola → 0 < β < α
If β = 0 we get a pair of straight lines
It is enough to consider the acute angle made by the plane with the axis of the
cone. So we take the values of β as 0 ≤ β ≤ 90◦ .

2. Fix the angles α and β. Using slider move the plane from top to bottom. Observe
the following changes of the curves.
Circle → Radius decreases, at the apex it becomes a point, then radius in-
creases
Parabola → Width of the parabola decreases, at the apex it becomes a line (
because it coincides with a generating line), then the curve gets inverted and
its width increases as the plane moves downwards.
Ellipse → Ellipse becomes smaller and smaller, at the apex it becomes a point
and then it increases its size.
Hyperbola → Distance between the branches decreases, at the apex it becomes
a pair or intersecting lines, then the distance between the branches increases.

3. If β = 90◦ then the radius of the circle increases as α increases.

If β < 90◦ then the curve changes from ellipse to parabola and then to hyperbola
as α increases.

Activity 9.2 Locus of a point moving equidistant from given points

Creates the applet

and observes the Discuss the locus of a point 1 Understands the concept of
path of the moving Discuss the reason that the path Locus of a point
point. traced by the point is the perpen- Identifies that the path
dicular bisector of AB.2 traced by the moving point
is the perpendicular bisector
of AB.

1. We can define the locus of a point (on a plane) in any one of the following ways.
The set of points on the plane that satisfy some specific conditions.
The path traced by a point which moves on the plane under some given con-
ditions.
In the second definition we feel a dynamism. So we follow it since we use dynamic
applets to describe the curves.
2. In the applet we use circles of same radius centered at the points A and B. So
their point of intersection is equidistant from these points. Hence it lie on the
perpendicular bisector of AB.

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9 Conic Sections 44

Activity 9.3 Locus of a point the sum of whose distances from two given points is a
constant

Creates the applet Understands the definition of El-

and observes the Discuss the condition satisfied by lipse
path the moving points. Hence derive the
definition of ellipse. 1
Discuss the change in the shape of
the curve according to the distance
between A and B 2

1. The radius of the circle centered at A is a and that centered at B is 10 − a. So sum

of the distances of the moving point from A and B is 10.
2. As B approaches nearer to A, the curve becomes more circular
When the distance between A and B is 10, the circles touches together and the
point of contact is on the line segment AB. So the path traced is the line segment
AB.
When the distance between the points is greater than 10, the circles do not meet
together, hence no curve is formed. ( We can relate this with the algebraic equation
of ellipse, in which a > c )

Activity 9.4 Locus of a point the difference of whose distances from two given points
is a constant

Creates the applet Understands the definition of

and observes the Discuss the condition satisfied by Hyperbola
path the moving points. Hence derive the
definition of hyperbola.1
Discuss the change in the shape of
the curve according to the distance
between A and B 2

1. The radius of the circle centered at one point is a and that centered at the other point
is 14 + a. So difference of the distances of the moving point from A and B is 4.

2. As the distance between the points increases the width of the curve increases.
When the distance between A and B is 4, the circles touches together and the
point of contact is on the line AB outside the line segment AB. So the path traced
is the line AB - segment AB.
When the distance between the points is less than 4, the circles do not meet
together, hence no curve is formed.

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9 Conic Sections 45

Activity 9.5 Locus of a point equidistant from a point and a fixed line

Creates the applet Understands the definition of

and observes the Discuss the condition satisfied by Parabola
path the moving points. Hence derive the
definition of Parabola.1
Discuss the change in the shape of
the curve according to the distance
between the point and the line2

1. The moving line is parallel to the fixed line and is at a distance of a units from it.
Radius of the circle centered at C is also a. Hence point of intersection of this circle
with the moving line is equidistant from the fixed line and the point C.
2. Width of the curve increases as the point moves away from the fixed line.

Activity 9.A Focus - Directrix Definition

As in the case of Parabola we can define Ellipse and Hyperbola in terms of distance of a point from
a fixed line and a fixed point. The fixed line is called directrix and the fixed point is called focus.
The ratio of the distance of the moving point from the focus to its distance from the directrix is
called the eccentricity (e) of the curve.

If e = 1 then the moving point is equidistant from the line and the point. Hence we get a Parabola.

If e < 1 then the locus of the point is an Ellipse and if e > 1 the locus is a Hyperbola.

In the applet, distance of the moving lines from the fixed line (directrix - y axis) is a and the radius
of the circle centered at the fixed point (focus) is ba. So considering the point of intersection, ra-
tio of its distance from the focus to the directrix is b. That is, in this discussion the eccentricity is b.

We get different curves according to the value of b as discussed above.

Activity 9.B Apollonius Circles

The radii of the circles are r and ar. So considering the point of intersection of the circles, the
ratio of its distance from B to that from A is r.

If r = 1 , then the point of intersection is equidistant from A and B and the locus will be
the perpendicular bisector of AB.

If r 6= 1 the locus will be a circle, called Apollonius circle.

The circle meets the line AB at two points. One of the points divides AB in the ratio 1 : r
internally and the other point divides it in the same ratio externally.

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Lab 10

Circle and Parabola

This lab consists of 3 activities and two additional activities. Here we discuss different methods
of drawing ellipse and hyperbola using GeoGebra tools, commands and equations. In additional
activities we create some interesting patterns using circles. We also discuss a method of drawing
parabola as the locus of a point.

Required concepts

Definitions of Circle and Parabola

Equations of Circle and Parabola

Aim

By this activities students get a clear idea about equation of a circle,centre,focus and latus
rectum of a Parabola
Students realise the role of above parameters in determining the shape of the curve
For drawing a circle or a parabola using a specific tool they may have to do some algebraic
calculations or to think geometrically. This give a thorough understanding about the curves
and their equations.

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10 Circle and Parabola 47

Activity 10.1 Circle

Finds the centre Gets the centre and radius of the

and radius of the Recall the methods of finding cen- circles
circles algebraically tre and radius of a circle from its
and verifies the re- equation
sults geometrically. Discuss different methods of geo-
metrical verification (given in the
Lab Manual )

Finds the equation Gets the equations of the circles

of the circles alge- Recall the method of finding equa-
braically and veri- tions.
fies geometrically Discuss the method of verification.

Finds the geometri-

cal methods of con- Discuss the common logic behind Constructs the circles
struction the three problems. 1 Derives an algebraic method
Discuss the geometric method of for finding the equation of a
construction of the circles. 2 circle passing through three
Discuss the algebraic method for points.
finding the equation of a circle pass-
ing through three points. 3

1. If A and B are two points on a circle, then AB is a chord and the centre of the circle
lies on its perpendicular bisector

2. Problem 1 :
Plot the points A(2, 3) and B(−1, 1)
Draw the line segment AB
Draw the line x − 3y − 11 = 0
Plot the point of intersection of above line with the perpendicular bisector.
Draw the circle centered at above point ad passing through A or B
Problem 2 :
Plot the points A(1, 2), B(5, 4) and C(3, 6)
Draw the chords AB and BC
Draw the perpendicular bisectors of the chords and plot their point of inter-
section.
Draw the circle centered at above point and passing through any of the given
points.
Problem 3 :
Find the equations of perpendicular bisectors of any two chords.
Find the point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors.This gives the
centre of the circle
Calculate the radius
Find the equation

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10 Circle and Parabola 48

Activity 10.2 Parabola 1

Draws the parabola

and observes the Discuss different methods of draw- Draws the parabola
change in its shape ing parabolas. Realise the fact that the
according to the The curve becomes more and more distance between the focus
distance between wide as the distance between the and directrix determines the
the line and point. point and line increases. shape of the curve.

Finds the focus Gets the focus and directrix of

and directrix of Recall the method of finding focus the parabolas.
the parabolas al- and directrix algebraically
gebraically and Discuss the method of verification
verifies geometri- (given in the Lab Manual )
cally

Activity 10.3 Parabola 2

Draws the parabo-

las y 2 = 4ax and Recall the effect of the distance be- Understands the effect of the
x2 = 4ay and ob- tween the focus and directrix on the parameter a on the shape of
serves the change in shape of the parabola, discussed in the curve.
its shape according the above activity ’Parabola 1’. Understands the fact that a
to a. The curve becomes more and more is the one and only one pa-
wide as a increases. It approaches rameter that determines the
to the y axis as a → ±∞ parabolas with vertex at the
origin and axes along the co-
ordinate axes.

Find the focus Gets the focus and length of latus

and length of Recall the method of finding focus rectum of the parabolas.
latus rectum of and length of latus rectum alge-
the parabolas al- braically
gebraically and Discuss the method of verification
verifies the answer (given in the Lab Manual )
geometrically.

Activity 10.A Family of Circles

In this activity we draw some interesting patterns using circles with the help of ’Sequence’ com-
mand.

Consider the command Sequence[(x-r)^2 +y^2=r^2,r,0,3,.1] . The equation of a general

circle in this command is (x − r)2 + y 2 = r2 . Its centre is (r,0), on the x axis and radius is r. So
it passes through the origin. Hence the command gives a set of circles centered on the x axis and
passing through the origin. ( All the circles lie on the positive side of x axis because r varies from
0 to 3.
Similarly the command Sequence[x^2 +(y+r)^2 = r^2,r,0,3,.1] gives a set of circles centered

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10 Circle and Parabola 49

on the y axis and passing through the origin. ( All the circles lie on the negative side of y axis).

Consider the following family of circles.

Centres lie on the line y = x, and pass through the origin √

Center can be taken as (a, a). Then the radius is 2a (because the circle passes through
the origin)
The command Sequence[(x-a)^2+(y-a)^2=2a^2,a,-3,3,.1] gives the circles
Family of 100 circles of radius 3, whose centres lie at equal distance on the circle of radius 3
centred at the origin
Consider a circle of radius 3 centered at the origin.
2π 2π
The points (3 cos(r 100 , 3 sin(r 100 ), r = 0, 1, 2, ..., 99 are 100 equidistant points lie on the
above circle.
The command Sequence[Circle[(3cos(r*2pi/100),3sin(r*2pi/100)),3],r,0,99] gives
the required circles. ( In above command we use Circle(Point,radius) command inside
the sequence command )
The command Sequence[(x-3cos(r*2pi/100))^2+(y-3sin(r*2pi/100))^2=9,r,0,99]
also gives the pattern. ( Here we use the equation of the circle inside the sequence command
)
Family of 100 circles, whose centers lie at equidistant points on the circle of radius 3 centred
at the origin and passing through the point (3, 0)
The command Sequence[Circle[(3cos(r*2pi/100),3sin(r*2pi/100)),(3,0)],r,0,99]
gives the required circles. ( In above command we use Circle(Point,Point) command
inside the sequence command )
Do the above activity with a slider n to change the number of circles and another slider a so
that all the circles pass through (a, 0) or (0, a) instead of (3, 0).
Use the command Sequence[Circle[(3cos(r*2pi/n),3sin(r*2pi/n)),(a,0)],r,0,n-1]
to get the family of circles passing through (a, 0)
Sequence[Circle[(3cos(r*2pi/n),3sin(r*2pi/n)),(-a,0)],r,0,n-1] gives the family
of circles passing through (−a, 0)

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10 Circle and Parabola 50

Activity 10.B Parabola with Given Focus and Directrix

Discuss the reason that the curve traced is a parabola.

Since E is a point on the perpendicular bisector of

AD, ADE is an isosceles triangle. So ED = EA.
Since the line DE is perpendicular to the given
line, DE is the distance of E from the given line.
So ED = EA ⇒ E is equidistant from the line
and the point A. Hence the path of E is the
parabola with A as the focus and the given line
as the directrix.

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Lab 11

Ellipse and Hyperbola

This lab consists of 4 activities and two additional activities. Here we discuss different methods
of drawing ellipse and hyperbola using GeoGebra tools, commands and equations. In additional
activities we discuss a little more general case of conic sections, that is Parabola Ellipse and Hy-
perbola whose axes are parallel to the coordinate axes. We also create an applet to visualise a
problem given in the text book.

Required concepts

Definitions of ellipse and hyperbola

Equations of ellipse and hyperbola

Aim

By this activities students get a clear idea about foci, major axis, minor axis, latus rectum of
Ellipse. Similarly in the case of Hyperbola
Students realise the role of above parameters in determining the shape of the curves
For drawing an Ellipse or Hyperbola using a specific tool they have to use the relation between
different parameters of the curve. This give a thorough understanding on it
Students get a practice of finding different parameters related with an Ellipse or Hyperbola
from their equations.

Activity 11.1 Ellipse 1

Using ’Ellipse’ tool

or the given input In some problems, foci or a point on Draws the curves and saves
command draws the Ellipse are not given. Discuss the file
the curves different methods of finding them Finds the lengths of latus rec-
using given data 1 tum geometrically and veri-
Discuss the method of finding the fies the answer algebraically
length of the latus rectum geomet-
rically 2

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11 Ellipse and Hyperbola 52

1. 2. length of major axis 10 and major axis of the Ellipse is y axis. So (0, 5) is a point
on the Ellipse (an end point of the major axis )
3. length of minor axis 5 and major axis of the Ellipse is x axis. So (0, 2.5) is a point
on the Ellipse
4. a = 5 and b = 4 ⇒ c = 3. So foci are (0, ±3) and (±4, 0), (0, ±5) are points on
the Ellipse
2. First of all draw a latus rectum. For this, draw a line perpendicular to the major axis
and passing through one of the foci. Plot the points of intersection of this line with
the curve. Hide the line and draw the line segment join above points. Using ’Distance
or Length’ tool measure the length of the latus rectum.

Activity 11.2 Ellipse 2

Draws the In some problems, foci or length Draws the curves and saves
curves using of semi major axis are not given. the file
foci and length Discuss different methods of finding Identifies the change in the
of semi major them using given data 1 shape of the curve according
axis Discuss the special cases of Ellipse to the change in the distance
2
Observes the between the foci.
change in the
shape of the
curve according
to the change
in the distance
between the
foci.

