UNIT 1 : Introduction to computer networks; Network Models-

OSI Reference Model, TCP/IP Model;

Additional Material : Protocols

What is Computer Networking?

A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems
that are linked together. A network connection can be established
using either cable or wireless media. Hardware and software are used
to connect computers and tools in any network.
A computer network consists of various kinds of nodes. Servers,
networking hardware, personal computers, and other specialized or
general-purpose hosts can all be nodes in a computer network. Host
names and network addresses are used to identify them.

How Does a Computer Network Work?

Computer Networks simply work using nodes and links. Data
communication equipment is simply termed as Nodes. For example,
Modems, Hubs, Switches, etc. whereas links in Computer networks can
be referred to as a connection between two nodes. We have several
types of links like cable wires, optical fibers, etc.
Whenever a Computer Network is working, nodes have the work of
sending and receiving data via the links. Computer Network provides
some set of protocols that helps in following the rules and protocols.

What Do Computer Networks Do?

Computer Networks are one of the important aspects of Computer
Science. In the early days, it is used for data transmission on telephone
lines and had a very limited use, but nowadays, it is used in a variety of
places.
Computer Networks help in providing better connectivity that helps
nowadays. Modern computer networks have the following functionality
like
1. Computer Networks help in operating virtually.
2. Computer Networks integrate on a large scale.
3. Computer Networks respond very quickly in case of conditions
change.
4. Computer Networks help in providing data security.

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Criteria of a Good Network
1. Performance: It can be measured in many ways, including
transmit time and response time. Transit time is the amount of
time required for a message to travel from one device to
another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry
and a response. The performance of the network depends on a
number of factors, including the number of users, the type of
medium & Hardware
2. Reliability: In addition to accuracy is measured by frequency
of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from failure, and
the network’s robustness in catastrophe.
3. Security: Network security issues include protecting data from
unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and
development, and implementing policies and procedures for
recovery from breaches and data loss.

Goals of Computer Networking

 Programs do not have to execute on a single system because of
resource and load sharing.
 Reduced costs – Multiple machines can share printers, tape
drives, and other peripherals.
 Reliability – If one machine fails, another can take its place.
 Scalability (it’s simple to add more processors or computers)
 Communication and mail (people living apart can work
together)
 Information Access (remote information access, access to the
internet, e-mail, video conferencing, and online shopping)
 Entertainment that is interactive (online games, videos, etc.)
 Social Networking

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What Is the OSI Model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven layers that
computer systems use to communicate over a network. It was the first
standard model for network communications, adopted by all major
computer and telecommunication companies in the early 1980s

The modern Internet is not based on OSI, but on the simpler TCP/IP model.
However, the OSI 7-layer model is still widely used, as it helps visualize
and communicate how networks operate, and helps isolate and
troubleshoot networking problems.

OSI was introduced in 1983 by representatives of the major computer and

telecom companies, and was adopted by ISO as an international standard
in 1984.

OSI Model Explained: The OSI 7 Layers

We’ll describe OSI layers “top down” from the application layer that
directly serves the end user, down to the physical layer.

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7. Application Layer

The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers

and email clients. It provides protocols that allow software to send and
receive information and present meaningful data to users. A few examples
of application layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP),
File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name System (DNS).

Devices : Gateway
Protocol : FTP , HTTP , SMTP , SNMP , TELNET , TFTP , DNS , DHCP , NFS ,
LDP , XWINDOW

6. Presentation Layer

The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It defines
how two devices should encode, encrypt, and compress data so it is
received correctly on the other end. The presentation layer takes any data
transmitted by the application layer and prepares it for transmission over
the session layer.

Devices : Gateway
Protocol : SSL , MIME , TLC .

5. Session Layer

The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions,

between devices. It is responsible for opening sessions, ensuring they
remain open and functional while data is being transferred, and closing
them when communication ends. The session layer can also set
checkpoints during a data transfer—if the session is interrupted, devices
can resume data transfer from the last checkpoint.

Devices : Gateway
Protocol : Net BIOS , RPC , PPTP .

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4. Transport Layer

The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer and breaks
it into “segments” on the transmitting end. It is responsible for
reassembling the segments on the receiving end, turning it back into data
that can be used by the session layer. The transport layer carries out flow
control, sending data at a rate that matches the connection speed of the
receiving device, and error control, checking if data was received
incorrectly and if not, requesting it again.

Devices : Gateway
Protocol : TCP , UDP .

3. Network Layer

The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments
into network packets, and reassembling the packets on the receiving end.
The other is routing packets by discovering the best path across a physical
network. The network layer uses network addresses (typically Internet
Protocol addresses) to route packets to a destination node.

Devices : Router , Switch .

Protocol :APR , RARP , JCMP , IGMP .

