TERM 1 STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS & CONTROL Date: _________________

Name of learner:________________________________

INVESTIGATION SKILLS: Identify the problem, design brief, specifications,

and constraints ____/15

DESIGN SKILLS: Initial Ideas, Evaluation & Choice of the final idea ____/20
MAKING SKILLS: Orthographic Projection / Working Drawing ____/15
MAKING SKILLS: Building the scale model ____/20

TOTAL ____/70

SIGNATURE OF TEACHER: _________________________________

SIGNATURE OF PARENT: _________________________________
MODERATED BY DEPARTMENTAL HEAD: ____________________
DATE OF MODERATION: ___________________________________
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WEEK 1: BASELINE ASSESSMENT

SECTION A: SPECIFIC AIM 1: TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND SKILLS

CHOOSE THE CORRECT ANSWER AND ENCIRCLE THE CORRECT LETTER

1.1 The first response when given the context of a problem or need is to find out about

A the working drawing C the environmental situation

B the nature of the need D both B and C
1.2 The unit of measurement indicated in the 2-Dimensional views (Orthographic) is……

A millimetres C centimetres
B meters D there is no way of telling

1.3 When you start investigating to solve technological problems the following Technological
Process / es can be followed to find information:

A compare existing products C perform practical tests

B write a design brief D both A and C plus collect data.

1.4 To collect data the following could be used as a resource:

A speak to or interview people C practical investigation and testing of a product

B find information from any print media D A, B and C

1.5 Which of the following questions about existing products will help technologists in creating
new solutions?

A Who will use it? What is it used for? C Does it impact on the environment?
What does it look like?
B What safety features does it have? D A, B and C.
How much does it cost?
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1.6. The group of learners below are doing a brain storming session that will help them list the
…

A Both B and C C constraints

B specifications D design brief

1.7 The illustration below can best be described as

A different stages of a design process C steps that follow each other in each
sequence when designing
B a linear representation of the design D the correct order to follow when
process designing.

1.8 A technologist collects data and or information during investigation to

A present the information / data C draw conclusions from the

information to inform a design idea
B produce meaningful summaries D publish the information / data
gained
1.9 A short statement in response to a design situation for the development of a solution that
broadly states what a product must do, why it is needed, where it will be used, who will
use it and the advantage it will bring, is called a

A process C technological process

B design brief D design specifications

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1.10 When you make a 3D drawing that shows things getting smaller in the distance, it is
called …

A Oblige drawing C Isometric drawing

B Perspective drawing D Orthographic drawing

1.11 The making of a model (Mock-up) to develop the selected design idea before the
actual building of the final product is used by technologists to
A develop the design idea to see if it will C develop the design idea to see if the
work proportions of the design are correct
B improve the product. D present a functioning product

1.12 A sequence of events or actions presented to show the different steps for making a
product is called a

A flow diagram C product

B portfolio D constraint

1.13 Measuring, marking out, separating, joining, forming, combining, and finishing are all
technological processes found in the

A investigation stage C evaluate stage

B design stage D make stage

1.14 Improvements or modifications to a final product are determined by

A the degree to which the product C the amount of money that could be
meets the design brief and specifications saved when making the product
B a feeling! D its popularity with the public

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SECTION B: SPECIFIC AIM 2: TECHNOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE AND

UNDERSTANDING

1.15 The following illustration is an example of….

A First class lever C Second class lever

B Third class lever D A and C

1.16 You have been asked to design a mechanical system which changes a circular input
motion (rotary) into an output reciprocating motion in a vertical direction. Which of the
following mechanical systems could you use?

A Cam and follower C Crank and a cam

B Eccentric wheel and follower D A and B

1.17 Shading is used in sketches to enhance a design idea. In the examples below different
materials are enhanced to show their

A colour C texture
B A and C D size

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1.18 The paper in illustration B will hold a heavier load, because

A. B.

A the paper in B has been reinforced by C the paper in B has been

corrugation strengthened by stability
B the paper in B has been strengthened D the paper in B has been
by reinforcing strengthened by lamination

1.19 The workings of the arms in the digger illustrated is best described as follows:

(Illustration from: Technology Today Grade 7 – MML)

A Three linked lever systems are used to C A hydraulic system is used to move a
move the bucket and boom. linked lever system of two levers to
move the bucket and the boom.
B A pneumatic system is used to move D A hydraulic system is used to move
a linked lever system of three levers to three linked lever systems to move
move the bucket and the boom the bucket and the boom.

1.20 The structure below is made stable by

A the strong joints C the steel used to make the structure

B the wide base D triangulation.

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1.21 GRAPHIC COMMUNICATION

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WEEK 2: COMPLEX MACHINES &

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE
SIMPLE MACHINES
• There are six simple mechanisms that are able to change the strength or direction of a
force.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

• We use machines to make work easier and to do it faster. For example, we can use a
tractor to plough the land instead of digging it over by hand.

• A machine is a mechanism or group of mechanisms that can do useful work.

Mechanisms are the working parts of machines. A mechanism can change an input force
(or motion) into a different output force (or motion).

• By changing one kind of force (or motion) into another kind of force (or motion), the
mechanism creates mechanical advantage that makes our work easier.

• Mechanical advantage is the ability of a machine to multiply effort. A well-

designed machine gives mechanical advantage.

• Machines and mechanisms can be complex, but they are actually made up of combinations
of simple mechanisms such as the inclined plane, wedge, screw, lever, wheel and axle,
and pulley.

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Machines help us to do work by:

• changing the effort required to move a load, e.g., a wheelbarrow
• changing the speed of output, e.g., the gears on a bicycle
• changing the direction of output, e.g., an eggbeater.

2.1 SIMPLE vs. COMPOUND MACHINES

2.1.1 What makes something a compound machine instead of a simple machine?

_____________________________________________________________________________

2.1.2 Label each machine with “S” for simple and “C” for compound.

a. scissors _____________ d. axe _________________

b. ramp _____________ e. bicycle _________________
c. single fixed pulley _____________ f. shovel _________________

2.1.3 List 3 of your own examples of compound machines. (Remember: Machines help make
WORK easier.

THE WEDGE, THE WHEEL AND AXLE

A. INCLINED PLANE
An inclined plane is the simplest machine because it needs no moving parts to make it work.
You can use an inclined plane to lift a load from one level to the next level. Instead of using a
large force to lift it straight up, the inclined plane (or ramp) allows us to use a smaller effort over
a longer distance to lift/move the load. The longer the ramp, the less effort is needed, therefore
the greater the mechanical advantage.

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B. THE WEDGE
A wedge is like a double-inclined plane with the two inclined planes facing
each other.

When the wedge moves

forward or downwards, force
is exerted along the length of
the sides, perpendicular to the
inclined surface, so the wedge
is able to push things apart.
This action occurs when an axe
is used to split logs.
A sharp axe strikes a piece of wood, and the wedge splits the wood.