1. 1. a = 5, b = 3 ⇒ c = 4.
2. Sum of distances of the point
(2, 6) from the foci is 2a. We can
find it either using distance formula
or geometrically using Geogebra.
For finding it geometrically, plot
the points A(0, 5), B(0, −5) and
C(2, 6). Draw the segments AC
and BC. In the Algebra view we
can see the names of the segments
(f and g ) which also represent
the lengths of the segments. So
f +g
2 = 2a. The input command
Ellipse[(0,-5),(0,5),(f+g)/2]
gives the required Ellipse.

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11 Ellipse and Hyperbola 53

2. If we decrease the distance between the foci shape of the ellipse becomes more and
more circular and when the foci coincides each other it becomes a circle.(Make a
comparison of this with the situation that we have discussed in Activity 9.1.That
is as the value of β increases to 90◦ shape of ellipse becomes more and more circular
and when β = 90◦ it becomes a circle.

When the distance between foci becomes the length of major axis, ellipse becomes a
line segment.

Activity 11.3 Hyperbola 1

Using ’Hyperbola’
tool or the input In some problems, foci or a point Draws the curves and saves
command draws on the Hyperbola are not given. the file
the Hyperbolas. Discuss different methods of finding Finds the lengths of latus rec-
them using given data 1 tum geometrically and veri-
Discuss the method of finding the fies the answer algebraically
length of the latus rectum geomet-
rically

1. Same as in the case of Ellipse, discussed in Activity 11.1

Activity 11.4 Hyperbola 2

Students’ Activity Teachers’ role Students’ Response/Findings

Draws the curves In some problems, foci or length of Draws the curves and saves the
using foci and transverse axis are not given. Discuss file
length of transverse different methods of finding them using
axis given data 1

√
1. 1. a = 5 , b = 3 ⇒ c = 34. Length of transverse axis is 10
2. Difference of the distances of the point (2, 6) from foci is 2a. We can find it
either using distance formula or geometrically using GeoGebra as in the case of ellipse
discussed in the above activity.

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11 Ellipse and Hyperbola 54

Activity 11.A Conic Sections in General

Solves the problems Recalls the concept of Shifting of Ori-

using the concept of gin. Discuss this activities as an appli- Understands an application
Shifting of Origin. cation of Shifting of Origin. of Shifting of Origin.
Understands general equa-
tions of Parabola, Ellipse and
Hyperbola with axes parallel
to the coordinate axes

Note

If it is difficult to shift the origin to the vertex by mere observation, the input command
Vertex(y=4x^2-2x+5) gives the vertex T((0.25, 4.25)). Enter the name of the vertex (T) in the
box ’New Origin’.

We get the transformed equation as y = 4(x + 0.25)2 − 2(x + 0.25) + 0.25. That is y = 4x2 or
x2 = 14 y ( we get this even without simplification. Because with respect to the new system of axes
equation of the Parabola is in the form x2 = 4ay ). So w.r.to New system, Focus of the Parabola
1 1
is (0, 16 ) and directrix is y = − 16 . Now we can find the focus and directrix w.r.to the original
1 5 3
system.(( 4 , 4 16 ) and y = 4 16 )

Open ML 8.4 applet and draw the ellipse. We gets its equation in the standard form. Shift
the origin to the centre of the ellipse and observe the transformed equation. Observe that the
transformed equation is independent of the terms of x and y. Discuss a method of finding equation
of such curves algebraically.

Open ML 8.4 applet and draw the hyperbola. We gets its equation in the standard form.
Shift the origin to the centre of the hyperbola and observe the transformed equation. Observe that
the transformed equation is independent of the terms of x and y.

Activity 11.B Locus of a Point on a sliding Rod

This activity is the visualisation of a problem given in the Text Book ( In the Text Book the length
of the rod is 15. But here we take it as 6 for the convenience of drawing )

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11 Ellipse and Hyperbola 55

Creates the applet Discuss the path of C when it is near to Identifies that the path of C is
and observes the A, near to B, at the midpoint of AB, at ellipse, circle or line segment ac-
path of C A and at B 1 cording to its position.

1. Path of C according to its position is as follows

Near to A → Ellipse with major axis along x axis

Near to B → Ellipse with major axis along y axis
Midpoint of AB → Circle
At A or B → Line segments

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Lab 12

Basics of 3D

This lab consists of four activities and three additional activities. We discuss the basics of three
dimensional geometry and its simple applications such as construction of rectangular box, platonic
solids etc.

Required concepts

Coordinate axes and coordinate planes

Coordinates of a point in space
Octants
Internal / External division

Aim

Students get a clear idea about octants, properties of points on different octants, coordinate
planes and coordinate axes and internal and external division.

Activity 12.1 Octants

Finds some points

lie on coordinate Help the students to watch the coor- Gets a clear idea about the
axes, coordinate dinate axes, coordinate planes and octants
planes and in all octants with the help of Rotate Understands the properties
different octants. tool. of points lie on coordinate
Discuss the properties of points axes, coordinate planes and
lie on coordinate axes, coordinate in different octants.
planes and in different octants. 1
Discuss the naming systems of oc-
tants. 2

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12 Basics of 3D 57

1. If a point lies on a coordinate axes, at most one of its coordinates is non zero. For
example, a point on x axis is of the form (a, 0, 0), a may or may not be equal to
zero.
If a point lie on a coordinate plane, atleast one of its coordinate is zero. For
example, a point on xy plane is of the form (a, b, c), a and b may or may not be
zero.
If a point lie in any one of the octants, all of its coordinates are non zero.
The relation between number of an octant and sign of coordinates of its points
are as follows.
2. For the first four octants, z coordinate is positive and sign of x and y coordinates
are same as the sign of first for quadrants.
For the next four octants ( 5 to 8 ) z coordinate is negative and sign of x and y
coordinates are same as the sign of first for quadrants
For example, (−2, 3, 4) is a point in the second octant and (2, −3, −4) is in the
eighth octant

Activity 12.2 Movement of a Point

Move the sliders

according to the Help the students to complete the Completes the table
instructions given task 1 Makes general conclusions
and observe the Help the students to make general about movement of points in
movements of the conclusions 2 space
points

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12 Basics of 3D 58

1. Let the students imagine the movement of the points and then verify with the applet.

Sl. Movement and value of sliders Movement of the point

No
1 y1 = 0 , z1 = 0 and move x1 moves along the x axis
2 y1 and z1 are any constants, move x1 moves parallel to x axis
3 x1 and z1 are any constants, move y1 moves parallel to y axis
4 y1 and x1 are any constants, move z1 moves parallel to z axis
1
5 z1 = 0, move x1 and y1 moves along xy plane
6 z1 = 2, move x1 and y1 moves parallel to xy plane, at a distance
of 2 units from it
7 y1 = 0, move x1 and z1 moves along xz plane
8 y1 any constant, move x1 and z1 moves parallel to xz plane
9 z1 any constant, move x1 and y1 moves parallel to xy plane

1) While animating x1 and y1 , sometimes z1 may also be animated. In that case,

right click on z1 , stop animation, set its value as 0, and use Ctrl+F to erase the
unwanted path already traced. Allow a little bit time to get a clear idea about the
path. Use Rotate tool to see the path from a convenient angle.

2. If two coordinates are fixed and only one coordinate is changed the point moves
parallel to one of the coordinates axes.
If one coordinate is fixed and two coordinate are changed the point moves parallel
to one of the coordinates planes. The distance of this plane from the coordinate
plane is the absolute value of the fixed coordinate.

Activity 12.3 Box

Constructs the
boxes. Let the students imagine the coor- Constructs the boxes.
dinates of the vertices of the top of Gets a clear idea about the
the box and then verify it from the octants and the properties of
algebra window. points lie in different octants.
Discuss the method of construction
of the box whose vertices lie in dif-
ferent octants. 1

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12 Basics of 3D 59

1. It is easy to find four points in four different quadrants, that forms the vertices of
a rectangle. Say (3, 2), (−1, 2), (−1, −2) and (3, −2). By shifting all these points
along the negative direction of the z axis we get four points in four different oc-
tants (5,6,7 and 8) that forms the vertices of a rectangle. So the points are like this,
(3, 2, −1), (−1, 2, −1), (−1, −2, −1) and (3, −2, −1). Draw the rectangle with these
points as the vertices ( plot the points and draw using Polygon tool or use the com-
mand Polygon[(3,2,-1),(-1,2,-1),(-1,-2,-1),(3,-2,-1)]. Chose a hight so that the vertices
of the top lie in first four octants (say 4) and construct the prism with extrude tool.

Activity 12.4 Section of a Line by Coordinate Planes

Adjusts the coordi- Gets a clear idea about internal

nates get the re- Discuss internal and external divi- and external division of a line by
quired results. sion of a line by a coordinate plane a coordinate plane
and the method of finding the an-
swers. 1
Let the students note down each
pair of coordinates in each case.

1. If the points A and B lie on different sides (half space) of a coordinate plane (say
xy plane)then the z coordinates of the points are of different sign and the xy
divides AB internally. If the z coordinates are of the same sign then the points
lie on the same side of the xy plane and the division is external.
If xy and yz planes divide line AB internally then z coordinates as well as x
coordinates are of different sign. As an example consider the points (2,3,-4) and
(-5,5,1).
All the coordinates planes divides the line joining the points (3,-2,5) and (-4,3,-1)
internally.

Additional Activities

Activity 12.A Construction of a Box by Cutting Squares from Corners and Folding up
the Flaps

Use a slider a with min = 0 and max = 1.5 to change the side of the squares cutting out from
the corners of the card board.
Define the vertices of the base of the box in terms of a as (a, a), (5 − a, a), (5 − a, 3 − a) and
(a, 3 − a)
Draw the rectangle and construct the box
Hide the top of the box
Show the volume of the box
Change the value of a, observe the volume. Find the maximum volume and the corresponding
value of a.
If we want to see the flaps, open the box using net tool. The rectangle corresponding to the
top will also come, hide it.

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12 Basics of 3D 60

Activity 12.B Platonic Solids

Construction of Platonic solids

Cube

Cube is the easiest platonic solids to construct. We can do it in different methods.

Using Cube tool select any two points.
Draw a square and Extrude tool
Regular Tetrahedron

Here also we can use different methods to construct

Using Tetrahedron tool select any two points
Draw a circle (of radius a - say) centered at the origin. Plot a point on the circle and rotate it
◦ ◦
by 120
√ and 240 . Complete the base triangle. Use Extrude to Pyramid tool, give the height
as a 2 (we can calculate this using Pythagoras theorem).
Octahedron

We can consider an Octahedron as the join of two square pyramids. We use this idea to con-
struct it.
Draw a square of side 3 units √
Using Pythagoras theorem we can calculate the height of the pyramid as 1.5 2√
Using Extrude to Pyramid tool click on the square and give the height as −1.5 2 (we use the
negative sign to get the inverted pyramid)
√
Using the same tool click again on the square and give the height as 1.5 2 to get the other
pyramid.
Dodecahedron

A Dodecahedron has 20 vertices. If we consider a Dodecahedron centered at the origin and suitably
scaled and oriented we can take its coordinates as follows.

(±1, ±1, ±1), (0, ±φ, ± φ1 ),(±φ, ± φ1 , 0), (± φ1 , 0, ±φ),

√
1+ 5
Where φ = 2 (the golden ratio )

Plot above points and construct the faces using polygon tool.

If we want to change the size of the Dodecahedron, create a slider (say a) and multiply each
coordinate of the vertices by a.

Icosahedron

Icosahedron has 12 vertices. Coordinates of an Icosahedron centered at the origin can be taken as
(0, ±1, ±φ), (±1, ±φ, 0) and (±φ, 0, ±1). As in the case of Dodecahedron, plot the points and con-
struct the faces. If we want to change the size, create a slider (say a) and multiply each coordinate
of the vertices by a.

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Lab 13

Limits

In this lab we have five activities and one additional activity. We discuss the existence and different
cases of non-resistance of limit geometrically.
Required Concepts

Value of a function at a point

Graph of a function

Aim
Through the activities we develop the concepts Limit at a point, Left limit and Right limit
We discuss some standard limits
We discuss different cases of non existence of Limits.

Activity 13.1 Geometrical Interpretation of Limits

Observes the coor- Understands the concept of limit

dinates A, B, A2 Recall that, if we call the x coordi- of a function at a point.
and B2 as h → 0 nates of A and B as x, then the y
coordinates of A2 and B2 is f (x)
As h → 0, x → 2 and f (x) → 4
Discuss the concept of limit at x =
2. That is as x → 2, f (x) → 4.1
Introduce the notation of limit
lim f (x) = 4
x→2

1. To find the limit of a function f at a point a we can use the command Limit(f, a)

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13 Limits 62

Activity 13.2 Limit of Rational Functions

Observes the co-

ordinates of the Why the points A2 and B2 vanish Gets the value of the limit
points A2 and B2 when h = 0 ? Realise the fact that a func-
as h → 0 and finds The fact that even though the func- tion may not be defined for
the limit of the tion is not defined at x = 2 its limit the existence of its limit.
function at x = 2 exists at 2 is to be emphasised. 1 Realise the fact that even
Discuss the existence of though a function is defined
the limit of the function at some point its limit may
2
 x − 4 if x 6= 2 not be equal to the value of
y = x−2 at the function at that point.
6 if x = 2

x = 2. In this case the function is
defined at x = 2 but the limit is
not f (2).

1. In fact we need the concept of limit in such situations where we can’t find something
by direct methods. Some examples are given below.
Area of a circle is derived as the limiting case of area of regular polygon inscribed
in it. (The applet MLHB13.2 may be used to describe this )
Instantaneous velocity is the limiting case of average velocities
Slope of tangent to a curve at a point is the limiting case of slope of secant lines

Note :-[.3cm] To get more accurate values in the limiting process, edit the Min
and Max values of the slider as 1.99 and 2.01 and increment as 0.001. Also set the
rounding of decimal places to 5 digits (Options ⇒ Rounding ⇒ 5 decimal Places).
For recording to spread sheet select 20 rows.