2. Data Link Layer

The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection between two
physically-connected nodes on a network. It breaks up packets into frames
and sends them from source to destination. This layer is composed of two
parts—Logical Link Control (LLC), which identifies network protocols,
performs error checking and synchronizes frames, and Media Access
Control (MAC) which uses MAC addresses to connect devices and define
permissions to transmit and receive data.

Devices : Switch , Bridge , NIC , Router .

Protocol : Point to Point Protocol (PPP) , SDLC protocol , HDLC protocol ,

LCP , NCP.

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1. Physical Layer

The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless

connection between network nodes. It defines the connector, the electrical
cable or wireless technology connecting the devices, and is responsible for
transmission of the raw data, which is simply a series of 0s and 1s, while
taking care of bit rate control.

Devices : hub , switch , cable , computer , ethernet cable , RJ45 connector.

Protocols : Wired Cables – 1. Twisted pair cable

2. Fibre Optic cable

: Hub , Repeater ,10 Base T cable , IEEE 802.11

Advantages of OSI Model :

The OSI model helps users and operators of computer networks:

 Determine the required hardware and software to build their network.

 Understand and communicate the process followed by components
communicating across a network.
 Perform troubleshooting, by identifying which network layer is causing
an issue and focusing efforts on that layer.

The OSI model helps network device manufacturers and

networking software vendors:

 Create devices and software that can communicate with products

from any other vendor, allowing open interoperability
 Define which parts of the network their products should work with.
 Communicate to users at which network layers their product operates
– for example, only at the application layer, or across the stack.

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OSI vs. TCP/IP Model

The Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is older than the

OSI model and was created by the US Department of Defense (DoD). A key
difference between the models is that TCP/IP is simpler, collapsing several
OSI layers into one:

 OSI layers 5, 6, 7 are combined into one Application Layer in TCP/IP

 OSI layers 1, 2 are combined into one Network Access Layer in TCP/IP
– however TCP/IP does not take responsibility for sequencing and
acknowledgement functions, leaving these to the underlying
transport layer.

Other important differences:

 TCP/IP is a functional model designed to solve specific communication

problems, and which is based on specific, standard protocols. OSI is a
generic, protocol-independent model intended to describe all forms of
network communication.
 In TCP/IP, most applications use all the layers, while in OSI simple
applications do not use all seven layers. Only layers 1, 2 and 3 are
mandatory to enable any data communication.

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What Does TCP/IP Do?
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one
device to another. The main condition of this process is to make data
reliable and accurate so that the receiver will receive the same
information which is sent by the sender. To ensure that, each message
reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data
into packets and combines them at the other end, which helps in
maintaining the accuracy of the data while transferring from one end to
another end.

What is the Difference between TCP and IP?

TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer Networks. The basic

difference between TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet
Protocol) is in the transmission of data. In simple words, IP finds the
destination of the mail and TCP has the work to send and receive the
mail. UDP is another protocol, which does not require IP to communicate
with another computer. IP is required by only TCP. This is the basic
difference between TCP and IP.

How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?

Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP
Model, the TCP/IP Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end
and the same packets have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to
form the same data, and this thing happens to maintain the accuracy of
the data. TCP/IP model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where
the data first go into this layer in one order and again in reverse order to
get organized in the same way at the receiver’s end.

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Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model
TCP/IP OSI

TCP refers to Transmission Control OSI refers to Open Systems

Protocol. Interconnection.

TCP/IP uses both the session and

OSI uses different session and
presentation layer in the application
presentation layers.
layer itself.

TCP/IP follows connectionless a

OSI follows a vertical approach.
horizontal approach.

In the OSI model, the transport

The Transport layer in TCP/IP does not
layer provides assurance delivery of
provide assurance delivery of packets.
packets.

While in the OSI model, Protocols

Protocols cannot be replaced easily in
are better covered and are easy to
TCP/IP model.
replace with the technology change.

TCP/IP model network layer only

Connectionless and connection-
provides connectionless (IP) services.
oriented services are provided by
The transport layer (TCP) provides
the network layer in the OSI model.
connections.

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What is Network Protocol?
A network protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication
between different devices in the network. It determines what is being
communicated, how it is being communicated, and when it is being
communicated. It permits connected devices to communicate with each
other, irrespective of internal and structural differences.

How do Network Protocols Work?

It is essential to understand how devices communicate over a network by
recognizing network protocols. The Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI), the most widely used model, illustrates how computer systems
interact with one another over a network. The communication mechanism
between two network devices is shown by seven different layers in the
OSI model. Every layer in the OSI model works based on different network
protocols. At every layer, one or more protocols are there for network
communication. To enable network-to-network connections, the Internet
Protocol (IP), for instance, routes data by controlling information like the
source and destination addresses of data packets. It is known as a
network layer protocol.