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

2.2. Helping a boy in a wheelchair to get up a step

When people design buildings with steps, they also have to think about old people or people in
wheelchairs. These people will struggle to get up steps,
like the boy in the wheelchair in the illustration.

To help the boy, you can build a ramp to make a

smooth path between the low place on the ground and
the higher place. Two different designs of a ramp are
shown below.

2.2.1 Study the two ramps and answer the questions.

RAMP A RAMP B

Which design will be the easiest for the boy to get from the ground to the higher place,
and why?

2.2.2 Will the boy travel the same distance up both ramps A and B, or will he travel a
longer distance on one of the ramps? If yes, which one?

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2.2.3 Will the force with which the boy has to turn the wheels be the same on both
ramps, or will it be greater on one of the ramps? If yes, which one?

2.2.4 Use the following TERMS to write FOUR sentences to explain why it is easier for
the boy to go up the one ramp than the other: input force, output force, input distance,
and output distance.

2.2.5 Which ramp gives the boy the greatest mechanical advantage?

2.3 Axes and knives are examples of a wedge. The wedge changes a small input force
into a bigger output force. They use a large input distance to give a small output
distance

Why does an axe make it easier to split wood?

When you cut wood with a

wedge-shaped axe, a large
input distance downwards
causes a small output
distance sideways.

2.3.1 Is the input force greater or smaller than the output force? Or are they the same?

2.3.2 Does an axe give a mechanical advantage or a distance advantage?

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C. THE WHEEL AND AXLE

The wheel and axle always work together.

The advantage that the wheel gives the user is the

ability to move a load easily over a surface. Each
wheel is designed to move a certain load over a
certain surface as easily as possible.

There are TWO applications for the wheel

and axle:

• A force multiplier – can be used to multiply

force ,k such as turning the steering wheel of a
car.
• A distance multiplier – can be used to cover
distance such as the wheels of a car or bicycle.

There are many different types of wheels

• Some wheels are attached by the axle to a motor. They are called ‘driver’ wheels because
they are used to drive the vehicle forward. Other wheels move because the vehicle
moves. They are called ‘driven’ wheels.

• Some wheels can be steered (a bicycle).

some can move in any direction (front wheels of a
supermarket trolley).

• some are fixed to the body and can only go

forwards and backwards (back wheels of a
supermarket trolley).

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• Some wheels are built to travel over soft or rough surfaces

(mountain-bike wheels) and others are better on hard, smooth
surfaces (road-bike wheels).

• Some wheels are designed for high speed and light loads
(motor-bike wheels) whereas others are designed for low
speed and heavy loads (tipper trucks

This Photo by Unknown Author is

licensed under CC BY-SA

D. GEARS – WHEELS WITH TEETH

DEFINITION

• Gears are wheels with evenly spaced teeth around their

outer rim. They are attached to an axle.

FUNCTION OF GEARS

o increase or decrease speed

o change the direction of motion
o multiply or increase turning forces.

• When teeth from two different gears are interlocked, we say

that they are meshed.

• To mesh means to link together. The gear being turned is called the driven gear. The
driven gear is attached to the output axle.

• The INPUT gear is called the driver gear.

• The OUTPUT gear that meshes with the driver is called the
driven gear as it turns into the opposite direction.

A gear attached to an input axle of a machine is called a

driver gear. As the axle turns, the driver gear turns with it.
• When two or more gears are meshed, they form a gear
train.

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SPUR GEARS AND COUNTER-ROTATION

• A spur gear is a gear with teeth like spurs on its edge. This is the most common
type of gear. When two gears mesh, they rotate in opposite directions. This is
called counter-rotation.

• The cause transfer of movement, force, and speed.

• When two spur gears of different sizes mesh, they

counter-rotate at different speeds.

• The smaller gear turns faster than the bigger gear.

• The difference in the speed of the two gears depends on

the number of teeth on each gear wheel.

IDLER GEARS SYNCHRONISE ROTATION

• An idler gear is a gear wheel that is placed between two
larger gears and meshes with both of them.

• The idler gear makes the two larger gears rotate in the same
direction. We say that it synchronises the direction of rotation of
the other two gears.

• An idler gear is usually small, so it rotates more times than

the larger gears it meshes with. If it is not lubricated, it might wear
out faster than the main gears. Is a possible solution to this problem to
use a harder material for the idler gear?

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2.4 MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE AND FORCE RATIO

Mechanical advantage is a concept that is widely used regarding mechanisms and machines.

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE (MA) = number of teeth on DRIVEN gear

number of teeth on DRIVER gear

• WHAT IS A FORCE RATIO/ MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE?

A FORCE ratio is the relationship between the TURNING FORCE

(TORQUE) on the driver axle and the turning force of the driven axle.

VELOCITY RATIOS
• WHAT IS A VELOCITY RATIO?
It is the relationship between the SPEED of the
driver gear and the speed of the driven gear.

• One full circular movement of the gear wheel is called a rotation. We measure the speed at
which an axle/gear turns in rotations (revolutions) per minute (rpm).

• If gears of different sizes are meshed together, they turn at different speeds. ln machines we
use this principle to change the speed of rotation of the input axle to a different speed of
rotation of the output axle.

FORMULA FOR VELOCITY RATIO:

VELOCITY RATIO (VR) = number of teeth on DRIVER gear

number of teeth on DRIVEN gear

The abbreviation rpm is often used for “revolutions per minute”.

Example
If a driver gear has 20 teeth and the driven gear has 10 teeth, what will the velocity ratio be?
Answer
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝟐𝟎
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = = =𝟐
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝟏𝟎

So, for every one rotation of the driver gear, the driven gear will turn twice. in other
words, the speed advantage is 2

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VELOCITY RATIO vs FORCE RATIO

if the speed/velocity ratio decreases the force ratio will increase, and vice
versa
When we work with gears this relationship is as follows:

• If a small driver gear drives a larger driven gear, the driven gear turns slower, but with
greater force.
• If a large driver gear drives a smaller driven gear, the driven gear turns with less force,
but faster.

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTION ON GEARS

2.4.1 Study the gear train below and answer the questions that follow. The small gear is the
driver and has 15 teeth. The big gear is the driven gear and has 45 teeth.
Which gear will turn the slowest?
___________________________________________________

2.4.2 Calculate the gear ratio of this gear train.

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟

𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑁𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟

2.4.3 Does this gear train provide a force advantage or a speed advantage? Explain your
answer.

2.4.4 What is the mechanical advantage of this gear train?

_____________________________________________________________________________
2.4.5 Does this gear train increase or decrease the rotation speed . Explain your answer.

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2.5 A set of three gears that mesh is provided with the gears correctly labelled.