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13 Limits 63

Activity 13.3 Limit of Piecewise Functions

Observes the co- Understands the concept of left

ordinates of the Discuss the concept of left limit and limit and right limit and exis-
points A2 and B2 right limit(in the given example, tence of limit in terms of them
as h → 0 as x → 2 from the left, f (x) →
4 and as x → 2 from the right,
f (x) → 5. Introduce the notations
lim− f (x) = 4 and lim+ f (x) = 5
x→2 x→2
If left limit 6= right limit then limit
doesn’t exist at that point
In the second problem, left limit
and right limit coincides with 4. So
lim f (x) = 4
x→2
If both left and right limits exist and
are equal then the limit exist at that
point

Discuss different cases of non existence of limits and nature of curve while analysing the problems

Function Existence/Non existence of Limit Nature of curve

1
f (x) = , at x = 0 As x → 0 from the right, f (x) increases to ∞ Break at 0.
x
and as x → 0 from the left, f (x) decreases to Goes to +∞
−∞. Both left and right limits doesn’t exist. and −∞
( So the limit doesn’t exist at 0.
1 if x ≤ 0
f (x) = Left limit = 1, Right limit = 2. Left limit and Gap at 0
2 if x > 0 Right limit exist but are not equal. So limit
 at 0 doesn’t exist.
x − 2 if x < 0

f (x) = 0 if x = 0 Left limit = −2, Right limit = 2. Left limit Gap at 0
and Right limit exist but are not equal. So

x + 2 if x > 0

( limit at 0 doesn’t exist.
x2 − 1 if x ≤ 1
f (x) = Left limit = 0, Right limit =−2. Left limit Gap at 0
−x2 − 1 if x > 1 and Right limit exist but are not equal. So
limit at 0 doesn’t exist.

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13 Limits 64

Activity 13.4 Limit of Trigonometric Functions

sin x
Observes the the While zooming at the origin graph of Gets the limit lim x = 1 geo-
x→0
graph of sin x and x sin x seems to coincide with the graph metrically.
by zooming at the of x. That is as x → 0 sin x becomes
origin ’almost equal’ to x. So lim sinx x = 1 1
x→0
Observes the Graphs of all of the functions seems to Derives the value of the limits
2
sin2 x
graphs of the func- coincide at the origin. That is as x → 0 lim sinx2x , lim tan x2 , etc. geo-
x→0 x→0
tions x2 , sin x2 , values of above functions becomes ’al- metrically.
sin2 x, tan x2 and most equal’. This implies that the limit
tan2 x by zooming of the functions of the form fg(x) (x)
, where
at the origin. f and g are any of the functions given
2
sin2 x
( sinx2x , tan x2 , etc.), as x → 0 is 1

1. If the graphs of two functions f and g meets tangentially at some point then most
probably the limit of the function fg(x)
(x)
at that point is 1. We use this to derive some
limits geometrically.

Activity 13.5 Limit of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

ex −1
Derives the limits lim x =1
x→0
Creates the ap- Recall the concept of shifting of
plet. curves. and lim log(1+x)
x = 1 geometri-
x→0
Finds the equa- Ask the students to imagine the cally.
tion of the shift of the curves so that they meet
curves when tangential to the line y = x at the
they touch the origin and to find the corresponding
line y = x. equations.
Observes the Definition of the functions become
curves by ex − 1 and log(1 + x).By zooming
zooming at the at the origin, their graphs seems to
origin. coincide with the line y = x. This
x
implies the limits lim e x−1 = 1 and
x→0
log(1+x)
lim x =1
x→0
If both left and right limits exist and
are equal then the limit exist at that
point

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13 Limits 65

Activity 13.A Some more problems

Observes the na- As x → 0 sin x1 oscillates between 1 and Realise that lim sin( x1 ) doesn’t
x→0
ture of the function −1 hence lim sin x1 doesn’t exist. exist
x→0
f (x) = sin x1 as
x→0
Observes the na- Realise that lim x sin x1 = 0
x→0
ture of the function As x → 0, even though the func-
f (x) = x sin x1 as tion x sin x1 oscillates, it oscillates
x→0 between x and −x (discuss the rea-
son 1 ). x and −x approaches 0 as
x → 0. Hence lim x sin x1 = 0.
x→0
Sandwich theorem may be discussed
The following table may be used for
the discussion 2

Observes the na- As x → 0, even though the function Realise that lim x2 sin x1 = 0
x→0
ture of the function x2 sin x1 oscillates, it oscillates between
f (x) = x2 sin x1 as x2 and −x2 . x2 and −x2 approaches 0
x→0 as x → 0. Hence lim x2 sin x1 = 0.
x→0 √
Observes the na- √ x →
As 0, even though the function Realise that lim x sin x1 = 0
1 x→0
ture of the
√ function √ x sin x oscillates,
√ it oscillates between
f (x) = x sin x1 as x and − x. We √ can see that the
x→0 graph of the function x sin x1 oscillates
2
inside
√ the 1parabola x = y . Hence
lim x sin x = 0.
x→0

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13 Limits 66

1. sin x lies between −1 and 1. Hence sin x1 also lies between −1 and 1.

1
−1 ≤ sin
≤1
x
1
⇒ −x ≤ x sin ≤ x
x
So the graph of x sin x1 lies between the graphs of −x and x

2. From the following table we √ can see that as x → 0 sin x1 oscillates between 1 and −1,
1 2 1 1
while x sin x , x sin x and x sin x approaches 0.
1 √
x x sin x1 x sin x1 x2 sin x1 x sin x1
q
2 π 2 2 2 2
π 2 1 π ( π ) π
2 2π
2π 2 0 0 0 0
q
2 3π 2 2 2 2
3π 2 −1 − 3π (− 3π ) − 3π
2 4π
4π 2 0 0 0 0
q
2 5π 2 2 2 2
5π 2 1 5π ( 5π ) 5π

. . . . . .
. . . . . .

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Lab 14

Derivative at a point

In this lab we have three activities through which we try to establish the geometric meaning of
derivative at a point.

Required Concepts

To identify a tangent line in terms of secant lines.

To explore the geometrical interpretation of the derivative of a function at a point.
To explore different cases of non-differentiability of a function at a point.

Aim
Here we find the slope of a tangent line to a curve as the limiting case of the slope of a secant line.
Also discuss the case where this limit (derivative) does not exist and its geometrical interpretation.

Activity 14.1 Geometrical Meaning of Derivative at a Point

This activity is done using the GeoGebra applet ML 14.1. Students familiarises the initial settings
in the applet as described in the Lab Manuel.

Changes the value Realises the following

of h from 1 to 0 and What happens to the secant line as As h ⇒ 0, secant line ap-
from −1 to 0. Ob- h⇒0? proaches the tangent line at
serves the value of Why the slope of the secant line P
slope of the secant vanishes when h = 0? When h = 0, Q coincides
line. How can we find the slope of the with P, so secant line is not
secant line when h 6= 0 ? defined. Hence it vanishes.So
How can we find the slope of the it is not possible to find the
tangent line ?(Discuss the method)1 slope of the tangent directly.
Discuss the definition of tangent2 Slope of the tangent is the
limiting case of the slope of
the secants as h ⇒ 0

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14 Derivative at a point 68

1. Slope of the tangent line is the limit of slope of secant as h ⇒ 0. That is

f (a + h) − f (a)
lim . This limit, if it exists, is called the derivative of f (x) at x = a
h→0 h
0
and is denoted by f (a).

2. Students are already familiar with tangent to a circle , which is defined as a line
passing through a point on the circle and perpendicular to the radius of the circle at
that point. But it is not possible to define tangent to a curve in general without using
the concept of limits. Definition of tangent to a curve is as follows.

Tangent to the curve y = f (x) at the point P (a, f (a)) is the line passing through P and having
slope f 0 (a), if it exists.

Activity 14.2 Derivative at a Point

Edit the function Gets the slope of the tangents

and the point us- Ask the students to draw the curves
ing input boxes for and tangents at the given points
f and a and finds and to verify their answers using
the slope of tangent ‘Slope’ tool.
Give examples to show that tangent
to a curve may cut the curve or
touch the curve in more than one
point 1

1. Students may have a miss-concept that tangent to a curve just touches the curve in
a single point without cutting the curve. Give examples to clarify this.

In example 4, tangent to the curve y = x3 at (0, 0) is the x axis, which cuts the curve
In example 5, tangent to the curve y = sin x at (0, 0) is the line y = x, this also cuts
the curve
In example 6, tangent to the curve y = sin x at x = π2 is the line y = 1, this touches
the curve at x = π2 , 5π 9π
2 , 2 , ...

Note:-
In some examples it may see a slight difference between the limiting values of the slope
of the secant lines as h ⇒ 0 from right and left. In such situations we can change
the increment of the slider h to 0.001 or 0.0001 ,... (Right click on h ⇒ Object
Properties ⇒ Slider ⇒ Increment) and increase the number of decimal places to be
shown (Options ⇒ Rounding ⇒ select 3 or 4 , ...)

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14 Derivative at a point 69

Activity 14.3 Non Differentiability - Geometrical Meaning

Observes the secant Familiarise with different cases of

line and its slope as Discuss different cases of non exis- non differentiability
h → from left and tence of derivative
right. Discuss the nature of the curve at a
point where the function is differen-
tiable/non differentiable

Analysis of the Problems

Function Existence/Non existence of Derivative Nature of curve

f (x) = | sin x| at x = 0 As h → 0 from the right secant line approaches Curve is sharp at
the line y = x. So lim f (0+h)−f h
(0)
= 1. x=0
h→0+
As h → 0− secant line approaches the line
y = −x. So lim− f (0+h)−f
h
(0)
= −1. So
h→0
f (0+h)−f (0)
lim h doesn’t exist. That is f 0 (0)
h→0
doesn’t exist. Hence tangent doesn’t exist at
(0, 0).1
y = sin x at x = π Left derivative = Right derivative = -1. So Smooth at x = π
f 0 (π) = −1. Secant lines from both sides ap-
proaches to y = −x+π. Tangent is y = −x+π
y = sin |x| at x = π Left derivative = Right derivative = -1. So Smooth at x = π
f 0 (π) = −1. Secant lines from both sides ap-
proaches to y = −x+π. Tangent is y = −x+π
y = |x| at x = 0 Left derivative = -1, Right derivative = 1. So Sharp at x = 0
f 0 (0) doesn’t exist. Secant lines approaches to
( different lines.Tangent doesn’t exist
x2 if x ≤ 2
y = at Left derivative = 4, Right derivative = 2. Sharp at x = 2
2x if x > 2 f 0 (2) doesn’t exist. Secant lines approaches
x=2 to different lines. Tangent doesn’t exist
1
2
y = x 3 at x = 0 Secant lines from both sides approaches y axis. Smooth at x = 0
Hence the tangent exist (y axis) but since the
slope of y axis is not defined, function is not
differentiable at x = 0
 2
x − 4 if x 6= 2
x−2 3
y = Secant lines from both sides approaches a ver- Break at x = 2
6 if x = 2 tical line. Hence derivative doesn’t exist at

at x (
=2 x=2
x2 if x ≤ 2
y = Left derivative = 4, Right derivative = -4. Sharp at x = 2
(x − 4)2 if x > 2 f 0 (2) doesn’t exist. Secant lines approaches
at x = 2 to different lines. Tangent doesn’t exist
(
x2 if x ≤ 2
y = From the left side, secant line approaches to Curve has a break
(x − 2)2 if x > 2 a line having slope 4 and from the right, it at x = 2
at x = 2 approaches to a vertical line. Hence the left
derivative is 4 and right derivative doesn’t ex-
ist. Tangent doesn’t exist

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14 Derivative at a point 70

f (0+h)−f (0)
1. Since lim h = 1 we may call it as right derivative and the line y = x as
h→0+
f (0+h)−f (0)
the right tangent. Similarly lim− h = −1 is the left derivative and the line
h→0
y = −x is the left tangent.
2. Differentiability is an indication of the smoothness of the curve. That is, if a function
is differentiable at a point the corresponding curve is smooth at that point. But the
1 1
converse of this is not true. x 3 is not differentiable at 0, but y = x 3 is a smooth curve.

3. Break is not visible from the graph. We can convince the students as follows. Create
a slider a and plot the point (a, f (a)). As the slider changes we can see that the point
moves along the line, jumps to (2, 6) when a becomes 2 and comes back to the line
when a changes.

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Lab 15

Derivative of a function

Derivative of a function at a point and its geometrical meaning is already discussed in Lab14. In
this lab we discuss derivative of a function, its meaning, graph of derived function. In the addi-
tional activity we discuss ’Function Machine’.

Required concepts

Concept of the derivative of a function at a point.

Derivative of a function at a point is the slope of the tangent to the corresponding curve at
that point.
Graph of a function and its derivative.
Aim

Students get a clear idea about the derivative of a function.

Establishes a relation between a function and its derivative.

Activity 15.1 Relation Between a Function and its Derivative

Creates the applet

and finds the slope Recall the concept of derivative at Completes the table
for different values a point Identifies that f 0 (a) = 2a
of a. Recall the meaning of derivative at
a point, that is the slope of the tan-
gent at that point.

Activity 15.2 Graph of Derived Function

Observes the
path of the point Recall the concept of graph of a Gets a clear idea about the
C(a, m) function derivative of a function and
Discuss the concept of derived func- its graph.
tion 1 Gets the equation of the path
Discuss the methods of finding the as y = 2x
equation of the path 2

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15 Derivative of a function 72

1. C is the point (a, f 0 (a)). So for a given x, the corresponding point on the curve traced
by C is (x, f 0 (x)). Hence the curve represents the function y = f 0 (x), the derivative
or derived function of f (x).