Types of Network Protocols

In most cases, communication across a network like the Internet uses
the OSI model. The OSI model has a total of seven layers. Secured
connections, network management, and network communication are the
three main tasks that the network protocol performs. The purpose of
protocols is to link different devices.
The protocols can be broadly classified into three major categories:
1. Network Communication
2. Network Management
3. Network Security

1. Network Communication
Communication protocols are really important for the functioning of a
network. They are so crucial that it is not possible to have computer
networks without them. These protocols formally set out the rules and
formats through which data is transferred. These protocols handle syntax,
semantics, error detection, synchronization, and authentication. Below
mentioned are some network communication protocol:

Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP)

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It is a layer 7 protocol that is designed for transferring a hypertext
between two or more systems. HTTP works on a client-server model, most
of the data sharing over the web is done through using HTTP.

Transmission Control Protocol(TCP)

TCP layouts a reliable stream delivery by using sequenced
acknowledgment. It is a connection-oriented protocol i.e., it establishes a
connection between applications before sending any data. It is used for
communicating over a network. It has many applications such
as emails, FTP, streaming media, etc.

User Datagram Protocol(UDP)

It is a connectionless protocol that lay-out a basic but unreliable message
service. It adds no flow control, reliability, or error-
recovery functions. UPD is functional in cases where reliability is not
required. It is used when we want faster transmission, for multicasting
and broadcasting connections, etc.

Border Gateway Protocol(BGP)

BGP is a routing protocol that controls how packets pass through the
router in an independent system one or more networks run by a single
organization and connect to different networks. It connects the endpoints
of a LAN with other LANs and it also connects endpoints in different LANs
to one another.

Address Resolution Protocol(ARP)

ARP is a protocol that helps in mapping logical addresses to the physical
addresses acknowledged in a local network. For mapping and maintaining
a correlation between these logical and physical addresses a table known
as ARP cache is used.

Internet Protocol(IP)
It is a protocol through which data is sent from one host to another over
the internet. It is used for addressing and routing data packets so that
they can reach their destination.

Dynamic Host Configration Protocol(DHCP)

it’s a protocol for network management and it’s used for the method of
automating the process of configuring devices on IP networks.
A DHCP server automatically assigns an IP address and various other
configurational changes to devices on a network so they can
communicate with other IP networks. it also allows devices to use various
services such as NTP, DNS, or any other protocol based on TCP or UDP.
2. Network Management
These protocols assist in describing the procedures and policies that are
used in monitoring, maintaining, and managing the computer network.

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These protocols also help in communicating these requirements across
the network to ensure stable communication. Network management
protocols can also be used for troubleshooting connections between a
host and a client.

Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP)

It is a layer 3 protocol that is used by network devices to forward
operational information and error messages. ICMP is used for reporting
congestions, network errors, diagnostic purposes, and timeouts.

Simple Network Management Protocol(SNMP)

It is a layer 7 protocol that is used for managing nodes on an IP network.
There are three main components in the SNMP protocol i.e., SNMP agent,
SNMP manager, and managed device. SNMP agent has the local
knowledge of management details, it translates those details into a form
that is compatible with the SNMP manager. The manager presents data
acquired from SNMP agents, thus helping in monitoring network glitches,
and network performance, and troubleshooting them.

Gopher
It is a type of file retrieval protocol that provides downloadable files with
some description for easy management, retrieving, and searching of files.
All the files are arranged on a remote computer in a stratified manner.
Gopher is an old protocol and it is not much used nowadays.

File Transfer Protocol(FTP)

FTP is a Client/server protocol that is used for moving files to or from a
host computer, it allows users to download files, programs, web pages,
and other things that are available on other services.

Post Office Protocol(POP3)

It is a protocol that a local mail client uses to get email messages from a
remote email server over a TCP/IP connection. Email servers hosted by
ISPs also use the POP3 protocol to hold and receive emails intended for
their users. Eventually, these users will use email client software to look
at their mailbox on the remote server and to download their emails. After
the email client downloads the emails, they are generally deleted from
the servers.

Telnet
It is a protocol that allows the user to connect to a remote computer
program and to use it i.e., it is designed for remote
connectivity. Telnet creates a connection between a host machine and a
remote endpoint to enable a remote session.

3. Network Security

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These protocols secure the data in passage over a network. These
protocols also determine how the network secures data from any
unauthorized attempts to extract or review data. These protocols make
sure that no unauthorized devices, users, or services can access the
network data. Primarily, these protocols depend on encryption to secure
data.

Secure Soket Layer(SSL)

It is a network security protocol mainly used for protecting sensitive data
and securing internet connections. SSL allows both server-to-server and
client-to-server communication. All the data transferred through SSL is
encrypted thus stopping any unauthorized person from accessing it.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTPS)

It is the secured version of HTTP. this protocol ensures secure
communication between two computers where one sends the request
through the browser and the other fetches the data from the web server.

Transport Layer Security(TLS)

It is a security protocol designed for data security and privacy over the
internet, its functionality is encryption, checking the integrity of data i.e.,
whether it has been tampered with or not, and authentication. It is
generally used for encrypted communication between servers and web
apps, like a web browser loading a website, it can also be used for
encryption of messages, emails, and VoIP.

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