2.5.1 Explain what will happen to the direction the gears turn if the
middle gear is removed and the two remaining gears mesh and
turn.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

2.5.2 In relation to the driver will the DRIVEN GEAR turn faster or slower?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

2.6 Study the gear train below. Gear a is the driver gear.

2.6.1 What is gear B called in this system? _______________________________________

2.6.2 What influence does gear B have on the rotation of gear A and C?

2.6.3 Gear A is small and rotates fast. Describe the effect this has on gear B, with regard to
velocity and force ratio.

2.6.4 If gear B is smaller than gear C, does C have mechanical advantage? Explain you
answer.

2.6.5 Explain the most important difference between gear system F and the rest of the gears in
the system.

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WEEK 3: CAMS & CRANKS

MECHANISMS THAT CHANGE THE
DIRECTION OF MOTION
• The cam and crank are mechanisms that change rotary motion
into reciprocating motion.

• Rotary motion is a turning motion (like a roundabout in a

playpark) and reciprocating motion is an up-and-down or
backwards-and-forwards motion (like a breadknife cutting
bread).

E. THE CAM
• A cam is an unusually shaped wheel on an axle.

A cam mechanism usually includes:

• a rotating part (the cam) on an axle

• a stiff rod, called a follower

• a guide to ensure that the follower moves

straight up and down (or backwards and
forwards)

• a structure to hold all the parts together

• The axle is called the camshaft.

• When a cam turns, it converts the rotary motion of its axle into the
reciprocating motion (up and down, or left and right) of a follower.

• The follower ‘follows’ the shape of the outside edge of the cam.

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COMPARISON OF AN ECCENTRIC WHEEL AND A SNAIL CAM

• Cams come in many different shapes. Examples include the eccentric wheel, snail
cam.

• An ECCENTRIC WHEEL is a
wheel with an axle that is off-
centre

• The follower resting on the

cam will move with a gentle,
wavelike motion.

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• The SNAIL CAM has a

straight edge cut into the
gently curving edge.

• It can only rotate in one

direction.

• The follower rises slowly and

then suddenly falls because of
the straight edge.

F. THE CRANK

• A crank is a mechanism that is used use to convert rotary motion into

reciprocating motion.

• For example, they are used in children’s toys and windmill.

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• A crank is an adaptation of a second class

lever in which the load is between the pivot and the
effort.

HOW A CRANK CONVERTS ROTARY

MOTION INTO RECIPROCATING MOTION

A crank mechanism usually includes:

➔ a rotating part on an axle, e.g., a wheel

➔ a rod that links the rotating part to the reciprocating part, which is attached at both ends
by pinned joints that hold the parts together but enable them to rotate relative to each
other.

➔ a reciprocating part, e.g., a piston or a slider.

➔ a guide to ensure that the reciprocating part moves straight backwards and forwards.

➔ a structure to hold all the parts

together.

➔ When the wheel rotates, the one end of

the rod moves around with the wheel
while the other end move backwards and
forwards with the reciprocating part.

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CRANK HANDLES

• The pictures below show a car jack, a meat mincer, and a hand winch.

• These are all turned by crank handles. The longer the handle is, the easier it is to
turn the axle.

• Therefore, the long handle gives greater mechanical advantage than a short
handle.

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ON CAMS & CRANKS

3.1 Identify the different types of cams

Type of cam: ________________________ Type of cam: _________________________

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3.1.2 Complete the following sentence:

Rotary Cams change ________________ motion into _____________________

(backwards and forwards or up-and-down) motion.

3.1.3 Explain in your own words the difference between an eccentric wheel and a snail cam.

Eccentric wheels

_____________________________________________________________________________

Snail cams
_____________________________________________________________________________

3.2 Study the picture below and FILL in the missing word from the paragraph.

A cam is a mechanical component that is fixed to an _____________. A cam always turns in a

___________________ motion. A cam always has a ______________ which moves up and
down as it follows the shape of the cam. The toy at the end of the shaft would move in a
___________________motion. Cams change the direction of movement.
3.3 Carefully examine the two views of the machine below.

3.3.1 In view 1, you see a simple version of a cam and a cam follower. What do you think
happens when the horizontal straw is rotated?

3.3.2 In view 2, you see a drive wheel, crank, and rod. What do you think happens when the
drive wheel is rotated?

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3.4 Look carefully at the following diagrams and answer the questions that follow.

3.4.1 What happens to the rod in A when the wheel is turned?

3.4.2 When the attachment of the rod is in the 3 o’clock position, can the mouse extend any
further?

3.4.3 What will happen to the mouse when the attachment of the rod is in the 9 o’clock
position?

3.4.4 In B, the crank is formed by the axle bending. What effect will this have on the
mechanism when the wheels rotate?

3.4.5 In both examples, the rotary movement is changed to which movement?

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WEEK 4: SCENARIO [FORMAL ASSESSMENT]

INSTRUCTION: Read the scenario below and answer the questions.

OVERCOMING THE LIMITATIONS OF STADIUM ROOFS

The local Cricket Stadium will be used for several games during the National Annual Cricket League.
The stadium has a grandstand, but it has no roof.

In many instances, a stadium roof makes sound business

sense for developers, but these roofs are also a double-
edged sword. In large stadiums, where they are mainly
used for both sporting and non-sporting events, roofs
protect the spectators from environmental effects such as
sun, rain, and wind.

You are requested to use your knowledge on structures to

design and make a scale model of a roof for the
grandstand on stadium.
REQUIREMENTS

1. The roof must extend to cover the entire main grandstand.

2. The roof should provide spectators with protection and a safe unobstructed view of the
action on the field of play.
3. The roof must be an effective, efficient, and dynamic solution that will enhance the
aesthetic appearance of the stadium.
4. The passages on either side of the main grandstand must be modified to prevent any
danger of injury to spectators due to crowd pressure. (As it happened tragically before at
other stadiums e.g., Ellis Park in 2001).
5. The size of the scale model of the roof should adhere to 600 mm x 250 mm.
6. The construction of the scale model should not exceed R 500.
7. Only local residence should be used for the labour during the construction of the roof.
8. The design of the roof should be strong and stable enough to withstand severe weather
conditions and forces acting on the stadium.
9. The design of the roof should include triangulation and internal cross bracing to stabilize
the structure

4.1.1 Answer the following questions.

Identify the problem that must be solved? (1)

4.1.2 Who will benefit from the final product? (2)

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4.1.3 Write a design brief for the identified problem. (3)

4.1.4 Identify SIX specifications from the identified problem. (6)

4.1.5 Identify THREE constraints mentioned in the scenario. (3)

[SUB TOTAL = 15]

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ELECTRIC PYLONS

• FUNCTION: pylons are structures that are used to support heavy objects. The most
easily recognisable pylons are electrical pylons, which support power lines over great
distances.

VARIETY OF DESIGNS

• Electrical pylons come in different designs.

• The function of a pylon determines which design will be used. Some designs help
to reduce the visual impact that pylons have on the landscape.
• Some pylons are of solid material e.g., concrete, while others need internal cross-
bracing to keep it rigid.
• However regardless of the design, the pylons serve the same purpose.