2. The path traced by the point C is straight line. So by observation we can find its
equation as y = 2x
In Activity 15.1 we found the relation between a and f 0 (a) as f 0 (a) = 2a. That is
the y coordinate of any point on the curve is twice the x coordinate. Hence the
equation is y = 2x.

Activity 15.3 Equation of Derived Function

Observes the
path of the point Discuss the methods of finding the Gets a clear idea about the
C(a, m) for differ- equation of the path 1 derivative of a function and
ent functions. Discuss the fact that adding a con- its graph.
stant doesn’t changes the deriva- Gets the equation of the path
tive. for the given functions
Completes the table
Understands that the equa-
tion of the path gives the
derivative of the function.

1. Function x2 + 1 : Since the curve is a straight line passing through the origin its
equation is y = kx. It passes through the point (1, 2). So k = 2 and the equation
is y = 2x
Function 5x2 : Here also the curve is a straight line passing through the origin
and through the point (1, 10). The equation is y = 10x
Function x3 : Curve is a parabola of the form x2 = 4ay. We re write it in the
form y = kx2 . It passes through the point (1, 3). So k = 3 and the equation is
y = 3x2
Function x3 − 2 : Same as above
Function sin x By observation it is easy to identify that the curve represents cos x
Function cos x We can see that the curve is the reflection of sin x on x axis. Hence
it is − sin x.
Give more functions such as x, 3x + 2, f (x) = 3, etc. as an exercise.

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15 Derivative of a function 73

Activity 15.4 Derivative Using Command

Finds the deriva-

tive of the functions If graph of the derivative appears Gets the derivative of the
using input com- on Graphics view, we can shift it functions
mands to Graphics 2 as follows. Right Completes the table
click on the graph → Object Prop-
erties → Advanced → Graphics 2 →
uncheck Graphics.
Note 1

1. Derivative of some functions may appear differently from that given in the text book.
For example geoGebra shows the derivative of tan x as 1 + tan2 x which is same as
sec2 x

Activity 15.A Derivative Machine

In Lab 1, Activity 1.3 we have compared a function with a machine which gives an output, according
to the definition of the function, for a given input. Derivative of a function is again a function. So
in this activity we treat “Derivative” as an operator, which changes one function to another. So
we compare it with an input output machine. Here the inputs are functions. Since functions can
be treated as machines, we consider Derivative Machine as a super machine which transforms a
machine into another.

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Lab 16

Miscellaneous

This lab consists of four activities and three additional activities. The activities deals with concepts
from Complex numbers, Sequence and Series and Linear Inequalities. Additional activities deals
with the geometry of sum, product and square root of complex numbers.

Activity 16.1 Complex numbers

Required concepts

Modulus and argument of a complex number.

Representation of a complex number on the Argand plane.
Polar form of a complex number
Aim

To explore the geometry of modulus , argument and polar form of a complex number.

Creates the applet

and finds the modu- Discuss the method of finding mod- Gets the modulus and argu-
lus and argument of ulus and argument geometrically.1 ment of the given complex
the complex num- Discuss the method of finding the numbers.
bers geometrically. polar form.2 Finds the polar form.
Discuss the method of plotting com-
plex numbers whose polar coordi-
nates are given 3

1. Plot the given complex number and the point (0, 0).
Draw the line segment joining the complex number with
the origin. Find its length and find the angle made by
the line segment with the positive direction of the x axis
(use the tools ’Distance or Length, and ’Angle’) Length
of the line segment gives the modulus and the angle gives
the argument.

2. Using the modulus and argument obtained from the fig-

ure, we can write the polar form of the complex number

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16 Miscellaneous 75

3. To plot the complex number (2, 40◦ ) give the input command 2(cos(40◦ )+i∗sin(40◦ ))

Activity 16.2 Sequence and Series

Required concepts

General term of a sequence.

Aim

Through this activity we generate sequences using GeoGebra commands which helps the stu-
dents to get a clear idea about the general term of a sequence.

Finds the general Discuss the method of finding general Generates the sequences
term of the given term. *
sequences and gen-
erates them using
GeoGebra

*
Sequence General Term Command
6, 10, 14... 4n + 2 Sequence(4n+2,n,1,m)
2, 4, 8... 2n Sequence(2^n,n,1,m)
1 1 1 1
1, , ... 2n Sequence(1/2^n,n,0,m)
2 4 1
0.1, 0.01, 0.001... 10n Sequence(1/10^n,n,0,m)
1 −1 1 −1 n 1
, , , ... (−1) 3n+1 Sequence((-1)^n*1/(3^(n+1)),n,1,m)
9 27 81 243
1
This command gives the terms of the sequence in decimals. We can show the terms as fractions
as follows.
Create a list (say L1 ) using the command {Sequence(2^n, n, 0, m)} Create a list (say L2 ) using
the command {Sequence("\frac{1}{{" Element(L_1, i) "}} ,", i, 1, m + 1)}
Create the list using the command {TableText({L_2})}

Activity 16.3 Sum to n terms

Required concepts

General term of a sequence.

Aim

Uses GeoGebra commands to find the sum to a required number of terms of sequences and
series. We also discuss the sum to infinity of a Geometric Progression.

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16 Miscellaneous 76

Discuss the convergence of sum of Geo-

Finds the gen- metric progression. Finds the sum of given se-
eral term and quences.
sum to required Gets a clear idea about the
number of sum to infinity of a Geomet-
terms. ric progression.
Observes the
sum as the
number of
terms increases

Activity 16.4 Graphical Solution of Linear Inequalities

Students’ Activity Teachers’ role Students’ Response/Findings

Draws the regions Discuss the logic behind the input com- Finds the solution of the system
representing the mand. 1 of linear inequalities.
given inequalities

1. Consider the commands

x+2y¡=8&&2x+y¡=8&&x¿=0&&y¿=0
OR
x+2y ≤ 8 ∧ 2x+y ≤ 8 ∧ x ≥ 0 ∧ y ≥ 0
In this commands we are combining the following inequalities using ’and’.
x + 2y ≤ 8
2x + y ≤ 8
x≥0,y≥0
Note that we use && or ∧ for connecting the inequalities. ∧ is available from the
drop down menu given on the right end of the input bar.

Activity 16.A Sum of Complex Numbers

The quadrilateral obtained is a parallelogram. Discuss the method of finding sum of two
complex numbers geometrically by completing the parallelogram. We may relate this with
addition of vectors studied in physics class.

Activity 16.B Product of Complex Numbers

If r1 , r2 are the modulus and θ1 , θ2 are the argument of the complex numbers then the modulus
of their product is r1 r2 and argument of the product is θ1 θ2
Multiplication by i rotates the complex number by an angle 90◦ in the anti-clockwise direction.
Multiplication by −i rotates the complex number by an angle 90◦ in the clockwise direction.
Modulus of zz12 is rr12 and its argument is θ1 − θ2

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16 Miscellaneous 77

Activity 16.C Square Root of a Complex Number

√
Argument of z1 is the half of argument of z1
√
Modulus of z1 is the square root of the modulus of z1
De Moivre’s theorem may be discussed

If z = r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)) then z n = rn (cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ))

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Appendices

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Appendix A

Statistics using LibreOffice Calc

LibreOffice Calc is a software from the LibreOffice suite of applications predominantly dealing with
data analysis, where data is represented in the form of tables. Teaching of statistics can be made
more pleasing with this application as the following sections will show. Here we will brush through
the concepts presented in the statistics chapter from the plus one textbook. The emphasis will be
on discovery and self learning.

Activity A.1 Mean and Median

We have obtained the scores of two batsmen in different matches from media reports. Which
batsman is better? How can we compare the performance of the two batsmen? The scores of the
two batsmen A and B in the last ten matches is given.
Batsman A: 30,91,0,64,42,80,30,5,117,71
Batsman B: 53,46,48,50,53,53,58,60,57,52
We will take the help of LibreOffice Calc to explore the differences between the two batsmen.
Open LibreOffice Calc. Data is handled in rows and columns in Calc. Data can be entered into
the application either row wise or column wise. We will use the first column for Batsman A and the
second column for Batsman B. The entries in each row (we call them as cells) would represent the
runs obtained in a particular match. A particular cell is identified by its row number and column
number. If you see on the top of the columns it will be marked A,B,C etc. which represents the
column and in the left end of each row you can find the row number. So A2 represents the first
column and second row.
Enter the data given as shown in Figure A.1. The data in the figure for Batsman A is entered
from the cell A2 to A11 and for Batsman B it is entered from the cell B2 to B11.

Let us now calculate the mean of this data. We will display the mean of Batsman A in the cell
A12 and mean of Batsman B in the cell B12. To obtain the mean we use a Calc function called

Figure A.1: Initial Data Entry

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A Statistics using LibreOffice Calc 80

Figure A.2: To find the mean

Figure A.3: The mean of both players

AVERAGE. Click on the cell A12 and type “=AVERAGE(A2:A11)” as shown in Figure A.2 (note
that the data we entered for Batsman A is from A2 to A11). This can also be entered in the input
box in the top of the tool area as shown in Figure A.2. After entering the data press the enter
key to obtain the value of the mean. Repeat the same process for Batsman B where the formula
entered would be “=AVERAGE(B2:B11)”.

We can see that the mean of both the players is the same. So we cannot infer the difference between
the players from the mean data.
To make more sense out of our data we will insert a column before the first column. To do this,
select the column A by clicking on it. Right click and select “Insert columns to the left”. Now our
data will be in columns B and C and in the cell A12 type “Mean” as shown in Figure A.3.

Now let us check the median value to see if we can draw any conclusion about the performance
of the batsmen. For finding the median which is the central value of the data, we first sort the
available data. Select the cells from B2 to B12. In the menu “Data” select the option “Sort
Ascending”. Click on “Current Selection”. We can see that the data of column B is now sorted
in the ascending order. Repeat this same process to column C as well to obtain the sorted data
of Batsman B (Figure A.4). Since there are ten sets of data here, the central value will be the
average of 5th and 6th values. For Batsman A, the average of 42 and 64 is to be taken (which is
53) and for Batsman B it is 53.

The median can also be obtained from the unsorted data using the MEDIAN function. Click
on the cell B13 and type “=MEDIAN(B2:B11)” as shown in Figure A.5. On click of the enter key,
the value of median is computed. Repeat the same for the data of second batsman as well.

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A Statistics using LibreOffice Calc 81

Figure A.4: The median of both players

Figure A.5: The median of both players

Activity A.2 Measures of Dispersion of Data

The values of mean and median we saw in the above section has failed to convey the difference
between the scores of the two batsmen. Let us explore the data provided further. We shall attempt
to plot this data as a line graph to explore whether it can throw some light into the differences in
the scores.
Select the two columns containing data (in our case it is the columns B and C) from B2 to
C11. In the menu select the option Insert and then chose Chart. In the chart popup that comes
up, select the line chart with the option to include lines and points. When the Finish button is
clicked, the chart as shown in Figure A.6 comes up.

The figure clearly shows that for Batsman A, the data is more spread from very small scores
to very large scores whereas for Batsman B, the scores are more or less crowded around the mean
value. So to obtain a measure of this tendency to deviate from the mean value, we look at the
differences from the central value (mean).
To check this we will compute the differences of individual data from the mean value, with a
hope of obtaining some insight. We will compute the differences in the column D. We will make
use of formulas to compute the differences. So click in the cell D2 and enter “=B2-B$12”. Here
B2 has the first score and B12 has the mean value. Note the $ sign before 12. We intend to say
that 12 is an unchanging value - something like a constant, whereas the 2 in B2 does not have the
$ sign indicating that it is a value that is liable to change. So for the next match the same formula
if copied down will automatically become B3-B12. Once enter key is pressed the difference from
the mean is computed.

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A Statistics using LibreOffice Calc 82

Figure A.6: The spread of scores

Figure A.7: The deviations from mean and its sum

Copy this cell (D2) and paste in all the cells D3 to D11. All the differences from mean value
is displayed. Copy the cells from D2 to D11 and paste in the cells E2 to E11. So we have the
deviations from the mean for each game of Batsman A in column D and that for Batsman B in
column E as shown in Figure A.7. Click on cell D1 and enter the text “Deviations from mean” so
that it is easy to distinguish between the data later on.
Now let us calculate the sum of these deviations. Click on the cell D12 and enter the formula to
compute the sum as “=SUM(D2:D11)”. Press the enter key to display the sum. Similarly repeat
the same for the column E by using the formula “=SUM(E2:E11)” in Cell E12.

We can see that the sum of the deviations from mean is zero for both the cases. Why is it so?
We had computed the sum of deviations from the mean value which is
n
X n
X
x1 − x̄ + x2 − x̄ + · · · + xn − x̄ = x1 + x2 + · · · + xn − nx̄ = xj − xj = 0
j=1 j=1

So this result is expected. But still we have not come up with a measure to bring out the differences
in the score. The sum of deviations turned out to be zero because there were some positive numbers
and there were some negative numbers. What if we take the sum of absolute values? Let us check.
For this we simply change the formula employed in cell D2 to “=ABS(B2-B$12)”. ABS is the
function that would calculate the absolute value. Do the procedure detailed as above for all the
other cells as well. For D12 use the “=AVERAGE(D2:D11)” to find the mean of these absolute
values. Repeat the same for the cell E12 as well as shown in the Figure A.8

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A Statistics using LibreOffice Calc 83

Figure A.8: The absolute deviations from mean and its mean

Figure A.9: The varience

The values obtained for both the players is seen to be different. For the Batsman A, we see
that the value is 31.6 while that of Batsman B it is 3.2. The small difference of this value with the
mean value shows that the performance of Batsman B is more consistent than that of Batsman A.

