The Big Book of

AYODHYA in INDONESIA

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Dr Uday Dokras

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 Interpretation of the word Yogyakarta

Dr Uday Dokras

INTRODUCTION
The Sultanate of Yogyakarta is an Islamic protectorate in Indonesia, yet bears the name of the
Hindu God Ram’s birth place Ayodhya. This city AYODHYA a city of legands and in
Legands of the Hindu ethos, has existed in various forms and survived through the rule of the
Dutch and the 1942 invasion of the Dutch East Indies by the Japanese Empire in
Indonesia. Special Region of Yogyakarta is a province-level special region of Indonesia in
southern Java. It is a semi-enclave that is surrounded by on the landward side by Central
Java Province to the west, north, and east, but has a long coastline on the Indian Ocean to the

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south.Co-ruled by the Yogyakarta Sultanate and the Duchy of Pakualaman, the region is the
only officially recognized diarchy within the government of Indonesia.

The Hindu (Indian) Ayodhya is a city situated on the banks of the Sarayu river in
the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is the administrative headquarters of the Ayodhya
district as well as the Ayodhya division of Uttar Pradesh, India. This legendary city of
Ayodhya, popularly identified as the present-day Ayodhya, is identified in the
epic Ramayana and its many versions as the birthplace of the Hindu
deity Rama of Kosala and is hence regarded as the first of the seven most important
pilgrimage sites for Hindus. The word "Ayodhya" is a regularly formed derivation of
the Sanskrit verb yudh, "to fight, or wage war".Yodhya is the future passive participle,
meaning "to be fought"; the initial a is the negative prefix; the whole, therefore, means "not
to be fought" or, more idiomatically in English, "invincible".This meaning is attested by
the Atharvaveda, which uses it to refer to the unconquerable city of gods. The ninth
century Jain poem Adi Purana also states that Ayodhya "does not exist by name alone but by
the merit" of being unconquerable by enemies. Satyopakhyana interprets the word differently,
stating that it means "that which cannot be conquered by sins" (instead of enemies).
"Saketa" is the older name for the city, attested in Sanskrit, Jain, Buddhist, Greek and
Chinese sources. According to Vaman Shivram Apte, the word "Saketa" is derived from the
Sanskrit words Saha (with) and Aketen (houses or buildings). The Adi Purana states that
Ayodhya is called Saketa "because of its magnificent buildings which had significant banners
as their arms".According to Hans T. Bakker, the word may be derived from the
roots sa and ketu ("with banner"); the variant name saketu is attested in the Vishnu Purana.
The older name in English was "Oudh" or "Oude", and the princely state it was the capital of
until 1856 is still known as Oudh State.Ayodhya was stated to be the capital of the
ancient Kosala kingdom in the Ramayana. Hence it was also referred to as "Kosala". The Adi
Purana states that Ayodhya is famous as su-kośala "because of its prosperity and good
skill".The cities of Ayutthaya (Thailand), and Yogyakarta (Indonesia), are named after
Ayodhya.

Terracotta image of Jain Tirthankar dated fourth century BCE excavated from AyodhyaGold carving depiction of
the legendary Ayodhya at the Ajmer Jain temple/// Official seal of Special Region of Yogyakarta

Ancient Indian Sanskrit-language epics, such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata mention
a legendary city called Ayodhya, which was the capital of the legendary Ikshvaku kings of

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Kosala, including Rama. Neither these texts, nor the earlier Sanskrit texts such as the Vedas,
mention a city called Saketa.

Ayodhya and Ayutthaya, one in India and the other in Thailand. Separated by geographical
boundaries, the two towns are united not just in name but also in faith with the religious
fervour in the home of Ram finding echo 3,500 km away in a foreign land. At the
consecration of a grand Ram temple in India, devotees in Ayutthaya joined these celebrations
receiving soil from Ayutthaya -- named after Ayodhya -- and water from Thailand's three
rivers, including Chao Phraya, Lop Buri and Pa Sak for the Ram temple. Ayutthaya in
Thiland was traditionally founded by King Uthong on 4 March 1351. This fact, however, has
been subject to long scholarly debate. According to Chris Baker-Pasuk Phongpaichit, there
are at least seven legends about who Uthong was: "a Northern Thai prince, a fugitive Chinese
prince from the sea, a Khmer noble from Angkor, a ruler from one of the gulf cities, or
a Chola." Other than being the legendary founder of Ayutthaya, the only thing known about
Uthong in the chronicles is the year of his death.
Yogyakarta is the capital city of the Special Region of Yogyakarta in Indonesia, in the
south-central part of the island of Java. As the only Indonesian royal city still ruled by a
monarchy, Yogyakarta is regarded as an important centre for classical Javanese fine arts and
culture such as ballet, batik textiles, drama, literature, music, poetry, silversmithing, visual
arts, and wayang puppetry. Yogyakarta is named after the Indian city of Ayodhya, the
birthplace of the eponymous hero Rama from the Ramayana epic. Yogya means "suitable; fit;
proper", and karta means "prosperous; flourishing". Thus, Yogyakarta means "[a city that is]
fit to prosper".