ELECTRICAL PYLONS

HOW TO ENSURE STURDY, RIGID PYLONS

1. Make use of cross-bracing,

2. Triangulation

INTERNAL CROSS-BRACING

• When two supporting beams cross each other, they form an X shape.
This is a clever technique that is used to stabilise a frame structure.

• Cross-bracing also increases the load the structure can support.

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• Cross-bracing is not just used on

the sides of a structure. The
illustration on the right shows how
the X shape can be added to the
inside of a structure.

• The X shape helps to stabilise

the structure in high
winds.

• It also keeps it from falling over easily – wide base. This is called internal cross-bracing.

TRIANGULATION

• Using stable triangular shapes to make a frame

structure more rigid or stiff is called triangulation.

• Designers often use triangular shapes to create their structures

because a triangle stays rigid when force is applied to it.

• The cross-bracing patterns are reinforced further by

additional struts that form triangular shapes.

IMPACT OF ELECTRICAL PYLONS

• Although electrical pylons give many benefits, some people

are concerned about their negative impact.

• In areas where a lot of people live, these structures

can be unsafe. For example, children often play on or
near these structures.

• They can fall and hurt themselves or loose objects on the structure might
fall on them.

• Many people think that electricity pylons are ugly and that they add to visual
pollution.

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CASE STUDY ON ELECTRIC PYLONS [SPON ON]

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTION OF PYLONS

4.2 Read the Case Study and answer the questions.

ELECTRIC PYLONS

They are open frame structures. They are made of steel and are exposed to the elements all
the time. Electric pylons have to be stable and safe. They are the structures which allow
electricity to be supplied across the country over long distances.

In some area the pylons are exposed to strong winds, rain, snow and extreme sun and vast
temperature changes. Through all of this, the pylons must remain sturdy and stable.

There are a few ways that the design of pylons can be altered to solve the problems of
stability and durability. To ensure stability, the base-size and the centre of gravity of the
structure must be considered. To allow the pylon to resist the forces exerted on it, structural
members that are able to withstand these forces must be included. The durability of the
pylons depends in part on the strength and stiffness of the structural members. Stiffening and
strengthening techniques are used to increase durability.

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4.2.1 How does the design of each pylon ensure stability? Which factors were considered
during the design of the pylons?

4.2.2 What structural members can you see in each example which have been included to
withstand the forces exerted on the pylon?
_____________________________________________________________________________

4.2.3 List three ways who the electrical pylons have been stiffened.

4.2.4 Give reasons why the different members or components of the structure come under
tension and compression.

4.2.5.1 All of the pylons solve the same problem. What is the problem?

4.2.5.2 How do they effectively solve this problem?

4.3 The illustration below is a design for future electric pylons created by French design
company Hugh Dutton Associates.

4.3.1 Do you think it would work in South Africa? Motivate your answer
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

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4.3.2 Do you think the pylons would be able to withstand the forces exerted on them?

4.3.3 Do the pylons have a centre of gravity and base-size

which would keep them stable?

4.3.4 Do you think the pylons of the future that are illustrated on the previous page create more
or less visual pollution than the traditional design as illustrated on the right?

WEEK 5: STRUCTURES
DEFINE FRAME STRUCTURES
• A frame structure is made up of different rigid
parts/members. These parts are joined together to form a
framework. The parts/members make the framework stronger.

FUNCTION/PURPOSE OF FRAME STRUCTURES

➔ It supports load and withstanding or resisting different forces. A structure
must be able to support its own weight and the load it has to carry. A load can be a
person, an object, or a force.
A moving load is known as a dynamic load. A stationary load is known as a static load.
➔ It spans a gap

PURPOSE OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS (COMPONENTS) IN

WOOD AND STEEL ROOF TRUSSES THAT SUPPORT THE
LOAD
• Structural members of steel beam trusses are supported to add strength.
Members supporting a steel roof structure are different from the those of a wooden truss.

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• Steel members have several advantages over wooden members:

➔ It is stronger,
➔ It can carry heavier loads,
➔ It is able to resist strong winds,
➔ Steel members do not bend or twist easily.

DISADVANTAGE of steel: it can rust if not treated beforehand by paint, vanish, wax or
galvanised steel (coated with zinc).

Larger building such as churches need many wooden trusses

• Frame structures are fairly easy to design. They can also be manufactured cheaply, and
they can be constructed quickly. They are often used in the construction industry.

ROOF TRUSSES
WHAT IS A TRUSS?
• A truss is a structure made up of triangles.

• The framework for the roofs of most houses and buildings is made from
either wood or steel.

• Roof trusses support the weight of the roof

timbers and roof coverings.

• The number of trusses that are used depends on the

size of the structure. Larger structures will need more
trusses.

• The members, or components, of a roof truss are

nailed, bolted, or pegged together to form a
strong triangular shape.

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STRUCTURAL MEMBERS OF ROOF TRUSSES:

A. KING POST – ONE vertical supporting post attached to the centre of a tie beam.

B. QUEEN POSTS – TWO supporting posts, it is a tension member in a truss designed

a. to span longer openings than a king post truss

C. APEX (TOP) of the triangle/roof.

D. RAFTERS – a Series of parallel beams forming part of the internal framework of a

roof.

E. STRUTS – rods / bars forming part of a framework and designed to resist compression.

F. TIE BEAM – horizontal beam which joins two rafters.

G. TIE – horizontal beam which withstand tension.

A. KING POSTS roof trusses

- The most common type of roof truss has a king post.
- King posts trusses can be used for roofs and bridges as it can deal with compression &
tension.
Apex
Rafter - compression force

King post - tension force

Strut – compression force

Tie beam - tension force

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B. QUEEN POST roof trusses

Apex

Rafter – compression force

Queen posts –

Tie beam – tension force

Struts – compression force

- The vertical beams are evenly spaced apart.

- The queen posts are connected at the top
by a diagonal collar beam.
- A queen post roof truss can span longer
distances than a king post roof truss.
- This means that larger structures can be built

MORE EXAMPLES OF ROOF TRUSSES

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C. APEX – top of the roof/triangle

D. RAFTERS
- Rafters help to shape the roof and they
also help to support the roof covering
and absorb and spread the
compression forces on the truss.

E. STRUTS
- Hold members of a framework in
place by pushing against them.
- A strut must be strong enough to keep
apart the two components that are
pushing against it.
- A strut is under a compression force.
- Placing a strut across a joint can make
a framework stronger.

F. TIE BEAMS
- A tie beam is a horizontal beam that
rests on two opposite columns.
- It joins the two diagonal sides of a
triangular structure.
- A tie beam usually connects two
opposite rafters to form a roof truss.

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G. TIES

- Hold or pull two members of a framework together.