Activity A.3 Varience

To get the deviation from men value, we had tried to take the absolute value of all the differences
to get rid of the negative values. Another approach which is more consistent would be to take the
square of all the values. This would automatically get rid of the negatives.
To compute this value we will again make use of formulas. In the cell F2 we will enter the
formula “=(B2-B$12)2̂” which is the square of the differences from the mean value. Press on the
enter key to evaluate the square of the deviation. Copy the cell F2 and paste in F3 to F11. Copy
cells from F2 to F11 and paste in cells G2 to G11.
Now we will compute the mean value of this in cells F12 and G12. For Batsman A we can see
that it is 1300.6 and that of Batsman B it is 17.4 as shown in Figure A.9. So this measure also
brings out the differences between the two batsmen. This measure is termed as the varience.

Mathematically, varience can be calculated by the equation

n
1X
σ2 = (xj − x̄)2
n j=1

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A Statistics using LibreOffice Calc 84

Activity A.4 Standard Deviation

In the above section we computed the varience which is the square of the deviations from the mean
value. It is the square of the data that we are getting rather than the data. So it would be more
realistic to take the square root of this value to get a value that represents the differences.
We use formulas to do it. In the cell F13 type the formula “=SQRT(F12)”. SQRT is the
formula to calculate the square root. This value is called the standard deviation. For Batsman A
it is about 36 and for Batsman B it is about 4. The larger the standard deviation, the more spread
is the data from the central value.
Mathematically, the equation for standard deviation is
v
u1 n
u X
σ=t (xj − x̄)2
n j=1

The standard deviation can also be calculated directly from the given sample using the for-
mula “=STDEV.P(B2:B11)” where STDEV is the formula for standard deviation and the .P in
the formula specifies that we are considering the whole population for computing the standard
deviation.

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Appendix B

Using Python in Mathematics

Instruction

Python is a popular programming laguage which is simple compared to other programming lan-
guages. Its strength can be explored in the classroom as a teaching aid and can be used by the
students and teachers to explore various fascinating aspects of mathematics.
Many books have been written that deal with Python as a programming language and there
are a number of online resources to learn Python. Teaching or learning Python is not an objective
of this chapter. The aim of this chapter is to show that Python can be used in the classroom as
an effective aid to the teaching learning process.

Activity B.1 Installing and opening Python

In linux distributions, Python will be installed by default. To check whether Python is installed or
not, open Terminal (Applications → Accessories → Terminal). A screen which is normally called
as console opens up. Type python in the console. If python is installed then the version of python
will be shown in the screen as shown in Figure B.1

Python programming can be done in this console itself. But for convenience, we normally use
an editor for the programming jobs. An editor which is popular among the python community
is IDLE. To install IDLE in your system type the following commands in succession (Please note
that the system should be connected to the internet while performing this action.)
sudo apt−g e t update
sudo apt−g e t i n s t a l l i d l e
After the first command, the system will prompt for the password. Once IDLE is installed it can
be opened by typing idle in the terminal. A screen opens up with the idle interface as shown in
Figure B.2.

Activity B.2 Starting Programming

To start with, let us type the following command in the idle window
print ( ” H e l l o Python ” )
When the enter key is pressed, the output is visible in the screen as shown in Figure B.3.

Python can be used to do calculation as the following examples show. Enter the command
below

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B Using Python in Mathematics Instruction 86

Figure B.1: Checking whether Python is installed

2∗7+11∗3
to get the answer as 47. Here * is for multiplication and + is for addition. To compute exponents
we use ** as in the code below which computes 21 0
2∗∗10
Division is performed using / as below
6/4
which gives 1.5 while the following code
6//4
gives 1. In this case the double division operator calculates the integer value of the division.
Python can handle arbitrarily large numbers. For example, try to compute 21000 as in
2∗∗1000
to get the result shown in Figure B.4

Variables can also be used for computations like in

a =2.0
u=3.0
t =10
s=u∗ t +(1/2)∗ a ∗ t ∗∗2
To get the value of the variable s type the name of variable in the idle screen and press enter.
There are many built in functions in Python that could be helpful in mathematical calculations.
These functions are defined in a class file called “math” which has to be imported to the Python
environment. For this the following commands can be tried out.
from math import ∗
exp ( 1 )
sqrt (2)

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B Using Python in Mathematics Instruction 87

Figure B.2: IDLE interface

Figure B.3: The first program

Figure B.4: Handling large numbers

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B Using Python in Mathematics Instruction 88

Here * symbol in the import statement asks to import all the functions defined in “math”. The
first statement
√ calculates the value of the natural constant e and the second statement calculates
the value of 2
Suppose we want to find the sum of the series
1 1 1 1
1+ + + + ··· +
2 3 4 100
To do this we need to first store our result in a variable which we will call as sum. We then make
the value of this variable as zero. Now we start from the first term and compute the value of the
first term. We keep on adding this value to the variable sum until we reach the end of the series.
The Python code for this logic is shown below.
sum=0
f o r k in range ( 1 , 1 0 1 ) :
sum = sum + 1 . 0 / k
sum
Here you can see that the answer is the sum of the first hundred terms of the series. Now let us
try to understand the logic behind this code. In the first line, we create a variable called sum and
then give a value of 0 to this variable. In the second line we define a range in which a counter
k will vary. Here k varies from 1 to 100 (Please note the value 101 in the range statement. The
starting value is included but the ending value is not included). Also note the colon mark at the
end of the statement. It means that the statements following this line with a shift towards right
are part of this loop. The last statement is for displaying the value of sum in the screen.
Now let us investigate the series
1 1 1 1
1+ 2
+ 2 + 2 + ··· +
2 3 4 1002
The code will look as below
sum=0
f o r k in range ( 1 , 1 0 1 ) :
sum = sum + 1 . 0 / ( k ∗ ∗ 2 )
sum
What is the series is like the following
1 1 1 1
1− + 2 − 2 + ··· −
22 3 4 1002
The code will have to include alternate plus and minus. This can be easily done by considering
the general equation of the nth term which is

(−1)n+1
n2

sum=0
f o r k in range ( 1 , 1 0 1 ) :
sum = sum + ( −1)∗∗( k +1)/( k ∗ ∗ 2 )
sum
Check the sum of the above series with larger number of terms. Investigate what happens.

Activity B.3 Playing with factors

Now we will consider another example for finding the proper factors of an integer. Proper factors
are the factors including the number and 1. For example the number 10 will have four proper
factors 1,2,5,10.
The Python program to find the factors of the number n will look like the following.

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B Using Python in Mathematics Instruction 89

f a c t o r s =[]
n=10
f o r k in range ( 1 , n +1):
i f n%k == 0 :
f a c t o r s . append ( k )
Initially we declare the variable factor as an empty list (Please note the opening and closing of
square brackets). The number whose factors are to be found out is stored in n. In this case we
find the factors of 10. Then the counter k is changed from 1 to n and the remainder is found when
n is divided with k (The % operator finds the remainder). If the remainder is zero then it means
that k is a factor of n and it is added to the list of factors (The append statement does this). After
running the program if we type factors and press the enter key, we would get the list of factors. If
we want to find the number of factors, then the length of this list will do it which can be found as
follows.
len ( f a c t o r s )
If we are interested in listing out all the factors of all numbers from 1 to 100, then the above
program is to be modified by putting an extra loop in the outside to change the numbers from 1
to 100. The resulting code will be as follows
f o r m in range ( 1 , 1 0 1 ) :
f a c t o r s =[]
num=0
f o r k in range ( 1 ,m+1):
i f m%k == 0 :
f a c t o r s . append ( k )
num = len ( f a c t o r s )
print (m, f a c t o r s , num)
This program will print the number m, its factors and the number of factors for m when m varies
from 1 to 100.
Another interesting exploration possibility is the factors of special sequences. If we need to come
up with the factors of the triangular numbers, for instance, the above program can be twisted to
suit our needs. Instead of finding the factors of integers from 1 to 100 we need to find the factors
of the first 100 triangular numbers. As soon as the first loop is entered, we need to compute the
triangular number which is nothing but the sum of all consecutive integers till a particular number.
Tn = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n
The resulting program is shown below
numfactortriang =[]
f o r m in range ( 1 , 1 0 1 ) :
t r i a n g =0
f o r n in range ( 1 ,m+1):
t r i a n g=t r i a n g+n
f a c t o r s =[]
num=0
f o r k in range ( 1 , t r i a n g +1):
i f t r i a n g%k==0:
f a c t o r s . append ( k )
num = len ( f a c t o r s )
n u m f a c t o r t r i a n g . append (num)
print (m, t r i a n g , f a c t o r s , num)
print ( ” L a r g e s t no o f f a c t o r s ” ,max( n u m f a c t o r t r i a n g ) )
The variable triang has the triangular numbers which is computed using the peice of code
t r i a n g =0
f o r n in range ( 1 ,m+1):
t r i a n g=t r i a n g+n

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B Using Python in Mathematics Instruction 90

numfactortriang is a variable which holds the number of factors of the first 100 triangular numbers.
So before the start of the program it is initialised to a null variable which holds nothing. As and
when the factors are computed and the number of factors calculated, the number is appended to
the variable.
In the end of the program, the maximum value of this list is computed and it can be seen that
it is 40. So the program gives a very interesting answer to the question what is the largest number
of factors for a triangular number below 100. From the list of triangular numbers it can be seen
that there are 40 factors for the 95th traingular number 4560.

Activity B.4 The Collatz sequence

Let us look at another example. Here we repeatedly do a process on a number. We start with a
number. If the number is an odd number we multiply with three and add one. If the number is an
even number, we divide by 2. Then we do this on the result and so on. Let us check what happens
to numbers geneated for a starting number, say 13. If we reach the number 1 during any stage of
the process, then since it is an odd number multiplying 1 by 3 and adding 1 will give four, which
will be divided by 2 and again 2 in the next steps to give 1. So we can safely say that the process
is complete when 1 is reached. The code looks like this:
a=13
while a ! = 1 :
i f a%2==0:
a=a //2
else :
a=3∗a+1
print ( a )
Here we use a loop which is called as the while loop. The loop continues its execution until the
condition next to the while loop is true. When the condition becomes false, the loop ends.
We can see that the number eventually settles down to 1. Start with a different number and see
what happens. Although it is not yet proved, it is thought that all starting numbers will eventually
end in 1. This sequence is called the Collatz sequence.
Suppose we need to count the number of steps taken to reach 1, then what can be done to the
code to make it capable of this?
A variable to count the number of steps is to be employed as shown below.
a=13
count=1
while a ! = 1 :
i f a%2==0:
a=a //2
else :
a=3∗a+1
count=count+1
print ( count )
Suppose we need to find the steps taken to reach 1 for all numbers from 2 to 100, then a loop
for varying a number from 2 to 100 is to be put in the beginning. The code is shown below.
f o r k in range ( 2 , 1 0 1 ) :
a=k
count=1
while a ! = 1 :
i f a%2==0:
a=a //2
else :
a=3∗a+1
count=count+1
print ( k , count )

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B Using Python in Mathematics Instruction 91

It can be seen that there are some numbers which take pretty long to reach one. The largest
chain length for a starting number below 100 is observed for the number 97 who takes 119 steps
to reach 1.

Activity B.5 A taste of primes

Yet another exploration possibility is prime numbers. Mathematicians have been playing around
with prime numbers for centuries and the game is still on. The only difference is that the tools
used for the game in ancient times were a paper, a pencil and a brain whereas in the modern times
it is the computer and a brain.
How do we check whether a number is prime or not? Divide it by all the numbers above 1 and
below the number. If any of the numbers divide perfectly, then the number is not prime. Let us
try it out through Python.
num=13
p r i m e f l a g =0
f o r k in range ( 2 ,num−1):
i f num%k==0:
p r i m e f l a g =1
break
i f p r i m e f l a g ==1:
print ( ”Not Prime ” )
else :
print ( ” Prime ” )
This program checks whether the number 13 is prime or not. If you need to check some other
number change the value of num to that number and run the program. In the program, primeflag
is a variable that has an initial value of 0. If the program comes across a number that is a factor,
then its value is made 1. The statement if num%k==0 checks whether num is exactly divisible
by k. Finally if the value of primeflag is 1 then “not prime” is printed in the screen. Otherwise
“prime” is printed.
A natural academic question that pops up here is do I need to divide until I reach the number?
Can I stop my check below some other number? If we look at the factors of all the composite
numbers, no factor is greater than half of the number. This idea can be used here effectively. So
instead of dividing until the number, we need to check until half the number. The program can be
changed as below
num=13
p r i m e f l a g =0
f o r k in range ( 2 ,num / / 2 ) :
i f num%k==0:
p r i m e f l a g =1
break
i f p r i m e f l a g ==1:
print ( ”Not Prime ” )
else :
print ( ” Prime ” )
Improving the number of divisions are important especially when the number whose primality has
to be checked is really large. In areas like cryptography and network security, these numbers are
really huge where the number of steps to arrive at the question related to primality is crucial.
In this line, can we improve our program further by reducing the number of checks? Or in other
words, can we do better? Again a look at the factors of composite numbers, we can understand
that the biggest factor is always less than the square root of the number. This information can be
incorporated into our program to get
from math import ∗
num=13

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B Using Python in Mathematics Instruction 92

p r i m e f l a g =0
f o r k in range ( 2 , int ( s q r t (num ) ) ) :
i f num%k==0:
p r i m e f l a g =1
break
i f p r i m e f l a g ==1:
print ( ”Not Prime ” )
else :
print ( ” Prime ” )
In the above program since the square root is a decimal number we need to convert it to an integer
value which is achieved by the int function.
Now suppose we want to print all the prime numbers below 100. What change should be made
to the above program? Instead of using the number 13, we need to use the numbers from 2 to 100
which can be done using a for loop. And instead of printing that the number is prime or not it is
enough to print the prime numbers alone. So the program can be changed as follows:
f o r num in range ( 2 , 1 0 1 ) :
p r i m e f l a g =0
f o r k in range ( 2 , int ( s q r t (num ) ) ) :
i f num%k==0:
p r i m e f l a g =1
break
i f primeflag !=1:
print (num)
There are a number of questions that can be attempted through programs. Some sample
challenging questions are given below which can be attempted through programming. Try it out
yourself or through your students. The results are really refreshing.

