AERIAL

PHOTOGRAMMETRY
AERIAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY
Photogrammetry
1. Introduction to Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry involves measuring distances, areas, elevations, geometrical
shapes, and sizes of objects using aerial photographs where light is the primary
medium for capturing images.
2. Definition of Photogrammetry
Concept: Photogrammetry is both an art and science dedicated to obtaining
information about physical objects on Earth's surface from photographs and
using this data for measurements.
3. Photogrammetry as an Engineering Discipline
Evolution: The field has evolved from analog methods to analytical and digital
techniques due to advancements in computer technology and software.
Technique: Involves interpreting photographs and making judgments based on
what is seen. Utilizes both single vertical and stereo aerial photographs for
different dimensional needs.
4. Applications and Measurement Techniques
Single Vertical Aerial Photo:
Uses: Mainly for 2D models and Planimetry Meshes which refer to a type of
mesh or grid used in cartography and surveying to represent the horizontal
(planar) features of a terrain without considering elevation or relief.
Limitation: Provides only a 2D view, requiring stereo images for 3D
modeling.
Stereo Aerial Photographs:
Uses: Create 3D models by combining two images taken from different
angles.
Measurement: 3D measurements are made possible with stereo models,
requiring high accuracy in images.
5. Origins of Photogrammetry
1839: First photograph taken.
1858: First aerial photograph captured from a hot air balloon (Photograph
Outside Paris by Nadar), though the camera was tilted.
Late 19th Century:
Kites: Edie Archibald and Arthur Batut took aerial photographs using kites.
Rockets: Alfred Nobel used a rocket-mounted camera for aerial
photography.
1903: Julius Newberner used a camera mounted on a carrier pigeon for
ground images.
 World War Period: Aerial photogrammetry gained prominence for military
purposes.
Post-War: Adapted for civilian use, including large-scale mapping.
6. Technological Developments
Early Technologies:
Conventional Aerial Cameras: Bulky, required carrying large amounts of
film.
Modern Advances:
Digital Aerial Cameras: Compact, lightweight, and capable of capturing
multiple spectral wavelengths.
Digital Photogrammetry: Involves producing contact prints, analytical
photogrammetry, stereo photos, and mapping work.
7. Photogrammetric Products
Types:
Black & White and Colour: Includes contact prints, stereo photos, and
digital images.
Mosaics: Created by stitching together multiple photographs based on
overlapping regions for mapping and ortho photographs.
Primary vs. Secondary Products:
Primary: Direct results of photogrammetric processes.
Secondary: Products derived from additional processing.
8. Types of Photographs
Terrestrial Photographs: Captured from the ground, providing detailed
information about objects (e.g., cracks, inclinations).
Aerial Photographs:
Vertical: Camera axis is mostly vertical (up to 3 degrees tilt accepted). Ideal
for engineering and mapping.
Oblique:
Low Oblique: Useful for estimating object height, though scale is not
uniform.
High Oblique: Covers a larger area but unsuitable for topographical or
thematic mapping.
9. Uses of Vertical and Terrestrial Photographs
Vertical Aerial Photographs:
Applications: Used primarily for engineering and mapping with the camera
axis mostly vertical.
Terrestrial or Close-Range Photographs:
3D Modeling: Overlapping images can be used to create detailed 3D
models of areas.
Applications: Used for deformation studies, structural monitoring, and
detailed analysis of structures such as dams.
10. Acquisition of Aerial Photographs
Seasonal variation affects the information captured.
Flight planning is crucial: consider weather, morning time to avoid shadows,
and ensure image overlap for 3D modeling.
Key parameters: focal length, scale, overlap, relief displacement, aircraft
speed.
11. Flight Planning
Considerations: average elevation, number of flights, flight lines, spacing,
orientation, area coverage per photograph.
Ensure 60% forward overlap and 25% lateral overlap for proper 3D analysis
and mosaicking.
Example: 3 flight lines with 5 photos each, aircraft moves in a zigzag pattern.
12. Vertical Aerial Photograph
Agencies in India provide photographs if the area is not restricted.
Key terms: exposure station, flying height (above mean sea level), perspective
projection system, relief displacement.
Vertical photographs rely on the camera axis, vertical axis, and plumb line.
13. Technical Terms
Fiducial marks: 4 V-notch marks on the photograph to determine the
geometrical center.
Principal point: Key reference point for measurements.
Additional Information: Time of exposure, focal length, flight path, and row
number are printed on photographs.
Conjugate Principal Point: Transferring the principal point from one
photograph to the next.
14. Tilted Photographs
Camera axis is inclined, not vertical.
Corrections require working with the iso center and calculating the angle of
tilt.

