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Contents
1 Fundamental Concepts 19
chapter Objectives 19
1.1 Introduction 19
1.2 Characteristics of Matter 21
1.3 The International System of Units 22
1.4 Calculations 25
1.5 Problem Solving 27
1.6 Some Basic Fluid Properties 29
1.7 Viscosity 34
1.8 Viscosity Measurement 39
1.9 Vapor Pressure 43
1.10 Surface Tension and Capillarity 44
Chapter Objectives 61
2.1 Pressure 61
2.2 Absolute and Gage Pressure 64
2.3 Static Pressure Variation 66
2.4 Pressure Variation for Incompressible
Fluids 67
2.5 Pressure Variation for Compressible Fluids 69
2.6 Measurement of Static Pressure 72
2.7 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface—
Formula Method 80
2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface—
Geometrical Method 86
2.9 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface—
Integration Method 91
2.10 Hydrostatic Force on an Inclined Plane or
Curved Surface Determined by Projection 94
2.11 Buoyancy 101
2.12 Stability 104
2.13 Constant Translational Acceleration of
a Liquid 107
2.14 Steady Rotation of a Liquid 112
2
Fluid Statics 61
Chapter Objectives 189
4.1 Volumetric Flow, Mass Flow, and Average
Velocity 189
4.2 Finite Control Volumes 194
4.3 The Reynolds Transport Theorem 196
4.4 Conservation of Mass 200
4
Conservation of
Mass 189
Chapter Objectives 153
3.1 Types of Fluid Flow 153
3.2 Graphical Descriptions of Fluid Flow 157
3.3 Fluid Flow Descriptions 161
3.4 Fluid Acceleration 168
3.5 Streamline Coordinates 175
3
Kinematics
of Fluid Motion 153
CONTENTS
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Chapter Objectives 359
7.1 Differential Analysis 359
7.2 Kinematics of Differential Fluid
Elements 360
7.3 Circulation and Vorticity 364
7.4 Conservation of Mass 369
7.5 Equations of Motion for a Fluid
Particle 371
7.6 The Euler and Bernoulli Equations 373
7.7 Potential Flow Hydrodynamics 377
7.8 The Stream Function 377
7.9 The Potential Function 383
7.10 Basic Two-Dimensional Flows 387
7.11 Superposition of Flows 396
7.12 The Navier–Stokes Equations 409
7.13 Computational Fluid Dynamics 414
7
Differential Fluid
Flow 359
Chapter Objectives 435
8.1 Dimensional Analysis 435
8.2 Important Dimensionless Numbers 438
8.3 The Buckingham Pi Theorem 441
8.4 Some General Considerations
Related to Dimensional Analysis 450
8.5 Similitude 451
8
Dimensional
Analysis and
Similitude 435
Chapter Objectives 301
6.1 The Linear Momentum Equation 301
6.2 Applications to Bodies at Rest 304
6.3 Applications to Bodies Having Constant
Velocity 313
6.4 The Angular Momentum Equation 318
6.5 Propellers and Wind Turbines 326
6.6 Applications for Control Volumes Having
Accelerated Motion 331
6.7 Turbojets and Turbofans 332
6.8 Rockets 333
6
Fluid Momentum 301
Chapter Objectives 231
5.1 Euler’s Equations of Motion 231
5.2 The Bernoulli Equation 235
5.3 Applications of the Bernoulli
Equation 238
5.4 Energy and Hydraulic Grade
Lines 251
5.5 The Energy Equation 260
5
Work and Energy
of Moving Fluids 231
14 contents
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Chapter Objectives 475
9.1 Steady Laminar Flow between Parallel
Plates 475
9.2 Navier–Stokes Solution for Steady Laminar
Flow between Parallel Plates 481
9.3 Steady Laminar Flow within a Smooth
Pipe 486
9.4 Navier–Stokes Solution for Steady
Laminar Flow within a Smooth Pipe 490
9.5 The Reynolds Number 492
9.6 Fully Developed Flow from an
Entrance 497
9.7 Laminar and Turbulent Shear Stress within
a Smooth Pipe 499
9.8 Steady Turbulent Flow within a Smooth
Pipe 502
9
Viscous Flow within
Enclosed Conduits 475
Chapter Objectives 575
11.1 The Concept of the Boundary Layer 575
11.2 Laminar Boundary Layers 581
11.3 The Momentum Integral Equation 590
11.4 Turbulent Boundary Layers 594