1. If we look at the prime number 41 it can be expressed as a sum of consecutive primes as

follows
41 = 2 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 11 + 13
This number is the longest sum of consecutive primes which is also a prime below 100. Can
you write a program to find the losgest sum of consecutive primes below 1000.
2. The sum of primes below 10 is

S10 = 2 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 17

Write a program to display the sum of all primes below 10,100,1000,10000 and so on to check
if there is any pattern with these sums
3. The number 197 is a circular prime because all rotations of 197 i.e, 971,719 are all prime.
There are thirteen such numbers below 100. Write a program to display them. Extend the
program to display all circular primes below 1000.
4. The number 3797 has a very interesting property. It is a prime number by itself. If digits
are removed from left to right one at a time, then the resulting numbers 797,97 and 7 are
prime. If we do it from right to left, 379,37 and 3 are prime. Write a program to list out all
numbers below 10000 which has this remarkable property.

Activity B.6 Square of Digits

As a last exploration exercise in the world of numbers let us attempt the following. A number
chain is created by continuously adding the square of digits of the number to form a new number.
For example if we start with the number 44, we get the following chain

44 → 32 → 13 → 10 → 1 → 1

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B Using Python in Mathematics Instruction 93

You can see that the number 1 repeats again and again.
Let us try this with a different number. Say 85

85 → 89 → 145 → 42 → 20 → 4 → 16 → 37 → 58 → 89 →

We can see that the number 89 has come up again and the cycle will repeat itself.
What is remarkable with this process is that whatever number we start with, it will either end
in 1 or end in 89. Let us write a program to display all such chains with a particular starting
number.
num=44
c h e c k v a l=0
while ( c h e c k v a l ==0):
a=[ int ( x ) f o r x in s t r (num ) ]
sumnum=0
f o r y in a :
sumnum=sumnum+y ∗∗2
i f sumnum==1 or sumnum==89:
c h e c k v a l=1
else :
num=sumnum
print (sumnum)
After the while statement, we are splitting the number into a list of its digits using the statement
a=[ int ( x ) f o r x in s t r (num ) ]
The idea here is to consider the number 44 as a string (which is considered like a word here) and
then going through each letter in the word to get the individual digits. Then if the sum is 1 or
89, we stop the program by putting the value of checkval as 1. (This can be achieved through the
break statement also).
Change the starting number from 44 to 89 and see what happens. Check this for anu other
number and see the result for yourself.
As a challenging exercise in this line, can you write a program to list out all the numbers below
100 which will reach 89 and not 1?
Use of Python in number theory is a very enriching job. But it is not limited to the number
business alone. In the following section, we through light to the use of Python in other areas of
mathematics as well.

Activity B.7 Other Areas of Mathematics

Python can also be used in other areas of mathematics, from which some glimpses will be attempted
next to show the possibilities.
We will attempt to find limits using Python. For this we need the module sympy which has
the defenitions for functions that are used in symbolic mathematics. In some systems it may not
be installed so you will have to install it using the following command from the terminal.
sudo apt−g e t i n s t a l l python3−sympy
1
Once it is installed, to find the limit of the function x when x → ∞ we use the following code
from sympy import ∗
x = Symbol ( ’ x ’ )
l = Li m it ( 1 / x , x , S . I n f i n i t y )
l . doit ()
Let us see the meaning of this code. The first line says to import all (* stands for all) functions
that are defined in the module sympy for our use. The second line defines that the variable x will
now be used as asymbol for a function. The Limit function now evaluates the limit of 1/x where
x is actually a symbol and it approaches infinity. Note the last argument S.Infinity which means

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B Using Python in Mathematics Instruction 94

that the defenitions for Infinity is present in the set S which is defined in the module sympy. The
last line doit() is a method which actually computes the value for the limit.
We can try out other functions as well. For example to compute the limit of sin(x)
x , the following
command can be used
l = Li m it ( s i n ( x ) / x , x , 0 )
l . doit ()
Not only limits, we can do derivatives as well. To compute the derivative of a function the
following code can be used
d = D e r i v a t i v e ( 5 ∗ x∗∗2+2∗x+8,x )
d . doit ()
We get the derivative as 10x + 2. This derivative can be found out in a single step instead of two
steps. The following code will give the derivative in a single step.
D e r i v a t i v e ( 5 ∗ x∗∗2+2∗x+8,x ) . d o i t ( )
Similarly integrals can be found out as follows
I n t e g r a l ( 1 0 ∗ x+2,x ) . d o i t ( )
will give 5x2 + 2x To find the defenite integral
Z 2
10x + 2dx
0

we need to enter the command as follows

I n t e g r a l ( 1 0 ∗ x +2 ,( x , 0 , 2 ) ) . d o i t ( )
Instead of merely using x we will be using the symbol x as the first argument, the lower limit as
the second argument and the upper limit as the third argument.
Python is a very powerful tool in the teaching learning process. Teaching Pyhton in a single
small chapter is an impossible task. The aim of this chapter was not to teach Python, but to show
that it is learnable and also useful in mathematics instruction.

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Appendix C

An insight into the Observation

Book

IT Maths lab altogether is a new concept which has no precedence or reference. Nothing differ-
ent with the Observation Book either. So for writing the Observation Book we need not follow
the way in which the other subjects are dealing with their record books. The Observation Book
should be an abstract of what the student had gone through in a particular lab work. The learner
should be given freedom in writing the OB. But it should include some essential details like aim,
observations, details of questions which are marked by note book symbol in lab manual, completed
tables, conclusion and procedure.

Depending upon the nature of the concepts discussed in each lab, the structure of the obser-
vation book may vary.
Space should be provided to write the name of lab and date.
There should be an aim for each lab. This can be copied from the manual.
Questions marked with note book symbol and its detailed answer.
Completed tables.
Calculations used to find the answer. For example, there will be questions like verify the
findings using GeoGebra. Here the details of such calculations should be mentioned.
Sometimes there will be extended discussions of concepts beyond the lab manual. These should
be recorded in the observation book.
The procedure of a lab activity should be written in the end. It should be an abstract of the
steps of each activity and not a copy of the lab manual procedure. It should be written in such
a way that a revisit to the OB gives the learner a clear idea of the lab. This may be as follows
:

LAB 1
Aim

To construct an applet to establish geometrically the correspondence of a number and its image
under a function.
To use this applet to find the images of numbers under various functions
To use an applet to visualise the comparison of a function with an input-output machine.

Activity 1.1
Observations

When A moves along x axis, C moves along y axis.

f (a) is the image of the real number a under the function f (x).

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C Observation Book 96

The y coordinate of C is the square of x coordinate of A, since here the function is f (x) = x2 .
The point B lies on the graph of the function f (x) = x2 . Then writes the values of 2.32 , −1.82 , 0.92 , 2.92
Activity 1.2
Observations
Here student identifies the functions and then estimate the corresponding values.
The completed tabular column is recorded here.
Comments to the activities asked with the OB icon are also recorded here.
This may be as follows ...

For the function f (x) = x1 When a approaches to 0 from left side, f (a) decreases to −∞ .
When a approaches to 0 from right side, f (a) increases to ∞ .
For the function f (x) = [x], When A moves between two integers, C stays on the least integers
among them. When A moves to next interval C jumps to next integer.
Activity 1.3
Observations
Here students finds the values using the given applet ML1.1 and are recorded here . Their com-
ments are also recorded . This may be as follows.

For the function f (x) = sqrt(x), if we give a negative number as the input, the warning light
of the machine turns red. This means that negative numbers are not in the domain of the
function f (x) = sqrt(x).
Domain of the function f (x) = sqrt(x) is [0, ∞)
In a similar manner they can write the case of the function f (x) = x1
Conclusion
Here students consolidate the findings in the above three activities.
The set of points (x, f (x)) represents the graph of the function f (x)
Graph of a function may be used to find the value f (x) for a given x
We can consider a function as an input - output machine.
If we give a number x, which is in the domain of f , we get f (x) as the output.
If x is not in the domain of f , output is not produced. Which means that f (x) is not defined.
Procedure
Here students write a brief description of what they have done in the lab.
An example is given below.

An applet is constructed using the concept that the set of points (x,f(x)) represents the graph
of the function f(x).
This applet is used to find values of some functions at given points.
Behaviour of some functions are also discussed with the help of the applet.
Using ’Function Machine’, values of some functions at some points are evaluated.

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Appendix D

Model Practical Evaluation

Questions

Here a few model questions are provided in connection with the practical evaluation of the lab
activities. The questions of scores 2, 4 and 6 are provided. For the practical examination a ques-
tion of score 8 (a suitable combination of 2 , 4 and 6 ) will be asked from each lab activity . The
evaluation of Practical Examination focuses only on the mathematical concepts rather than the
technical side of GeoGebra. These model questions will definitely provide a better awareness to
the teacher how a question can be framed from a particular lab activity, which in turn helps the
teacher to carry out the lab activities in the right direction.

2 Mark Questions

1. Plot the graph of f (x) = −|x| + 1 (input: -abs(x)+1) (LAB-1)

(a) Find the maximum value of f(x)

(b) Find the minimum value of f (x) in x ∈ [−2, 1].

2. Using the given applet Q2.4 answer the following questions. (LAB-2)

(a) Identify the point at which the given function f (x) is not defined.
(b) Shift the above graph using the sliders in such a way that it is not defined
at x = 2 and range becomes R − {2}. Write the new function in terms of f .

3. Using the input command f=If[x<=1,x,3] draw the graph of the function f . (LAB-3)
Write the function f and find its domain and range

4. Use applet Q4.2 (LAB-4)

Using the slider you can change the rotation of the point P along the unit circle. Arrange
the following values in increasing order .
sin 0, sin 1, sin 2, sin 3, sin 4, sin 5

5. Use applet Q5.1 (LAB-5)

Find the values of the following with the help of the applet
You can change the rotation of the point A using the input box. Coordinates of A are not
visible. From the coordinates of P , estimate the required values (A and P are diametrically
opposite points )
i) sin 2.7 ii) cos 3.7

6. Plot the graph of the function f (x) = sin 2x. Find the solution of the equation of sin 2x = 0
in the interval (0, 2π). (LAB-6)

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D Model Questions 98

7. Using the applet Q7.5,complete the following table (LAB-7)

Function Range Length Period
cycles
cos x [−1, 1] 2π 2π

cos x2

cos x3

√
8. Using a given applet ,write the normal form of the line 3x − y + 8 = 0 (LAB-8)

9. Use the Applet (LAB-9)

In the given applet when we play the animation play button the points C and D move. Ob-
serve the changes of the distance AD and BD when D and C move .Stop the animation at
any three different places and fill the table.
Position Distance AC Distance BC or Sum AD+BD Sum AC+BC
or AD BD
Position 1
Position 2
Position 3
Name the path formed by movements of C and D together.

x2 y2
10. By giving proper input Draw the hyperbola − = 1. (LAB-11)
16 9
Find its foci and check it with the command to find the foci of hyperbola .

11. Draw a line segment AB which is internally divided by the xy plane in the ratio 2:3. Write
its coordinates. (LAB-12)

12. Use Applet Q16.3 (LAB-16)

You can change the radius of the circle and the angle using the sliders or input boxes. Find
the position of the following complex numbers And complete the table.
√ √
i) 3 + i ii) −1 − 3i

Complex
√ Number Amplitude Argument
3 +√i
−1 − 3i

13. Find the centre and radius of the circle x2 + y 2 − 4x − 8y − 45 = 0. Draw the circle and verify
your answer. (LAB-10)

4 Mark Questions

14. Using applet Q1.2, complete the following table (LAB-1)

Question
√ Function f (x) Value of x Value of f (x)
1.8
−3
(3.46)
p√
2

15. Use the given applet Q2.2 to answer the following (LAB-2)
Graph of the function f (x) = |x| is given in Graphics 2

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D Model Questions 99

(a) Get the graph of g(x) = −|x + 2| + 1 from the graph of f , by suitable reflections and
translations. You can use the buttons given in the Graphics view. (2)
(b) Write the domain and range of g(x). (1)
(c) Find the maximum value of g(x). (1)

16. Plot thegraph of the function given below (LAB-3)

 1, if
 x < −1
f (x) = x2 if −1≤x≤1 (Input :If[x<-1,1,-1<=x<=1,x^2,-1])

−1 if x>1


(a) Find the value of f ( 12 ) (1)

(b) Find the range of f (2)
(c) Plot the graph of g(x) = f (x) + 1 and find the range of g (1)

17. Draw the graphs of the following functions and complete the table (LAB-4)
(a) sin x (b) tan x (c) sec x
Interval
0, π2 π
π, 3π 3π





Function 2,π 2 2 , 2π

sin x decreases from 1

to 0
tan x increases from
−∞ to 0
sec x increases from 0
to ∞

18. Use applet Q5.3 (LAB-5)

Complete the following table with the help of the applet
Note : You can change the rotation of the point A using the input box. Rotation of the point
P can be selected by clicking on the text boxes. Coordinates of A are not visible and that
of P are visible only if it is in the first quadrant. Select a suitable rotation of P so that you
can estimate the required values using its coordinates.

cos 2.5 sin 1 cos 5.5 sin 4

Rotation of P
Value

19. Use Appllet 6.3 (LAB-6)

Complete the following table.
(use the slider n to change the x value marks in x axis. Input f and g functions in input box
. Input the corresponding function to get the graph)
Equations Points of Principal value General Solutions
intersection in [0, solutions
2π)
cos x = sin x

sin 2x = cos 3x

20. Using the applet Q7.3,complete the following table.(LAB-7)

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D Model Questions 100

Function a ∗ Range No:cycles in Period

f (x) [0, 2π]
sin x [−1, 1] 1 2π
2 sin x
0.5 sin x
sin 2x
sin 3x

21. Use the Applet 8M.1 (LAB-8)

Equation of the given line is ax + by + c = 0. You can change the values of a, b and c using
input boxes.
Draw the lines, satisfying the following conditions, using the applet and complete the given
table.
3
i) Passing through the origin, slope is
2
ii) x intercept 3 and y intercept -4
iii) Passing through the points (1, 1) and (3, 5)
iv) y intercept 3 and slope -2