Scale of an Aerial Photograph

1. Importance of Scale
Scale: Ratio of distance on a photograph/map to distance on the ground.
Expressed numerically, as a fraction, or using a graphical/linear scale.
Essential for accurate measurements in photogrammetry.
2. Types of Scales
Large Scale: Covers less area, more detail; used for detailed planning (e.g.,
townships).
Medium Scale: Used for district-level planning; balances area coverage and
detail.
Small Scale: Covers large areas, less detail; used for state or national mapping.
3. Calculating the Scale of a Vertical Photograph
Based on the principle of similar triangles.
 Formula:
f focal length of camera
[For Plain Surface] Scale (S) = =
H Height of Aircraft

f focal length of camera

[For Undulating Scale (Savg) = =
Surface] H - havg Height of Aircraft - Avg. height of terrain

Flat Terrain: Direct calculation using F and H.

Undulating Terrain: Consider terrain variations (relief) for more accurate scale.
4. Average Scale of a Photograph
Use average height of terrain points to calculate an average scale.
Important for precise measurements when the ground is not flat.
5. Scale Calculation and Ground Coordinates
Once scale is known, it helps in calculating ground coordinates, distances, and
areas.
Parallax Scale: Used for measuring coordinates on a photograph with higher
precision.
6. Practical Application
Knowing scale aids in reverse calculations (e.g., determining aircraft height).
Helps in creating 3D models, and further calculations like area, volume, and
distance.
7. Tips for Accurate Scale Calculation
Ensure correct units are used in calculations.
Round off scale values appropriately for consistency.

Relief Displacement
1. Understanding Relief Displacement
Relief Displacement: Distortion in aerial photographs caused by the varying
elevation (height) of objects. It appears as a radial displacement from the
principal point (center) of the photograph.
Causes:
Height of objects: Taller objects have greater relief displacement.
Distance from Principal Point: Objects farther from the principal point
show more displacement.
Type of Projection: Aerial photographs are based on perspective (central)
projection, unlike maps, which use orthogonal projection.
2. Effects of Relief Displacement
Distortion in Images: Objects appear displaced from their true positions,
especially if they are tall or far from the center of the photo.
Positional Errors: The farther the object is from the principal point, the larger
the positional error due to relief displacement.
Practical Example: Straight lines, such as pipelines, appear curved on the
photograph due to relief displacement.
 radial distance of
3. Calculating Relief Displacement displaced image
x height of object
Basic Formula: point from principal
rh point
Relief displacement (d) = =
H Height of Aircraft