- A tie must be strong enough to hold together structural members that are pulling
away from one another.
- A framework can be made stronger by joining the members with a tie.
- The two members each pull the tie towards themselves, so a tie is under a tension force. This
causes the tie to appear as if it is being stretched in two directions.

- Figure 7 shows a horizontal shelf that is joined to a wall. A television rests on the shelf.
- The television’s weight forces the shelf downwards.
- To stabilise the shelf, a tie, or diagonal member, is attached to the shelf and the
wall.
- The weight of the television forces the shelf to pull away from the wall.
- This creates a tension force on the tie.

• Structures support their own weight as well as the weight of the structures
they support.

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FORCES ACTING ON FRAME STRUCTURES

- Compression (pushing force)
- Tension (pulling force)
- Bending
- Torsion (twisting force)
- Shearing (tearing force)

INTERNAL SUPPORT
• TIES & STRUTS withstand compression and tension forces, while the king &
queen posts offer support & withstand forces of compression.

• If a structure has more than one part, each part of the structure is called a member.

PURPOSE OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS (COMPONENTS) IN

THAT SPAN A DISTANCE.
• A structure may span a river, a road, or a space.
• The support members of the structure must be stable and reliable

STRUCTURAL PARTS / MEMBERS that span a distance can include:

A. Arches,
B. Beams,
C. Buttresses,
D. Cantilevers,
E. Girders
F. Guys,
G. Lintels

A. An ARCH

- Is a semi-circular structure that spans distance and

supports a structure that rests on it.
- In arches made of stone, the keystone is in the middle of the
arch and this stone supports and keep the rest of the arch
together.
- Arches can also be made of other materials and the there is no
keystone.
- Arches are very sufficient in bridges that spans valleys because they are then
supported by the slopes of the mountains on either side.

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➔ ARCHES IN BUILDINGS

- Arches in buildings
strengthens the structure
and increase the space that
can be spanned.

Moses Madiba stadium, KZN

➔ ARCHES IN BRIDGES:

Bloukrans bridge (451m long)

- The columns can be further apart

because the arch supports the weight
of the traffic on the bridge.

➔ ARCHES IN DAM WALLS:

Katse Dam, Lesotho

- The wall curves into the water in the

dam.
- The dam wall is able to withstand a
great deal of pressure.

B. BEAMS
- Are horizontal structural members often made of wood, metal, or concrete.
- Beams often spread a load across two
or more columns.
- Beams used in larger structures take many
different forms, some are simply solid,
some are hollow, and others have special
cross-sections to provide strength and
rigidity.

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C. BUTTRESSES
- They are built against or projecting from a wall
which serves to support or reinforce the wall.

D. CANTILEVERS
- Are beams which are supported at one end
only.

➔ SIMPLE CANTILEVERS

- A simple cantilever beam can span a gap while it

is held in position at one end
only.
- As a load is applied to the cantilever, it starts to
bend. As you can see in

- Below are examples of simple cantilevers are the wings attached to an aeroplane
and some types of buildings and bridges.

➔ CABLE-STAYED CANTILEVERS

- The cables are in tension, and the deck in compression.

- The cables are of high tensile steel. The columns are often
made out of concrete.
Nelson Mandela bridge

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E. GRIDERS (STEEL I-BEAM)

- Usually made of steel or aluminium.
- Are horizontal steel beams – usually I beams.
- It can also be box-shaped and Z-shaped.
- It often supports other smaller beams around it.

F. GUYS
- Structures like high ROOF
STRUCTUREs and
tents can also be made stable by
anchoring it to the ground with
guys.

- Guys are ropes, cables, or chains (flexible

members) that hold a structure firmly in place
by pulling on it

G. LINTELS
- are beams made of concrete and reinforced with
steel bars.

- They spread the weight of the structure above the

opening of doors and windows to the structure beside
them.

- It withstands compression force

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TYPES OF BRIDGES

➔ ARCH BRIDGES:
• The columns can be
further apart because the
arch supports the
weight of the traffic on
the bridge.

ADVANTAGES OF ARCH BRIDGES

- The entire arch is in compression
- Arch bridges can be very long because there is no tension in the bridge.

DISADVANTAGES OF ARCHES
- An arch cannot stand until it is complete. The two halves must be cantilevered using
cables. So, a cable-stayed structure must be built to hold both ends of the arch before it is
joined. This is building two structures.

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➔ BEAM AND COLUMN BRIDGES

• Below are examples of bridges built across narrow rivers or single
carriageways.

• Such bridges do not need to be very high.

• The horizontal beams are made from concrete.

• The bridges are supported by concrete columns. Columns are vertical members
that support a load. These columns add extra support to the bridges

• The beam and column bridge is the simplest type of bridge.

• It is usually straight. The beam is supported at each end by columns.

• Columns are designed to hold the weight of a structure and in his case the beam
bridge.

• There are many forces that act on a beam and column bridge.

• The bridge’s own weight can put a huge strain on the structure. For the beam and
column bridge to be strong, it must develop compression along the top
and tension along the bottom

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ADVANTAGES OF BEAM AND COLUMN BRIDGES

- The beam bridge rests on simple columns
- A beam may be built away from the final position, and lifted swiftly into place
with no disruption to the traffic below

DISADVANTAGES OF BEAM AND COLUMN BRIDGES

- The beam bridge experiences large forces and therefore has to be a very big
size

➔ TRUSS BRIDGE

• It is a load-bearing structure which

incorporates a truss in a highly efficient yet very
simple design.

• There are different variations of the simple truss bridge, but they all incorporate
triangular sections.

• The role of these triangular elements is important because they effectively absorb
tension and compression to create a stressed structure able to
accommodate dynamic loads.

• This mixture of tension and

compression ensures the
structure of the bridge is
maintained and the decking
area remains
uncompromised even in
relatively strong winds.

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➔ CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
• The bridge is held in position by cables that are
connected to a high ROOF STRUCTURE on one
side of the bridge.

• The cables are in tension, and the deck in

compression.

• The cables are of high tensile steel. The columns are

often made out of concrete.

ADVANTAGES OF CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES

- The two parts of the bridge may be cantilevered out from each side.

- No need for anchorages.

- They can be cheaper than suspension bridges.

DISADVANTAGES OF CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES

- In the longer sizes, the cantilevered halves can be affected by strong winds
during construction.

- The cables require careful treatment to protect them from corrosion.

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➔ CANTILEVER BRIDGE
• A cantilever differs from the arch and the
beam bridge in that the attachment
points are not at opposite ends.
The cantilever projects out into
space and the support is at one
end only.

• Most cantilever bridges have two

cantilevers, with a beam suspended
between their ends.

• Mostly cantilever bridges are supported by cables and an anchor at one end of the
bridge.

ADVANTAGES OF CANTILEVER BRIDGES

- Building from each end enables construction to be done with little disruption to
traffic below.

- the span can be greater than that of a simple beam because a beam can be
added to the cantilever arms.

- The support can be simple columns.