Line a b c
i
ii
iii
iv

22. Read the construction given below carefully and answer the following question. (LAB-9)
Create the slider a with Min=0
Plot the point A(4, 0)
Draw the line x = a and draw the circle of radius a centered at A
Mark the points of intersections C and D of the circle with the line.
Animate the slider

(a) Write the reason that the curve traced is a Parabola. Write its foci and directrix (2)
(b) Construct the applet and verify your answer (2)

23. Find the focus and length of latus rectum of the parabola x2 = −8y and verify the answer
geometrically (LAB-10)
24. Draw the following ellipse using Ellipse tool (LAB-11)
(a) Foci (±4, 0) ,passing through (5, 2)
(b) Foci (±3, 0) at length of major axis is 10.Also find the length of LR of the ellipse
geometrically
25. Construct a cube such that one of its face lies in the first octant and the opposite face is in
the second octant. Write its co-ordinates. (LAB-12)
26. Using the given applet Lab 13.1 (LAB-13)
(a) Plot the graph of the following piece wise function and
check the limit at x=2.
(
x2 if x ≤ 2
f (x) =
2x + 1 if x > 2
(Input If[x<=2,x^2,2x+1])

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D Model Questions 101

(b) How to change the above function such as a limiting function at x=2 .Plot the same.
27. Use the Applet Q14.2 (LAB-14)
Graph of a function f and a point P on it is given. You can change the position of the point
using the slider x or the input box. Tangent to the curve at P and its slope is also given.
Answer the following Questions.
(a) Find the derivative of the function at x = 0 and x = 2. (2)
(b) Find the points on the curve at which the tangent is parallel to the x axis. Hence find
the values of x at which f 0 (x) = 0. (2)
28. Draw the solution region of the system of linear inequalities (LAB-16)

x − 2y ≤ 3
3x + y ≥ 12
x≥0
y≥1

6 Mark Questions

29. Consider the parabola y 2 = 12x (LAB-10)

(a) Find the focus and equation of directrix, then draw the parabola (2)
(b) Find the co-ordinates of the end points of latus rectum (2)
(c) Draw the circle passing through the vertex and end points of the latus rectum without
using circle through 3 points tool (2)
30. Using applet Q1.1, answer the following questions. (LAB-1)
Move the point A using the slider a and observe the graph
(a) Write the function f (x) representing the graph. Plot the function by giving suitable
input of the function . (2)
(b) Using the graph of f (x) estimate the value of x ,if (2)
(a) f (x) = 12
(b) f (x) = 21
(c) Find the intervals in which (2)
(a) f (x) > 0
(b) f (x) < 0
31. Consider the graph of the function f (x) = x2 (LAB-2)

(a) Write the function g(x) obtained by shifting the graph of f (x) by 4 units vertically
downwards. Draw the graph of g and find its points of intersection with x axis. (2)
(b) Find the function function h, obtained
√ by shifting
√ the graph of f , such that the graph
of h passes through the points (− 2, 0) and ( 2, 0). Draw its graph. (1)
(c) Plot the graph of −h and find the maximum value of −h(x) (1)
(d) If the graph of f is shifted 2 units towards right (Horizontally) and then 3 units upwards
(Vertically) ,write the function of the transformed graph. (2)

32. Use the Applet Q3.4. Graph of a function f is given in the applet. Some more functions are
also defined (g, h, ...). You can show/hide their graphs from algebra window. (LAB-3)
(a) Identify the functions among g, h, ... which are equal to f in some intervals. (2)
(b) Write the definition of f and plot its graph. (2)
(c) Find the domain and range of f . (2)

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33. Use the given applet Q4.1. (LAB-4)

You can change the rotation of the point P by changing x using the input box.

(a) Complete the following table. (4)

x
1.2 2.1 10 -0.5
Function
sin x
cos x
(b) Find the values of sin( 21π 30π
5 ) and cos(− 7 ). Note that the input box accepts the value
of x between -10 and 10 only. You are not allowed to edit the properties
of the slider (2)

34. Use applet Q5.5 (LAB-5)

Complete the following table with the help of the applet
Note : You can change the rotations of the point A and P using the input boxes. Coordinates
of A are not visible and that of P are visible only if it is in the first quadrant.
Give a suitable rotation for P so that you can estimate the required values
using its coordinates

sin 2.7 cos 2.7 sin 5.3 cos 4.2 sin 1.3 cos 1.3
Rotation of P
Value

35. Using the applet Lab 6.1, complete the following table. (LAB-6)

(use the slider n to change the x value marks in x axis)

Equations Points of Principal solutions General solutions

intersection in
[0, 2π)
1
sin x = 2
√
3
sin 3x = − 2
√
3
sin x3 = 2

36. Each of the function given in List 1 matches with one of the function given in List 2. Draw
the graph of the functions given in List 1, observe the graph and identify the function from
List 2 which represents the same graph. You can use the Applet Q7.1 (LAB-7)
3π
List-1: sin(x − 2π), cos(x − 2 ), cos(x + π2 ), sin 2( π4 − x), cos 4( 3π 1
8 + x), sin 2 (3π − x)

List-2: sin x, cos x, − sin x, − cos x, cos x2 , − cos x2 , sin 2x, cos 2x, sin 4x, cos 4x

37. Applet Q8.1 is given (LAB-8)

A line of the form ax + by + c = 0 is given in the applet .You can change the value of a,b
and c using input box .

(a) Match the following

A B
i) a=0 b=4 c=3 1)x intercept 3,y intercept 4
ii) a=3 b=0 c=3 2)passes through origin
iii) a=5 b=2 c=0 3)parallel to X axis
iv) a=4 b=3 c=12 4)parallel to Y axis

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(b) Give proper values for a,b and c so that slope of the line becomes
1
(i) (ii)−3
2
(Check it with slope tool )

38. Use Applet (LAB-9)

Using the slider you can change the angle β made by the plane with the axis of the cone.

(a) Find the values of β for which the following curves are obtained as the intersection of
the plane with the cone (4)
Curve β
Circle
Parabola
Ellipse
Hyperbola
(b) Find the semi vertical angle of the cone. (1)
(c) Find the value of β for which the curve of intersection becomes a pair of intersecting
straight lines (1)

39. Using the Hyperbola Tool draw the following hyperbola (LAB-11)

(a) Foci (±2, 0) ,passing through (2, 3). (1)

(b) Foci (0, ±3) ,length of transverse axis is 4. (2)
(c) Foci (±5, 0) length of conjugate axis 6 . (3)

40. Give the Applet Named Octant 3.ggb in the manual activity 12.4 (LAB-12)

(a) By adjusting sliders ,make co-ordinates of A as (3, 2, −2) and that of B as (3, 2, −2)
(b) Name the co-ordinate plane divides the line segment AB internally. What is that ratio?
(c) Adjust the co-ordinates of B by adjusting the sliders so that the line segment AB is
divided by the Y Z plane internally
(d) Keeping the co-ordinates of A as (3, 2, 4), adjust the co-ordinates of B,so that origin
becomes the mid point of AB

41. Use Applet Q13.1 (LAB-13)

Three functions are given. You can select one by one using the buttons provided. Find their
limit at a, if it exists, otherwise write the reason for non existence. Write the left and right
limits in each case. (If you want you can change the increment of the slider h using the input
box).

Function a Left limit Right limit Limit

Function 1
Function 2
Function 3

42. Use Applet Q14.1 (LAB-14)

Three functions are given. You can select them one by one using the buttons. Find the
derivative of each function at a (given) if it exists. If it does not exist, write the reason. In
each case write the left derivative and the right derivative.

Function a Left derivative Right derivative Derivative at a

Function 1
Function 2
Function 3

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43. Using the applet Q15.1, answer the following (LAB-15)

(a) f (x) = x2 − 4x and the tangent to any point on the curve.(By moving the slider, you
can move the point as well as the tangent.)

Fill up the following table by moving the slider (4)

f (x) Value of a Slope of the tangent at a f 0 (a) f 0 (x)

f (x) = x2 − 4x
4
2.5
2
1.2
0
-0.5
Using the table, mark the points (a, f 0 (a)) in the geogebra window. Draw the straight
line joining these points. Write the function represented by the above graph.
(b) Here, the value of slider a,we used is between -5 and 5.Fill up the following table. (2)

Value of a is Sign of f 0 (a)

in [−5, 2]
in [2, 5]
at 2

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Appendix E

Geogebra Basic Tools

E.1 Arrangement of Tools

In GeoGebra construction tools are arranged in 12 sets as shown in Figure E.1. All the tools in
each set is obtained by clicking on the small arrow at the bottom right corner of each icon as shown
in Figure E.2. Keeping the cursor on the tool, a brief description of the function of the tool is
displayed.

Figure E.1: Sets of Tools

Figure E.2: Sets of Tools

E.2 Movement Tools

This tool is used for moving Points, Geometrical figures, Graphs etc.

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E.3 Point Tools

A
Create a new point
A
Point on Object - You can create points on other geometrical objects. The point can be
moved on the object, but cannot be taken out of the object.

We can attach a point to an object by clicking on the point and the object. To detach a
point from an object, click on the point with the tool.

This tool is used to mark the point of intersection of curves or Geometrical figures.

This tool helps in locating midpoint of a line segment or any two points.

Z
This tool helps in representing a given point in a complex number form.

E.4 Line Tools

A line through two points

A segment between two points

a
Click on the Graphics view after selecting the tool will bring up a popup where length
of the segment can be entered.

To draw a ray starting from the first point and directed through the second point

Click on multiple points, the last point being on the initial point results in a figure called
polyline.

First click on the Graphics view with Vector tool active, would be a starting point of a
vector. Second click would be the end point of the vector.

Create a vector and a point first. Now click on the point and vector in the sequence creates
another vector having same magnitude and direction as the earlier vector through the
point initially constructed.

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E.5 Special Line tools

This tool allows us to draw a line perpendicular to a given line and passing through a
given point.

Parallel line to a given line through a point.

After selecting the tool click on a line segment to get a perpendicular segment to the
given line.

After activating this tool select the three vertices such that the vertex where angle is
formed is in the middle. An angle bisector will be drawn.

Selecting a point A and the graph of a function gives all tangents through A to the
function.

E.6 Polygon Tools

Successive clicks when the Polygon tool is active results in a polygon. The last click
should be on the first point to close the polygon.

The first two clicks would decide the length of the side of a regular polygon. A pop-up
window appears. Number of sides in the desired regular polygon need to be entered.

Identical to the Polygon tool except that the polygon formed is rigid.

This tool generates a polygon with sliders for positioning the vertices.

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E.7 Circle and Arc Tools

First click on the Graphics view with Circle with Center through Point tool active
would be a center of the circle. Second click would be a point on the circle.

Identical to the first one except that the radius need to be entered numerically in a
pop-up window.

This tool is useful in duplicating a circle. After activating Compass tool, select the circle
to be duplicated. Click a point where the center of the duplicate circle is expected to be
located.

Three clicks on the Graphics view when the Circle through Three Points active
would result in a circle through the points identified through the clicks.

Two clicks on the Graphics view when the Semicircle through 2 Points active would
result in a semicircle.

When Circular Arc tool is active, three clicks on the Graphics view results in a circular
arc. First click defines the center of the arc, second an end point, and third the length
of the arc.

Three clicks define a circumcircular arc with all the three points on the arc.

When Circular Sector tool is active, three click on the Graphics view results in a
circular sector. First click defines the center of the sector, second an end point, and third
the length of the sector.

Three clicks define a circumcircular sector with all the three points on the sector.

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E.8 Conic section Tools

Three clicks on the Graphics view when Ellipse tool is active results in an ellipse. The
first two clicks would be the foci of the ellipse. The third click would define the ellipse.

Three clicks on the Graphics view when Hyperbola tool is active results in a hyperbola.
The first two clicks would be the foci of the hyperbola. The third click would define the
hyperbola.

Draw a point and a line. With Parabola tool active, click on the point and the line
makes them focus and directrix resulting in a parabola.

Five successive clicks on the Graphics view defines a conic through the five points. The
location of the fifth point would define the nature of the conic section.

E.9 Measurement Tools

α
This tool helps in measuring the angles. Following are the list of angles measurement
situations using Angle Tool: Three sequential clicks on the end points of the intersecting
line segments with the second click being the vertex where angle is formed. Click on two
segments to measure the angle between them. Click on two lines to measure the angle
between them. Click on two vectors to measure the angle between them. Click on a
polygon to measure all angles of the polygon.

α
This tool is useful in creating an angle of desired size. For example, in order to create
angle ABC with B = 400, first draw line segment AB, then using Angle with given Size
tool, click on A and B successively and enter 400 in the appearing dialogue box.

cm
This tool gives the distance between two points, distance of a point from a line, length
of a line segment, perimeter of polygon, circumference of a circle/ellipse.

cm2
Click on the polygon/circle/ellipse when the Area tool activated would result in area
display.

Click on a line/line segment results in display of the slope when Slope tool is active.

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E.10 Transformational Tools

This tool gives a reflection of an object about a line. Activate Reflect about Line then
click on the object to be reflected and the line about which the object to be reflected.

This tool is useful to get the reflection of an object about a point. Click on the object
and the point results in the reflection.

This tool gives the reflection of an object about a circle - click on the object and the
circle.

α
This tool helps in rotating an object around a point at a desired angle of rotation. Select
the object. Click on a point to specify the center of rotation and then enter the rotation
angle into the text field of the appearing dialogue window.