Using Similar Triangles: Relationships derived from similar triangles help in

calculating the relief displacement and the heights of objects.
Factors Affecting Relief Displacement:
Flying Height (H): Inversely proportional to relief displacement. Higher
altitude results in lesser displacement.
Focal Length (F): Directly affects the calculation of relief displacement.
4. Removing Relief Displacement
Orthorectification: Process of converting perspective projections to
orthogonal projections to eliminate relief displacement.
Ortho Images: Distortion-free images that can be used like maps for
accurate measurements of distances, areas, and creating 3D models.
Creating Orthophotos: Corrected aerial images that resemble topographic
maps, useful for precise measurements.
5. Practical Applications
Height Calculation: Relief displacement is used to determine the height of
objects on the ground.
Orthophotos and 3D Models: Orthorectified images serve as a basis for
creating accurate 3D models and measurements.
Mosaics:
Uncontrolled Mosaics: Useful for general viewing but not for
measurements.
Controlled Mosaics: Created using ground control points and orthophotos,
allowing for precise planimetric mapping.
6. Key Points for GATE Preparation
Understand the relationship between relief displacement, object height, and
radial distance.
Master the formulas for calculating relief displacement and height from aerial
photographs.
Familiarize yourself with the concepts of orthorectification and orthophotos.
Practice problems on calculating relief displacement and using orthophotos
for measurement.
Stereo Vision and 3D Modeling
1. Introduction to Stereo Vision
Stereo Vision: The process of creating a 3D model of the Earth's surface using
two or more aerial photographs taken from different positions.
Purpose: Helps determine the height of different features and relief
displacement through stereo photogrammetry.
2. Concepts and Terms
Stereo Pair: Two overlapping photographs taken from different camera
positions, used to create a 3D model.
Parallax: The apparent shift in the position of an object when viewed from two
different angles. It is essential for creating depth perception and 3D models.
Parallactic Angle: The angle formed at the eyes when viewing an object from
two different angles. Smaller for objects farther away.
3. Creating 3D Models
Triangulation Principle: Used to determine the coordinates of a point common
to both photographs, helping in the creation of the 3D model.
Stereoscope: A device that allows viewing two photographs simultaneously to
create a 3D model by fusing the images.
Human Eye Analogy: The process of stereo vision in photogrammetry is similar
to how our eyes create depth perception by fusing images from the left and
right eyes.
4. Parallax and Depth Perception
Depth Perception: The ability to perceive the height and distance of objects,
facilitated by parallax.
Effective Range: Human depth perception is accurate up to approximately 400
meters.
Parallax and Distance Relationship: The relationship between parallactic angle
and distance can be used to calculate the height of objects.
5. Requirements for Stereo Vision
Consistency: Time of exposure, scale, and brightness of the photographs
should be nearly identical.
Parallax Introduction: Introduced by moving either the object or the camera.
Base to Height Ratio: Ideal range is between 0.25 and 2.0 for effective stereo
vision.
6. Techniques and Tools
Stereo Metric Camera: Uses one camera at two different positions to capture
the stereo pair without moving the camera.
3D Model Creation: Can be achieved using special vehicles, 360-degree
cameras, or sophisticated equipment.
Overlap in Stereo Pairs: A minimum of 60% overlap is needed to create an
effective stereo pair.
Creating Stereo Vision and 3D Models from 2D Images
1. Introduction to Stereo Vision and 3D Modeling
Stereo Vision: The process of using two 2D images to create a 3D model,
allowing for depth perception and measurement of terrain.
Stereoscope: An optical device that helps in viewing two images
simultaneously to create a 3D effect.
2. Visual Clues for Depth Perception
Depth Perception in 2D: Can be achieved by techniques like focusing on a
nearby object (e.g., a tree) while blurring distant objects (e.g., a building).
Penums Fusional Area Volume: Used to represent 2D images in a 3D
environment by superimposing multiple images.
3. Types of Stereoscopes
Lens or Pocket Stereoscope:
Features: Small, lightweight, portable, and useful for fieldwork.
Components: Two plano-convex lenses with adjustable distance for
focusing based on eyesight.
Mirror or Reflecting Stereoscope:
Features: Includes mirrors, lenses, and a right-angle prism for better
magnification.
Advantages: Covers a larger area with enhanced magnification.
Disadvantages: Heavier and less portable compared to lens stereoscopes.
4. Creating 3D Models Using Stereoscopes
Photograph Orientation: Align the photographs as they were during the time of
photography, typically along the flight line.
Merging Images: Adjust the distance between the images to fuse details from
both images, creating a 3D model.
Applications: Identify higher and lower areas, determine height, depth,
position, orientation, shape, and size of objects.
5. Techniques for 3D Visualization
3D Illusions: Achieved through stereoscopic methods and other techniques
like polarization filters or special glasses.
Field Measurements: Use stereo models to carry out accurate measurements
and terrain analysis in a 3D environment.
Orientation Process: Requires determining the direction of the X-axis and flight
line, essential for proper image alignment and model creation.