11.5 Laminar and Turbulent Boundary
Layers 596
11.6 Drag and Lift 602
11.7 Pressure Gradient Effects 604
11.8 The Drag Coefficient 609
11.9 Drag Coefficients for Bodies Having
Various Shapes 613
11.10 Methods for Reducing Drag 620
11.11 Lift and Drag on an Airfoil 624
11
Viscous Flow over
External Surfaces 575
Chapter Objectives 655
12.1 Types of Flow in Open Channels 655
12.2 Open-Channel Flow Classifications 657
12.3 Specific Energy 658
12.4 Open-Channel Flow over a Rise or
Bump 666
12.5 Open-Channel Flow under a Sluice
Gate 670
12.6 Steady Uniform Channel Flow 674
12.7 Gradually Varied Flow 681
12.8 The Hydraulic Jump 688
12.9 Weirs 693
12
Open-Channel Flow 655
Chapter Objectives 521
10.1 Resistance to Flow in Rough Pipes 521
10.2 Losses Occurring from Pipe Fittings and
Transitions 535
10.3 Single-Pipeline Flow 541
10.4 Pipe Systems 548
10.5 Flow Measurement 554
10
Analysis and Design
for Pipe Flow 521
contents 15
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16 contents
Chapter Objectives 715
13.1 Thermodynamic Concepts 715
13.2 Wave Propagation through a
Compressible Fluid 724
13.3 Types of Compressible Flow 727
13.4 Stagnation Properties 731
13.5 Isentropic Flow through a Variable
Area 738
13.6 Isentropic Flow through Converging and
Diverging Nozzles 743
13.7 The Effect of Friction on Compressible
Flow 752
13.8 The Effect of Heat Transfer on
Compressible Flow 762
13.9 Normal Shock Waves 768
13.10 Shock Waves in Nozzles 771
13.11 Oblique Shock Waves 776
13.12 Compression and Expansion
Waves 781
13.13 Compressible Flow Measurement 786
13
Compressible Flow 715
Chapter Objectives 807
14.1 Types of
Turbomachines 807
14.2 Axial-Flow Pumps 808
14.3 Radial-Flow Pumps 815
14.4 Ideal Performance for Pumps 818
14.5 Turbines 824
14.6 Pump Performance 831
14.7 Cavitation and the Net Positive Suction
Head 834
14.8 Pump Selection Related to the Flow
System 836
14.9 Turbomachine Similitude 838
Appendix
A Physical Properties of Fluids 856
B Compressible Properties of a
Gas (k = 1.4) 859
Fundamental Solutions 870
Answers to Selected Problems 886
Index 899

Fundamentals Concepts

Fluid mechanics is a study of the behavior of a gas or

liquid that is either at rest or in motion. Because fluids
are so common, this subject has important
applications in many engineering disciplines. For
example, aeronautical and aerospace engineers use
fluid mechanics to study flight and to design
propulsion systems. Civil engineers use it to design
channels, water networks, sewer systems, and water-
resisting structures such as dams and levees. Fluid
mechanics is used by mechanical engineers to design
pumps, compressors, control systems, heating and
air conditioning equipment, wind turbines, and solar
heating devices. Chemical and petroleum engineers
apply this subject to design equipment used for
filtering, pumping, and mixing fluids. And finally,
engineers in the electronics and computer industry
use fluid mechanics principles to design switches,
screen displays, and data storage equipment. Apart
from the engineering profession, the principles of fluid
mechanics are also used in the field of biomechanics,
where they play a vital role in the understanding of the
circulatory, digestive, and respiratory systems; and in
meteorology to study the motion and effects of
tornadoes and hurricanes. 19
M01_HIBB7304_02_GE_C01.indd 19 05/11/19 5:41 PM
1 20 Chapter 1 Fundamental ConCepts Fluid
Mechanics Hydrostatics Study of uids at rest or ow
with constant velocity Kinematics Study of the
geometry of uid motion Fluid Dynamics Study of the
forces that cause accelerated motion Fig. 1–1
Branches of Fluid Mechanics. The principles of fluid
mechanics are based on Newton’s laws of motion, the
conservation of mass, the first and second laws of