DISADVANTAGES OF CANTILEVER BRIDGES

• Like beams, they maintain their shape by the opposition of large tensile and
compressive forces, as well as shear, and are therefore very large and
heavy.

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➔ SUSPENSION BRIGDES

• Sometimes it is necessary to design and build a bridge using supports other than columns,
such as a bridge over deep water or a very deep valley or when the distance
to span is very big.

• Suspension bridges are used in such a case.

• Suspension bridges hang from cables that run the

length of the bridge.

• The cables rest on high ROOF STRUCTUREs at

either end of the bridge.
Golden Gate bridge - San
Francisco

• The cables are made of wire and able to hold up the heavy beams of the
bridge and bear the load of the bridge.

• The columns hold the main cable up. The anchorages pull the cable outward and
downward. The hangers connect the deck to the main cable. The deck carries the traffic.

ADVANTAGES OF SUSPENSION BRIDGES

- Suspension bridges can span very long gaps. The design allows the bridge to be
made of very long sections.

- If one of the hangers fails or breaks, it can be replaced without disruption

to the flow of traffic and will not have an impact on the stability of the
bridge.

- Suspension bridges do not have to be built along straight channels but can be designed
along curves and arched spaces.

- Suspension bridges can be built with double decks for cars and trains. The strength
of the cabling system is sufficient to hold the double decks.

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DISADVANTAGES OF SUSPENSION BRIDGES

- Suspension bridges are very expensive to build.

- They take a very long time to build. It can take up to nine months to connect the main
cable to the ROOF STRUCTUREs and the anchorages.

- The concrete ROOF STRUCTUREs have to be built in shallow bedrock.

- The complete decks can be affected by strong winds.

STRUCTURAL FAILURE
• A structure is stable if it does not collapse when a
force is pressed against it and it if it does not topple over
when a force acts on it.

• A rigid structure is a structure that is stiff and not easy to

bend or change its shape.
A non-rigid structure is a structure that is flexible and easy to bend or
change. It collapses easily as there is no reinforcement
through triangulation or gussets.

• Fracture is when an object lacks the

strength to resist a force being applied
to it and the structure breaks into
pieces.

REASONS WHY STRUCTURES FAIL:

- Fracture of a member – due to lack of strength.

- Bending (flexing, buckling) – due to lack of stiffness (rigidity
- Toppling over – due to lack of stability (top heavy, narrow base).

EXTERNAL FACTORS THAT CAUSE

STRUCTURAL FAILURE:
1. Continuous high temperature
2. Strong winds over a long period of time
3. Excessive weight on the structure
4. Bad design e.g., wrong base size / type of materials
5. Corrosion

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REASON FOR
STRUCTURAL EXPLANATION EXAMPLE
FAILURE
- If a structural member fractures /
breaks because it is not strong
enough to withstand the forces
exerted on it.
FRACTURE - It might be cause by the materials
used were not correct,
- the material was not strong enough,
- more force was exerted on the
material than was anticipated.

- If the structure bends with more force

than its members can sustain, the
structure may fall and collapse.

BENDING - While structures must be able to

withstand some torsion forces, if the
members are not rigid or stiff
enough, the structure will bend too
much and fall.

- If a structure is not stable or rigid, it

will topple over.

TOPPLING - This may be caused by the structure

OVER that is top-heavy or has a narrow
base. A wide base and well-placed
centre of gravity can help to prevent
this from happening.

EXAMPLES OF FAILURE IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES

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INSTRUCTIONS: ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ON STRUCTURES

ACTIVITY 5: STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

5.1 Define a frame structure.

5.2 Name at least 3 structural members of roof trusses.

5.3 Identify the roof truss members marked A – E.

A C

D
A
B
C
D
E

5.4 Choose the correct description from column B that goes with the term in column A. Write
the correct letter in the Answer column.

COLUMN A ANSWER COLUMN B

5.4.1. Frame structure A. The roof truss that has the fewest members

5.4.2 Roof trusses B. A flowerpot hanging from a windowsill by a rope

5.4.3 Rafter C. A roof’s covering is supported by these

D. The bottom, horizontal member of a triangular
5.4.4 King post truss
structure
5.4.5 Queen post truss E. A member that keeps two components separated

F. A structure made up of strong materials that form a

5.4.6 Tie
rigid frame
G. The roof truss that enables people to construct big
5.4.7 Strut
halls
H. It helps to shape the roof with a series of parallel
5.4.8 Tie beam
beams
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5.5 Answer the questions underneath based on the roof trusses.

D B

5.5.1 Identify the type of roof trusses in the diagram.

5.5.2 Name structural member B?

5.5.3 Draw arrows on the diagram of the trusses to indicate the direction of the force acting on
structural members A and D.

D B

A
5.5.4 List the forces acting on structural members A and D.
A:
D:

5.6 Identify the structural members and the force each one is experiencing in the pictures
below.

5.6.4
5.6.1

5.6.2 5.6.3

5.6.4 Member: ___________

5.6.2 Member: ___________ Force:_____________
5.6.1 Member: __________ Force: _____________
Force: ____________
5.6.3 Member: ___________
Force: _____________

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5.7 When a force is applied on the structure in Diagram A, the structure is not stable.

Diagram A Diagram B

5.7.1 Identify the force applied on the structural members in Diagram A.

_____________________________________________________________________________

5.7.2 Draw reinforcement to stabilise the structure in Diagram B.

5.7.3 Name the type of reinforcement you used to stabilise the structure.

_____________________________________________________________________________

5.8 Define the following terms:

5.8.1 Tie beam:_______________________________________________________________
5.8.2 Strut:___________________________________________________________________

5.8.3 King post: _______________________________________________________________

5.8.4 Rafter:
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

5.8.5 Queen post:

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

5.9 Fill in the missing words.

5.9.1 We often use struts to _______________________ a structure.
5.9.2 This part of a frame structure stands upright and offers support: __________________.
5.9.3 Structures that hold up a roof and give it shape are called ________________________.
5.9.4 We reinforce building structures with _______________________ by letting two diagonal
supports cross each other.
5.9.5 In building construction, the members that are pushed up against columns to keep them
in place are called ___________________

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5.10 Identify the type of each of the following bridges.

A. __________________________________ B. __________________________________

C. __________________________________ D. __________________________________

E. _________________________________ F. __________________________________

G. __________________________________ H. __________________________________

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5.11 Identify the following parts of the bridges below.

5.11.4 5.11.5 5.11.6

5.11.1
5.11.7
5.11.8
5.11.2
5.11.3

5.11.9

5.11.1 5.11.5
5.11.2 5.11.6
5.11.3 5.11.7
5.11.4 5.11.8
5.11.9

5.12 Why do designers make use of arches when designing dam walls?

5.13 Study the illustrations below and answer the questions.

The illustrations show different ways that bridges can fail.

Describe how structural failure could be prevented.