Parallax in Aerial Photogrammetry

1. Parallax Definition and Importance
Parallax: The apparent change in the position of a stationary object due to a
change in the viewpoint. In aerial photography, it refers to the apparent
difference in the position of two consecutive photographs taken from
different positions in space.
 Application in Photogrammetry: Used to determine the elevation of different
points on the Earth's surface by analyzing the displacement between objects
in stereo photographs.
2. Types of Parallax
Absolute Parallax: The algebraic difference between the distances of a point
on the two images along the X-axis.
X Parallax: Present when vertical photographs are taken from the same flight
height but not along the X-axis.
Differential Parallax: The difference in parallax between two points on a stereo
pair. It is crucial for determining which point is higher or lower.
3. Measuring Parallax
Parallax Bar (Stereo Meter): An instrument used to measure the distance
between two points on a stereo pair.
Procedure:
a. Align the stereo photographs along the flight line direction.
b. Place the overlap region of the images under a mirror stereoscope.
c. Adjust the distance between the images until you see a good 3D model.
d. Use the parallax bar to take readings by moving the micrometer screw until
the floating marks align with the object in the image.
e. Read the main scale and vernier scale, multiply by the least count (0.01
mm), and add them to get the parallax reading.
4. Determining Height Using Parallax
Height Calculation: The height of an object (h) is determined using the distance
between two exposure stations, the focal length of the camera lens, and the
measured parallax.
Geometric Relationship: Utilizes the properties of similar triangles formed by
the object, camera stations, and parallax measurement.
5. Practical Considerations
Multiple Observations: When taking parallax readings, it's essential to take
several measurements and calculate the average for accuracy.
Sign Convention: When calculating absolute and differential parallax, ensure
the correct sign is used based on the quadrant in which the object lies.

Height Determination from Stereo-Pairs

1. Importance of Elevation in Civil Engineering
Knowing the ground elevation is crucial for planning projects, especially those
related to alignment and slope.
Photogrammetric methods are widely used to determine object heights,
supplementing ground-based, total station, and vehicle-based surveys.
2. Methods to Determine Height from Aerial Photographs
Shadow-Based Method:
An old method that calculates height using the shadow length, sun angle,
and object's true verticality.
Assumptions: Ground must be level, object vertical, and shadow sharp.
Not suitable for dense vegetation areas.
Relief Displacement Method:
Uses the displacement of an object on a vertical photograph to determine
height.
Requires precise flight altitude data.
Parallax Measurement Method:
Uses differential and absolute parallax to calculate height.
Requires stereo photographs, parallax bar readings, and known elevation of
a control point.
Mathematical relationships derived using properties of similar triangles.
3. Parallax and Photogrammetric Height Calculation
Key Parameters:
Flying Height (H): Altitude of the aircraft above the base of the object.
Focal Length (f): Camera lens focal length.
Parallax Bar Readings (P): Measurements taken to determine the parallax of
a point.
Air Base (B): Distance between two exposure stations.
Height Calculation Process:
a. Align stereo pairs and measure the parallax using the parallax bar.
b. Use the relationship between absolute parallax and the focal length, air
base, and flying height to determine the height.
c. Apply the differential parallax formula to find height differences between
points.
Mathematical Relationship:
Hv=H−f⋅BparallaxH_v = H - \frac{f \cdot B}{\text{parallax}}Hv​=H−parallaxf⋅B​
Δh=f⋅ΔPparallax difference\Delta h = \frac{f \cdot \Delta P}{\text{parallax
difference}}Δh=parallax differencef⋅ΔP​
H_p = H - \frac{f \cdot (\Delta P)}{\text{P_p}}
4. Considerations and Error Management
Precautions for Accurate Measurements:
Ensure no shrinkage or expansion of the photograph.
Confirm consistent flying height and no tilt in the stereo pair.
Mark the flight line on photographs to maintain orientation.
Error Identification and Correction:
Compare computed elevation with actual elevation to identify errors.
Use these errors to draw correction contours and apply them to other
points for accurate height determination.
3D Mapping
1. Types of 3D Models:
Digital Elevation Model (DEM):
Represents the topography with X, Y, and Z coordinates on a regular grid.
Created using contours or digitized from maps.
Useful for GPS systems, hydrology, land use, urban planning.
Digital Terrain Model (DTM):
Augments DEM by including features like ridgelines and valley lines.
Represents the bare earth surface.
Shows terrain in 3D, with grid basis for elevation.
Digital Surface Model (DSM):
Shows heights of objects (e.g., buildings) on the earth's surface.
Useful for projects in telecommunication, urban planning, aviation.
Provides clarity on structures atop the terrain.
2. Creating 3D Models:
DEM Creation:
Use aerial photography or stereo satellite images.
Divide area into grid cells and compute elevation values.
Create a triangular irregular network (TIN) model, define grid size,
interpolate values.
DTM and DSM:
Generated from DEM through photogrammetric techniques.
DTM is derived from DEM, not the other way around.
DSM includes above-ground features, more readable than DTM.
3. Techniques and Tools:
Triangulation Principle:
Used in photogrammetry to determine elevations.
Information represented in raster or grid forms.
Interpolation:
From TIN to grid model.
Determines the detail level: finer grids (e.g., 3m) show more detail than
coarser grids (e.g., 30m).
Parallax Measurement:
Used for height determination in stereo pairs.
Compute using parallax bar readings.
4. Applications:
Hydrology and Flood Management:
DEMs are crucial for hydrological studies and flood modeling.
Create 3D visualization models to analyze terrain, plan infrastructure, and
manage flood risks.
 Urban and Infrastructure Planning:
DEMs, DTMs, and DSMs assist in designing smart cities,
telecommunications, tourism, and more.
Visualization models aid in project planning and understanding terrain
features.
5. Data Sources:
Free DEM Data:
Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM)
ASTER DEM
Indian Bhuvan portal for high-resolution data