thermodynamics, and laws related to the physical
properties of a fluid. The subject is divided into three
main categories, as shown in Fig. 1–1. In this book,
hydrostatics is presented in Chapter 2, kinematics is
introduced in Chapter 3, and the study of fluid
dynamics is presented throughout the rest of the
book. Historical Development. A fundamental
knowledge of the principles of fluid mechanics has
been of considerable importance throughout the
development of human civilization. Historical records
show that through the process of trial and error, early
societies, such as the Roman Empire, used fluid
mechanics in the construction of their irrigation and
water supply systems. In the middle of the 3rd century
B.C., Archimedes discovered the principle of
buoyancy, and then much later, in the 15th century,
Leonardo Da Vinci developed principles for the design
of canal locks and other devices used for water
transport. However, many important discoveries of
basic fluid mechanics principles occurred in the 17th
century. It was then that Evangelista Torricelli
designed the barometer, Blaise Pascal formulated the
law of static pressure, and Isaac Newton developed
his law of viscosity to describe the nature of fluid
resistance to flow. In the 18th century, Leonhard Euler
and Daniel Bernoulli pioneered the field of
hydrodynamics, which deals with the motion of an
idealized fluid, that is, one having a constant density
and providing no internal frictional resistance.
Unfortunately, this study has limited application since
not all physical properties of the fluid are taken into
account. The need for a more realistic approach led to
the development of hydraulics. This field uses
empirical equations found from fitting curves to data
determined from experiments, primarily for
applications involving water. In the 19th century,
contributors included Gustave de Coriolis, who
developed water turbines, and Gotthilf Hagen and
Jean Poiseuille, who studied the resistance to water
flowing through pipes. In the early 20th century,
hydrodynamics and hydraulics were essentially
combined through the work of Ludwig Prandtl, who
introduced the concept of the boundary layer while
studying aerodynamics. Through the years, many
others have also made important contributions to this
subject, and we will discuss many of these throughout
the book.* *References [1] and [2] provide a more
complete description of the historical development of
this subject. M01_HIBB7304_02_GE_C01.indd 20
05/11/19 5:41 PM 1 1.2 CharaCteristiCs oF matter 21
1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF MATTER In general, matter
can be classified by the state it is in—as a solid, a
liquid, or a gas. Solid. A solid, such as steel,
aluminum, or wood, maintains a definite shape and
volume, Fig. 1–2a. It maintains its shape because the
molecules or atoms of a solid are densely packed and
are held tightly together, generally in the form of a
lattice or geometric structure. The spacing of atoms
within this structure is due in part to large cohesive
forces that exist between molecules. These forces
prevent any relative movement, except for any slight
vibration of the molecules themselves. As a result,
when a solid is subjected to a load it will not easily
deform, but once in its deformed state, it will continue
to support the load. Liquid. A liquid, such as water,
alcohol, or oil, is a fluid that is composed of
molecules that are more mobile than those in a solid.
Their intermolecular forces are weaker, so liquids do
not hold their shape. Instead, they flow and take the
shape of their container, forming a horizontal free
surface at the top, Fig. 1–2b. Although liquids can
easily deform, their molecular spacing allows them to
resist compressive forces when they are confined.