5.13.1

5.13.2

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5.13.3

5.14 The Figures below show a suspension bridge and an arch bridge. In a suspension bridge,
the deck of the bridge hangs from the cables that carry the load. Explain in what way an
arch bridge is different from a suspension bridge

SUSPENSION BRIDGE:

ARCH BRIDGE:

5.15 Where are lintels used in houses, and what are their purposes?

5.16 Name 3 reasons that could cause structural failure.

5.17 Name five EXTERNAL FACTORS THAT CAUSE STRUCTURAL FAILURE:

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WEEK 6: DESIGN: GRAPHIC COMMUNICATION

PURPOSE OF GRAPHICS: TO DEVELOP AND COMMUNICATE
IDEAS
Graphic communication is using skills and techniques to record and communicate
the shape and size of a product. Every product we have today (e.g., cars, houses, beds,
tables, chairs, desks, appliances, and tools) started as an idea. These ideas were
communicated by means of different types of drawings. These drawings form a
universal graphic language that can be understood by anyone, regardless of the country they
come from.

RULES OF DRAWING
1. Always use a sharp pencil.
2. HB or 2H pencil is the best type to use when drawing.
3. Always use a ruler to draw straight lines.
4. The horizontal line goes from the left to the right of the page.
5. The vertical line goes from the top to the bottom of the page.
6. Always use a protractor or set square to draw angles.
7. The best way to draw a circle is to use a compass.
8. You also need an eraser (rubber)

LINE TYPES
• The correct use of lines and measurements are compulsory to avoid any confusion that might
occur during the designing process. The following is an illustration of the types of line used in
graphic communication.

LINE TYPE EXAMPLE DESCRIPTION

Visible outlines, visible edges, continuous thick
solid line that is used to show the outlines, planes, curved
Outline
surfaces, and the edges of an object and that are visible from
the projection plane view.
Imaginary lines, projection lines, leader lines.
Construction These lines are known as Feint lines. A line that is not more
line than 0.3 mm. They are thin and used to guide the designer to
complete the drawing.
Dashed thick line and is used to show the hidden detail of
Dashed line ______ edges, planes, curved surfaces that are not visible in the
projected view.
Chained thin dashed lines that are used to represent symmetry,
Centre lines __ _ __ _ __ path of motion, centres of circles, axis of axisymmetric parts (to
cut and object in half at the centre) features.
Dimensioning
Very thin, feint continuous line with arrowheads on both ends
and
and measurement on top of the line are used to show the
extension
dimension of the side.
lines
Represents an area of the object that has been removed to
Curved lines
make a clearer or shorten view.
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MISTAKES THAT OCCUR WHEN DRAWING

In each example the correct and wrong way are illustrated. Make sure you do
not use the wrong method to draw.

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DIMENSIONING
• Working drawings are either full size or scaled if they are too big to fit on a page.
• All measurements are placed on the drawing to enable it to be made on the factory
floor.
• When we add measurements, we call it dimensioning

• It is very important to add dimensions (measurements) when drawing accurate

orthographic or working drawings.
• Dimensions can also be applied to simple sketches and designs as they help anyone
looking at these to understand the overall size or scale. However, dimensions are
usually drawn in a particular way and some examples are shown below.

• The arrowhead must be sharp but above all the dimensions must
be accurate.

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SCALE DRAWINGS
There are mainly three types of
scales:

(1) Full Scale

(2) Reduced Scale
(3) Enlarged Scale.

FULL SCALE

• 1:1 means the drawing has to be drawn/are

drawn exactly the same size as the real
object.
E.g. One circle’s radius is 20 mm in data,
and you are drawing it of 20 mm in drawing then you are using full scale in drawing.
Example: 1:1, 2:2, 3:3, 4:4, 5:5 etc.

REDUCED SCALE

• Using reduced scale means you are drawing the object SMALLER than the REAL SIZE.
E.g.: One circle’s radius is 20 mm in data, but you are drawing it of 10 mm in drawing then
you are using reduced scale in drawing.
Example: 1:2, 1:3, 1:4, 1:5, 1:6 etc.

• ENLARGED SCALE

• Using enlarged scale means you are drawing the object BIGGER THAN the REAL SIZE
• E.g.: One circle’s radius is 20 mm in data, but you are drawing it of 40 mm in drawing then
you are using enlarged scale in drawing. Example: 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, 6:1 etc.

• Indicating the scale of the drawing, you write the word “SCALE” followed by the indication of
its ratio, as follow
The ratio normally used is…
SCALE 1:1 for FULL SCALE / SAME SIZE
1:1, 1:2, 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, etc.
SCALE 1:X for REDUCED SCALE / SIZE or
1:1, 2:1, 5:1, 10:1, 20:1, 5:1, 100:1, etc
SCALE X:1 for ENLARGED SCALE / SIZE

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WORKING DRAWINGS
• Working drawings are 2D drawings in which only one face or side of an object can be seen.

• It is the drawing that will be used to make the final product, and it therefore needs to be clear
and specific about every aspect of the product.

INSTRUCTIONS
6.1 Read the Scenario again on page 26 to ensure that you know exactly what to design and make
during the next weeks.

6.2 DEVELOP your IDEAS by drawing free hand sketches of two different possible solutions to the
identified problem.

6.3 Add LABELS and NOTES about the materials you want to use and to clarify
any other details that may not be obvious in the sketch
IDEA 1

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idea 2

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6.4.2
6.4.1
6.4

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ASSESSMENT GUIDELINES FOR INITIAL IDEAS, EVALUATION &

CHOICE OF THE FINAL IDEA
Marks
CRITERIA The learner(s)......
allocated

1. Sketched TWO FREEHAND ideas – individually (2 marks per drawing) ___/4

2. Labels and notes were added to the drawings ___/2

3. Different line types were clearly visible ___/2

4. Ideas of all group members were evaluated, and a final choice was made ___/3

5. A final choice from the possible ideas was made ___/1

6. Indicated possible problems to the different designs ___/4

7. Made sketches that are neat and complete (2 marks per drawing) ___/4

SUB TOTAL ___/20

6.5 DRAW THE FINAL CHOICE OF ROOF FOR THE STADIUM IN THE SPACE BELOW

Remember to add labels and dimensions. [INDIVIDUAL WORK]

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WEEK 7: MAKE A 2-D WORKING DRAWING OF ONE

VIEW OF YOUR DESIGN
7.1 WORKING DRAWING [INDIVIDUAL WORK]
You must draw a WORKING DRAWING of your chosen design showing ONE VIEW OF THE ROOF
STRUCTURE WITH DIMENSIONS.
This drawing should use the correct line types as taught in the graphic communications course.

1. Select the view of your model to draw.

2. Determine the scale and dimensions according to the 3-D drawing done in activity 6.4.
3. Identify different parts of the roof structure.