Select the object that we want to translate. Then click on a vector or two points. The
object will be translated by the magnitude of the vector in its direction.

k
This tool allows us to enlarge/reduce an object by a given factor. Select the object to be
dilated. Then, click on a point to specify the dilation center and enter a number (dilation
factor) into the text field of the appearing dialogue window. If the number is greater
than 1, object will be enlarged. If the number is less than 1 the object will be reduced.

E.11 Special Object Tools

ABC
This tool is useful in creating static and dynamic text in the Graphics View. Activate
the Text tool. Click on a point to create a new text that is attached to this point. Type
the text in the dialogue box.

This tool is used to insert an image. Click in the Graphics View, when the Image tool is
active, to specify the position of the image’s lower left corner. Then, a file-open dialogue
appears that allows us to select the image from the files saved in the computer.

The Pen Tool allows us to add freehand notes and drawings to the Graphics View. This
makes the Pen Tool useful when using GeoGebra for presentations. To erase a portion of
the drawing press and hold the right mouse button and move the cursor to the portion
of the drawing one need to erase.

?
a=b
The relation function helps us know a general relationship between two objects. For
example, draw two parallel line segments and use Relation tool. The two relation between
them as parallel line segments is displayed.

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E.12 Action Object Tools

a=2
Slider, can be considered as a variable, which takes any value between two numbers. To
create a slider, select the Slider tool and click on the Graphics view. There are three
options with in it – Number, Angle, and Integer.

Check box is used to hide/view the objects that are constructed.

E.13 General Tools

Used to move the Graphics view. Click, hold and drag the drawing pad in the Graphics
View to change its visible area.

Click on any place on the drawing pad to zoom in.

Click on any place on the drawing pad to zoom out.

If we click on any object with the tool, it will be hidden from the Graphics view when
we select any other tool. To see the object again, select the tool.

AA
Click on an object to show or hide its label.

This tool allows us to copy visual properties (e. g., color, size, line style) from one object
others. To do so, first select the object whose properties we want to copy. Then, click
on all other objects that should adopt these properties.

Click on any object that we want to delete. Note: We can use the Undo button if we
accidentally delete the wrong object.

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E.14 Additional Tools for 3D Graphics

We can construct circles with given axis and passing through a given point - with the
tool active, select a line and a point.

We can construct circles with given centre, radius and perpendicular to a given direction
with the tool active select the centre and a vector/two points.

With the tool active, select two objects (for example two spheres) to produce the curve
of intersection.

With the tool active, select three points to construct the plane passing through them.

Creates a plane through 3point/through a point and a line/contains two intersecting

lines/contains a polygon.

Creates a plane passing through a given point and perpendicular to a given line or vector.

Creates a plane which is parallel to a given plane and passing through a given point.

Creates prism/parallelepiped with given base and top. To construct a prism select a
polygon for its bottom and the first point on its top.

Creates a sphere with given centre and passing through a given point.

Creates a sphere with given centre and radius.

Click and drag the 3D graphics view to rotate it.

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Creates Pyramids with given base and vertex by selecting the base polygon and the
vertex.

Using this tool we can create pyramid or cone with given base and height – for this select
the base and enter the height.

Creates a Prism or Cylinder with given base and height

Creates a cone with given vertex and base radius – choose the centre of the base then
the vertex and enter the base radius.

Choose the centre of top and bottom circles and enter radius to make a cylinder.

With the tool active, select two points to create a regular tetrahedron with the selected
points as two vertices.

With the tool active, select two points to create a cube with the selected points as two
end points of an edge.

With the help of this tool we can create net of polyhedrons (pyramid, prism etc.). With
the tool active, click on a polyhedron to create its net. A slider will appear on the
graphics view, with the help of which we can open or fold the net.

Shows volume of a solid.

Creates the reflection of an object on a plane.

With this tool we can rotate an object about a line by an angle – for this click on the
object, line and enter angle of rotation.

To change the view in front of object clicked

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Appendix F

Geogebra Commands

F.1 Using Commands

All tools can be used in the command mode also. The commands are to be entered in the input
box. While using commands, you need to be very careful while using the brackets. The right form
of bracket is very crucial to get the expected result.

F.2 Point Commands

A=(0,0) Creates a new point A with coordinates (0, 0)

Point(<Object>) Point on Object - If you have a circle whose name is c, then
Point(c) will create a point on the circle c. If the newly
created point should have a name of your choice, say B,
then B=Point(c) will create a point whose name is B and
the point B will be on the object c
Intersect(<Object>,<Object>) Intersect two objects - This command is used to find the
intersection of two objects. For example if we have two
intersecting circles c and d, then Intersect(c,d) will give
the two points of intersection.
Center(<Object>) Center Command - Using this command creates the center
of an object.

F.3 Line Commands

Line(<Point>,<Point>) Line Command - Line(A,B) Creates a line including the

points A and B.
Segment(<Point>,<Point>) Segment Command - Segment(A,B) Creates a segment that
starts from the point A and ends in the point B.
Segment(<Point>,<Length>) Segment Command - Segment(A,5) creates a segment from
the point A with length 5.
Ray(<Point>,<Point>) Ray Command - Ray(A,B) creates a ray with A as starting
point which passes through the point B
Polyline(<Point>,...<Point>) Create a polyline that includes a number of points
Vector(<Point>,<Point>) The Vector Command - The command Vector(A,B) cre-
ates a vector starting from A and ending in B.
Vector(<Point>) The Vector Command - The command Vector(A) creates
a vector from the origin to the point A.

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F.4 Special Line Commands

PerpendicularLine(<Point>,<Line>) Perpendicular Line Command - The command

PerpendicularLine(A,l) creates a perpendicu-
lar line from the point A to the line l. This com-
mand will work even if l is a segment.
Line(<Point>,<ParallelLine>) Parallel Line Command - The command
Line(A,l) will create a line parallel to the line l
passing through the point A.
PerpendicularBisector(<Segment>) Perpendicular Bisector Command - The com-
mand PerpendicularBisector(l) will creates a
line which is a perpendicular bisector to the seg-
ment l.
AngleBisector(<Line>,<Line>) The Angle Bisector Command - The command
AngleBisector(m,n) will create angle bisector
to the line m and n. Please note that two bi-
sectors will be formed through this command.
If we want only one bisector then the format
AngleBisector(B,A,C) will create an angle bi-
sector to the angle formed by joining the points
A, B and C.
Tangent(<Point>,<Conic>) The Tangent Command - If c is a circel, the com-
mand Tangent(A,c) creates tangents from the
point A to the circel c. c can be a function also.

F.5 Polygon Commands

Polygon(<Point>,...,<Point>) Polygon Command - The command

Polygon(A,B,C,D,A) creates a polygon
(quadilateral) starting from A and end-
ing in A, passing through the points
B, C and D. The starting point and
the ending point should be the same.
For creating an n sided polygon, there
should be n + 1 points.
Polygon(<Point>,<Point>,<Number of Vertices>) Regular Polygon Command - The com-
mand Polygon(A,B,5) creates a pen-
tagon with the points A and B as the
end points of one side.
RigidPolygon(<Polygon>) Rigid Polygon Command - The com-
mand RigidPolygon(p) will make a
rigid copy of the polygon p which is not
a rigid polygon.

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F.6 Circle and Arc Commands

Circle(<Point>,<Point>) Circle Command - The entry of

Circle(A,B) creates a circle with cen-
ter A passing through the point B.
Circle(<Point>,<Radius>) Circle Command - The entry of
Circle(A,5) creates a circle with cen-
ter A having a radius of 5 units.
Circle(<Point>,<Point>,<Point>) Circle Command - The entry of
Circle(A,B,C) creates a circle passing
through the points A, B and C.
SemiCircle(<Point>,<Point>) Semi Circle Command - The entry
of Circle(A,B) creates a semi circle
through two points A and B where the
length AB is the diameter.
CircularArc(<Mid Point>,<Point>,<Point>) Circular Arc Command - The entry of
CircularArc(A,B,C) creates a circular
arc whose center is at A and the end
points are B and C.
CircularSector(<Mid Point>,<Point>,<Point>) Circular Arc Command - The entry of
CircularSector(A,B,C) creates a cir-
cular arc whose center is at A and the
end points are B and C.

F.7 Conic section Commands

Ellipse(<Focus>,<Focus>,<SemiMajor>) Ellipse Command - The entry of Ellipse(A,B,5)

will draw an ellipse whose focus points are A and
B with a semi major axis of 5
Ellipse(<Focus>,<Focus>,<Segment>) Ellipse Command - The entry of Ellipse(A,B,m)
will draw an ellipse whose focus points are A and
B with a semi major axis of length same as the
length of the segment m
Ellipse(<Focus>,<Focus>,<Point>) Ellipse Command - The entry of Ellipse(A,B,C)
will draw an ellipse whose focus points are A and
B passing through the point C.
Parabola(<Point>,<Line>) Parabola Command - The entry of
Parabola(A,m) will give a parabola whose
focus is the point A and the directrix is the line
m.
Hyperbola(<Focus>,<Focus>,<SemiMajor>) Hyperbola Command - The entry of
Hyperbola(A,B,5) will draw a hyperbola
whose focus points are A and B with a semi
major axis of 5
Hyperbola(<Focus>,<Focus>,<Segment>) Hyperbola Command - The entry of
Hyperbola(A,B,m) will draw a hyperbola
whose focus points are A and B with a semi
major axis of length same as the length of the
segment m
Hyperbola(<Focus>,<Focus>,<Point>) Hyperbola Command - The entry of
Hyperbola(A,B,C) will draw a hyperbola
whose focus points are A and B passing through
the point C.

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F.8 Measurement Commands

Angle(<Vector>) Angle Command - The use of Angle(v) will give the angle
between the vector v and the x axis.
Angle(<Vector>,<Vector>) Angle Command - The use of Angle(u,v) will give the
angle between the vectors u and v.
Angle(<Line>,<Line>) Angle Command - The use of Angle(m,n) will give the
angle between the lines m and n.
Angle(<Line>,<Plane>) Angle Command - The use of Angle(m,p) will give the
angle between the line m and plane p.
Angle(<Plane>,<Plane>) Angle Command - The use of Angle(p,q) will give the
angle between the planes p and q.
Angle(<Point>,<Apex>,<Point>) Angle Command - The use of Angle(A,B,C) will give the
value of angle ∠ABC
Distance(<Point>,<Line>) Distance Command - The use of Distance(A,m) will give
the distance between the point A and the line m.
Distance(<Line>,<Line>) Distance Command - The use of Distance(m,n) will give
the distance between the lines m and n.
Distance(<Plane>,<Plane>) Distance Command - The use of Distance(p,q) will give
the distance between the planes p and q.
Area(<Polygon>) Area Command - The use of Area(p) will give the area of
the polygon p.
Slope(<Line>) Slope Command - The use of Slope(m) will give the slope
of the line m.

F.9 Transformational Commands

Reflect(<Object>,<Point>) Reflect Command - The use of Reflect(p,A) reflects

the object p through the point A.
Reflect(<Object>,<Line>) Reflect Command - The use of Reflect(p,m) reflects
the object p about the line m.
Reflect(<Object>,<Circle>) Reflect Command - The use of Reflect(p,c) inverts
the object p with respect to the circle c.
Reflect(<Object>,<Plane>) Reflect Command - The use of Reflect(p,q) reflects
the object p about the plane q.
Rotate(<Object>,<Angle>) Rotate Command - The use of Rotate(p,a) will rotate
the object p by an angle a.
Rotate(<Object>,<Angle>,<Point>) Rotate Command - The use of Rotate(p,a,A) will
rotate the object p by an angle a around the point A.
Rotate(<Object>,<Angle>,<Axis>) Rotate Command - The use of Rotate(p,a,m) will
rotate the object p by an angle a around the axis of
rotation m.
Translate(<Object>,<Vector>) Translate Command - The use of Translate(p,v)
translates the object, say polygon p by the vector v.
Translate(<Vector>,<Point>) Translate Command - The use of Translate(v,A)
translates the vector v to the start point A.
Dilate(<Object>,<Factor>) Dilate Command - The use of Dilate(p,2) enlarges
the object p by a factor 2. Use of a number less than
1 will shrink the object.

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F.10 3D Commands

Pyramid(<Polygon>,<Point>) Pyramid Command - The use of Pyramid(p,A) creates

the pyramid by using the polygon p as the base and
the point A as the vertex.
Pyramid(<Polygon>,<Height>) Pyramid Command - The use of Pyramid(p,3) creates
the pyramid by using the polygon p as the base and
height 3.
Prism(<Polygon>,<Point>) Prism Command - The use of Prism(p,A) creates the
prism by using the polygon p as the base and the point
A as the vertex.
Prism(<Polygon>,<Height>) Prism Command - The use of Prism(p,3) creates the
prism by using the polygon p as the base and height
3.
Cone(<Circle>,<Height>) Cone Command - The use of Cone(c,3) will create a
cone with base as the circle c and height 3.
Cone(<Center>,<Vertex>,<Radius>) Cone Command - The use of Cone(A,B,5) will create
a cone with base as the circle with center A and radius
5 and the vertex is the point B.
Cylinder(<Circle>,<Height>) Cylinder Command - The use of Cylinder(c,3) will
create a cylinder with base as the circle c and height
3.
Cylinder(<Center>,<Vertex>,<Radius>) Cylinder Command - The use of Cylinder(A,B,5)
will create a cylinder with bottom center A and top
center B with radius 5.
Cube(<Square>) Cube Command - The use of Cube(s) will create a
cube with the square s.
Cube(<Point>,<Point>,<Point>) Cube Command - The use of Cube(A,B,C) will create
a cube with vertices A, B and C.
Sphere(<Center>,<Radius>) Sphere Command - The use of Sphere(A,5) will create
a sphere with center A and radius 5.
Sphere(<Point>,<Point>) Sphere Command - The use of Sphere(A,B) will create
a sphere with center A and passing through the point
B.

IT Maths Laboratory Manual

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