Gas. A gas, such as helium, nitrogen, or air, is a fluid
that flows until it fills the entire volume of its
container, Fig. 1–2c. Gases are composed of
molecules that are much farther apart than those of a
liquid. As a result, the molecules of a gas are free to
travel away from one another until a force of repulsion
pushes them away from other gas molecules, or from
the molecules on the surface of a container.
Continuum. Studying the behavior of a fluid as in Fig.
1–3a by analyzing the motion of all its many molecules
would be an impossible task. Fortunately, however,
almost all engineering applications involve a volume
of fluid that is much greater than the very small
distance between adjacent molecules of the fluid, and
so it is reasonable to assume that the fluid is
uniformly dispersed throughout this volume. Under
these circumstances, we can then consider the fluid
to be a continuum, that is, a continuous distribution of
matter leaving no empty space, Fig. 1–3b. This
assumption allows us to use average properties of the
fluid at any point throughout its volume. For those
special situations where the molecular distance does
become important, which is on the order of a billionth
of a meter, the continuum model does not apply, and
it is necessary to employ statistical techniques to
study the fluid flow, a topic that will not be considered
here. See Ref. [3]. (a) (b) (c) Solids maintain a constant
shape Liquids take the shape of their container Gases
ll the entire volume of their container Fig. 1–2 (a)
Actual uid (b) Continuum model Fig. 1–3
M01_HIBB7304_02_GE_C01.indd 21 05/11/19 5:41 PM
1 22 Chapter 1 Fundamental ConCepts 1.3 THE
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS We can describe a
fluid and its flow characteristics using combinations
of units based on five basic quantities, namely, length,
time, mass, force, and temperature. However,
because length, time, mass, and force are all related
by Newton’s second law of motion, F = ma, the units
used to define the size of each of these quantities
cannot all be selected arbitrarily. The equality F = ma
is maintained when three of these units are arbitrarily
defined, and the fourth unit is then derived from the
equation. The International System of units is a
modern version of the metric system that has received
worldwide recognition. The SI system specifies length
in meters (m), time in seconds (s), and mass in
kilograms (kg). The unit of force, called a newton (N),
is derived from F = ma, where 1 newton is equal to the
force required to give 1 kilogram of mass an
acceleration of 1 m>s 2 1N = kg # m>s 2 2 , Fig. 1–4a.
To determine the weight of a fluid in newtons at the
“standard location,” where the acceleration due to
gravity is g = 9.81 m>s 2 , and the mass of the fluid is m
(kg), we have W (N) = [m (kg)]19.81 m>s 22 (1–1) And
so a fluid having a mass of 1 kg has a weight of 9.81 N,
2 kg of fluid has a weight of 19.62 N, and so on. 1 kg 1
N (a) The newton is a unit of force 1 ms2 Fig. 1–4
M01_HIBB7304_02_GE_C01.indd 22 05/11/19 5:41 PM
1 1.3 the international system oF units 23
Temperature. The absolute temperature is the
temperature measured from a point at which the
molecules of a substance have so-called “zero
energy” or no motion.* Its unit in the SI system is the
kelvin (K). This unit is expressed without reference to
degrees, so 7 K is stated as “seven kelvins.” Although
not officially an SI unit, an equivalent-size unit
measured in degrees Celsius (°C) is often used. This
measurement is referenced from the freezing and
boiling points of pure water, where the freezing point is
0°C (273 K) and the boiling point is 100°C (373 K), Fig.
1–4b. For conversion, TK = TC + 273 (1–2) We will use
Eqs. 1–1 and 1–2 in this book, since they are suitable
for most engineering applications. However, for more
accurate work, use the exact value of 273.15 in Eq. 1–
2. Also, at the “standard location,” the more exact
value g = 9.807 m>s 2 or the local acceleration due to
gravity should be used in Eq. 1–1. (b) The Kelvin and
Celsius scales 273 K 0 K –2738C (zero energy) 08C
(Ice) 373 K 1008C (Steam) Fig. 1–4 (cont.) *This is
actually an unreachable point according to the law of
quantum mechanics.