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MARKING GUIDELINES FOR ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION /

WORKING DRAWING
Marks
Description
allocated
1. ONE view was developed ____/1

2. Labels (2 marks) and annotated notes were used (2 marks) ____/4

3. Parts of the ROOF were identified ____/4

4. Materials were indicated ____/2

5. Line work (consistency in line thickness and line types; neat corners) ____/2

6. Dimensions were indicated (overall length & height) ____/2

TOTAL ____/15

7.2 BUILD A SCALE MODEL OF A ROOF STRUCTURE FOR

THE GRANDSTAND OF THE STADIUM [FORMAL]
GROUP / INDIVIDUAL WORK

1. Before you start working, compare the scale and dimensions of your working drawing with
those of the other learners in your group to ensure that the model works out correctly.

2. Make a scale model that accurately represents your design of the roof structure.
Each member of the team must contribute to this process.

3. The model should be made as neatly as possible using suitable materials.

4. Use the following criteria to evaluate your model of the roof for the stadium:
Criteria Yes / No

Have we managed to sketch a 3D isometric projection with dimensions and

1.
to scale?

Have we drawn a 2D working drawing showing one view with dimensions

2
and line types?

3. Have we interpreted the working drawing correctly?

4. Have we built our roof structure using safe working practices?

Have we designed the stadium according to the design brief specifications,

5.
such as rigidity and stability?

6. Does our model show that we have mastered the necessary making skills?

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ASSESSMENT GUIDELINES OF MAKING SKILLS: [20 MARKS]

DESIGN AND MAKE A SCALE MODEL OF A ROOF STRUCTURE FOR THE

GRANDSTAND OF THE STADIUM

4 3 2 1

EXCELLENT GOOD ACCEPTABLE UNACCEPTABLE

✓ Shows a VERY GOOD ✓ Shows a GENERAL ✓ Shows ✓ Shows LITTLE

understanding of the understanding of the UNDERSTANDING of understanding of the
making process. making process. the making process. making process.

✓ TAKES CARE when ✓ Takes REASONABLE ✓ NOT ABLE to use tools

working, using tools and care when working, ✓ Takes SOME care when and materials safely and
materials safely and using tools and materials working, using tools and accurately.
Make a scale model of a ROOF STRUCTURE FOR THE GRANDSTAND OF THE STADIUM

accurately. safely and accurately. materials safely and

accurately.
✓ WORKS CONFIDENTLY ✓ Works EASILY with ✓ FINDS it DIFFICULT to
with others, making a others, making a very ✓ Works with others, work with others, making
very good contribution. good contribution. making a REASONABLE a very LITTLE or NO
contribution. contribution.

MARKS: 10 – 9 MARKS: 8 – 6 MARKS: 5 – 3 MARKS: 2 – 0

MAKING SKILLS

✓ Produce an ✓ Produce a VERY GOOD ✓ Produce an ✓ Produce and

EXCELLENT model of a model of a ROOF ACCEPTABLE model of UNACCEPTABLE model
ROOF STRUCTURE. STRUCTURE. a ROOF STRUCTURE. of
a ROOF STRUCTURE.
✓ EXCELLENT usage of ✓ VERY GOOD usage of ✓ ACCEPTABLE usage of
triangulation, best triangulation, good triangulation, ✓ UNACCEPTABLE /
usage of available usage of available reasonable usage of POOR usage of
resources and joining materials and modern available materials and triangulation, usage of
techniques. joining techniques. modern joining materials and joining
techniques. techniques.
✓ The ROOF
✓ The ROOF STRUCTURE is VERY ✓ The ROOF
STRUCTURE is VERY ✓ The ROOF
STRONG, STABLE and STRUCTURE does not
STRONG, STABLE and STRUCTURE is NOT AT
RIGID adhere to the
RIGID. ALL STRONG, STABLE
specifications of
and RIGID.
STRENGTH, STABILITY
and RIGIDITY.

✓ EXCELLENT usage of ✓ VERY GOOD usage of ✓ ACCEPTABLE usage of ✓ VERY FEW materials
available resources. available resources. available resources. were used to build the
model.
MARKS : 10 – 9 MARKS : 8 – 6 MARKS: 5 – 3 MARKS : 2 – 0

SCORE: __________/20

TOTAL MARKS FOR ASSIGNMENT: 70

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WEEK 8: EVALUATE COMPLEX STRUCTURES

1. Evaluate your scale model of the roof structure by identifying the advantages and
disadvantages of your model.

2. Use the criteria mentioned in the scenario.

CRITERIA ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

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WEEK 9: GROUPS PRESENT THEIR PLANS & SCALE

MODEL TO THE REST OF THE CLASS

1. PLAN A JOINT STRATEGY TO PRESENT THE TEAM’S WORK

GROUP WORK
2. Prepare a five-minute presentation during which you will:

❖ show your individual designs sketches.

❖ explain the changes you made as a team.
❖ show your team’s final plans.
❖ exhibit (show and explain) your team’s model.

3. Each member of the team must speak briefly about the role they played in the
following:

❖ the development of the design.

❖ the making of the scale model.
❖ the preparation for the presentation.

4. Use the spider diagram to plan and divide the work amongst the members of the group.

5. Indicate the following concepts/aspects on your diagram:

Time allocated for this part Why did you decide on

of the presentation: ______ this specific design?

Name of group member

that will present this:
__________________________________________

Time allocated for this part Time allocated for this part
of the presentation: _____ of the presentation: ____
How did you build the
Present the scale model
to the rest of the class. Roof ROOF STRUCTURE?
(STEPS)

Name of groupmember
structure Name of group member that
that will present this: will present this:
_______________________________________________ _________________________________________

Explain and discuss

Time allocated for this part improvements made to
the scale model:
of the presentation: ______
Name of group member
that will present this:
PS: Remember you have only 5 minutes
for your presentation. _____________________________________________

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WEEK 10: MAKE A 3-D ISOMETRIC DRAWING OF THE

SCALE MODEL OF THE ROOF STRUCTURE
1. Once you have evaluated the initial sketches and chosen one, you may make changes to
the initial sketch to incorporate good ideas from other designs of your group members.

2. Combine the work the members of your group did in activity 2. Use it to make neat drawings
of the ROOF OF THE GRANDSTAND.

KEEP THE FOLLOWING IN MIND: INDIVIDUAL WORK

• decide on the scale to use
• decide which side of the model to use as a front view.

MAKE SURE YOUR DRAWING ADHERES TO THE CRITERIUM

SELF ASSESSMENT FOR THE ISOMETRIC DRAWING

DESCRIPTION YES NO

1. Different line types were clearly visible

2. Labels and notes were used to identify various parts of the bridge and to
identify the choice of materials for the bridge.

3. Dimensions were realistic and clearly visible

4. Scale of final choice was indicated and drawn to scale

5. The isometric drawing was neat and complete

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Make a 3-D ISOMETRIC projection. Draw your scale model of the roof to scale in all 3 dimensions

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