Digital Photogrammetry
1. Evolution of Photogrammetry:
Graphical Photogrammetry: Manual methods for creating maps.
Analog Photogrammetry: Used film-based photographs and mechanical
instruments.
Analytical Photogrammetry: Introduced computers and plotters for automatic
map plotting.
2. Digital Era:
Transition to Digital: Post-1960s, hard copies replaced by digital photographs.
Digital Photogrammetry: Utilizes digital images and software to create maps
and 3D models.
3. Digital Photogrammetric Workstations:
Features: Large memory, fast processing, specific software for
photogrammetry.
Inputs: Scanned aerial photographs, digital aerial images, LIDAR data, multi-
sensor stereo images.
Outputs: Digital maps, Digital Terrain Models (DTMs), Digital Elevation Models
(DEMs), Digital Surface Models (DSMs), thematic maps (e.g., road maps, land
use maps).
4. Applications:
Mosaics Creation: Combining digital images using control points for large area
mapping.
3D Models: Useful in architecture, urban planning, and various fields.
Medical and Manufacturing: Precision in artificial limb fittings, plastic surgery.
Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR): Creating interactive 3D and
VR maps.
5. Techniques:
Ortho Rectification:
Converts perspective photographs to orthographic projections.
Removes lens distortion and relief displacement.
Creates accurate vector maps.
 Terrestrial Photogrammetry:
Uses perpendicular photographs to create 3D models.
Involves texture addition and model refinement.
6. Software Capabilities:
Mosaic Creation: Stitches digital images based on common features.
Digital Map Creation: Facilitates rapid scaling and integration with GIS and
remote sensing data.
7. Key Concepts:
Digital Photogrammetric Workstation: Essential for creating and analyzing
digital maps and models.
Orthorectification: Corrects distortions for accurate map representation.
3D Modeling: Enhances understanding of objects and terrain through digital
models.
8. Practical Considerations:
Software and Hardware: Importance of specialized photogrammetric software
and powerful computers.
Dynamic Data Handling: Digital data is easier to update and integrate with
other data sources.
9. Summary of Uses:
Mapping: Civil engineering, urban planning, and thematic mapping.
Virtual and Augmented Reality: Creating interactive models for various
applications.
Emergency and Military Uses: Flood management, damage assessment, and
intelligence gathering.