M01_HIBB7304_02_GE_C01.indd 23 05/11/19 5:41 PM
1 24 Chapter 1 Fundamental ConCepts Prefixes. In the
SI system, when a numerical quantity is either very
large or very small, the units used to define its size
should be modified by using a prefix. The range of
prefixes used for problems in this book is shown in
Table 1–1. Each represents a multiple or submultiple
of a unit that moves the decimal point of a numerical
quantity either forward or backward by three, six, or
nine places. For example, 5 000 000 g = 5000 kg
(kilogram) = 5 Mg (Megagram), and 0.000 006 s = 0.006
ms (millisecond) = 6 μs (microsecond). As a general
rule, the units of quantities that are multiplied
together are separated by a dot to avoid confusion
with prefix notation. Thus, m # s is a meter-second,
whereas ms is a millisecond. And finally, the
exponential power applied to a unit having a prefix
refers to both the unit and its prefix. For example, ms2
= (ms)2 = (ms)(ms) = 110-3 s2 110-3 s2 = 10-6 s2 .
TABLE 1–1 Prefixes Exponential Form Prefix SI Symbol
Submultiple 0.001 10-3 milli m 0.000 001 10-6 micro μ
0.000 000 001 10-9 nano n Multiple 1 000 000 000 109
Giga G 1 000 000 106 Mega M 1 000 103 kilo k
M01_HIBB7304_02_GE_C01.indd 24 05/11/19 5:41 PM
1 1.4 CalCulations 25 1.4 CALCULATIONS Application
of fluid mechanics principles often requires algebraic
manipulations of a formula followed by numerical
calculations. For this reason it is important to keep the
following concepts in mind. Dimensional
Homogeneity. The terms of an equation used to
describe a physical process must be dimensionally
homogeneous, that is, each term must be expressed
in the same units. Provided this is the case, then all
the terms of the equation can be combined when
numerical values are substituted for the variables. For
example, consider the Bernoulli equation, which is a
specialized application of the principle of work and
energy. We will study this equation in Chapter 5, but it
can be expressed as p g + V 2 2g + z = constant Using
SI units, the pressure p is expressed in N>m2 , the
specific weight g is in N>m3 , the velocity V is in m>s,
the acceleration due to gravity g is in m>s 2 , and the
elevation z is in meters, m. In the form stated, each of
the three terms is in meters, as noted if you cancel the
units in each fraction. N>m2 N>m3 + 1m>s2 2 m>s 2 +
m Regardless of how the equation is algebraically
arranged, it will maintain its dimensional
homogeneity, and as a result, a partial check of the
algebraic manipulation of any equation can be made
by checking to be sure all the terms have the same
units. Rounding off Numbers. Rounding off a number
is necessary so that the accuracy of the result will be
the same as that of the problem data. As a general
rule, any numerical figure ending in a number greater
than five is rounded up and a number less than five is
rounded down. For example, if 3.558 is to be rounded
off to three significant figures, then because the fourth
digit (8) is greater than 5, the third number is rounded
up to 6, so the number becomes 3.56. Likewise 0.5896
becomes 0.590 and 9.387 becomes 9.39. If we round
off 1.341 to three significant figures, because the
fourth digit (1) is less than 5, then we get 1.34.
Likewise 0.3762 becomes 0.376 and 9.873 becomes
9.87. There is a special case for any number that ends
in exactly 5. If the digit preceding the 5 is an even
number, than this digit is not rounded up. If the digit
preceding the 5 is an odd number, then it is rounded
up. For example, 75.25 rounded off to three significant
figures becomes 75.2, 0.1275 becomes 0.128, and
0.2555 becomes 0.256.
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below:

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