In colonial era correspondence, the city is often written with the Latin alphabet as
"Jogjakarta". Personal and geographical names however, were allowed to maintain their
original spelling according to contemporary Indonesian orthography. Thus, the city can be
written as "Yogyakarta", which is true to its original pronunciation and the Javanese script
spelling, or "Jogjakarta", which is true to the old Dutch spelling and reflects popular
pronunciation today, but differs from the original Ayodhya etymology. One may encounter
either "Yogyakarta" or "Jogjakarta" in contemporary documents.

Yogyakarta is the capital of the Yogyakarta Sultanate and served as the Indonesian capital
from 1946 to 1948 during the Indonesian National Revolution, with Gedung Agung as the
president's office. One of the districts in southeastern Yogyakarta, Kotagede, was the capital
of the Mataram Sultanate between 1587 and 1613.

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Etymology and orthography
As part of Mataram Kingdom from the 8th–10th century CE
According to the Canggal inscription dated 732 CE, the area traditionally known as
"Mataram" became the capital of the Medang Kingdom, identified as Mdang i Bhumi
Mataram established by King Sanjaya of Mataram. Sanjaya (Sanskrit: सञ्जय, the word
meaning lit. 'conquest, victory, triumphant'; 716 AD – 746) was the founder of the Mataram
Kingdom during the 8th century. His name was carved in the above Canggal inscription
which was found in a Hindu temple in Central Java, 40 km away from Yogyakarta and 20 km
away from the giant Borobudur temple complex.

This Hindu temple itself was on the border between the area of the Hindu Sañjaya
dynasty and the area of the Buddhist Shailendra dynasty.

Mataram became the centre of a refined and sophisticated Javanese Hindu-Buddhist culture
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for about three centuries in the heartland of the Progo River valley, on the southern slopes
of Mount Merapi volcano. This time period witnessed the construction of numerous candi,
including Borobudur and Prambanan. It is suggested that Sanjaya was the progenitor of
the Sanjaya dynasty, and two dynasties ruled Central Java; the Buddhist Sailendra and the
Shivaist Sanjaya dynasty. The inscription also states that Sanjaya was an ardent follower
of Shaivism. The latter was forced to move eastward by Sanjaya as written in an
old Chinese report, which named Sanjaya as Chi-Yen.

Yet other historians argued that there was no such thing as the Sanjaya dynasty since there
was only one dynasty mentioned in inscriptions called Sailendra that ruled central Java. This
theory was proposed by Poerbatjaraka and suggested that there was only one kingdom and
one dynasty; the kingdom was called Mataram with the capital in the Poh Pitu area, and the
ruling dynasty was Shailendra. He holds that Sanjaya and all of his offspring belong to the
Sailendra family initially were Shivaists. The association of Sailendra
with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Raja Sankhara (Rakai Panaraban or
Panangkaran) to Buddhism.Around the year 929 CE, the last ruler of the Sañjaya
dynasty, King Mpu Sindok of Mataram, moved the seat of power of the Mataram Kingdom
from Central Java to East Java and thus established the Isyana dynasty. The exact cause of
the move is still uncertain; however, a severe eruption from Mount Merapi or a power
struggle with the Sumatra-based Srivijaya kingdom probably caused the move

Historians suggest that some time during the reign of King Wawa of Mataram (924–929 CE),
Merapi erupted and devastated the kingdom's capital in Mataram. The root of the Sanskrit
word Vande is Vand, which appears in Rigveda which means “to praise, celebrate, laud,
salute respectfully” and the word “Mataram” has Indo-European roots in Matar- (Sanskrit),
méter (Greek), mâter (Latin) which mean “mother”

1. https://www.academia.edu/105011224/
MATARAM_KINGDOM_and_ARCHITECTURE_of_the_THE_TWIN_PL
AINS
2. https://www.academia.edu/114925164/
Confusing_Context_of_the_Mataram_Era

Majapahit Empire (1293–1527)

During the Majapahit era, the area surrounding modern Yogyakarta was identified again as
"Mataram" and recognised as one of the twelve Majapahit provinces in Java ruled by Bhre
Mataram. During the reign of the fourth king of the Majapahit Empire, the Hindu King
Hayam Wuruk (1350–1389) of the Rajasa dynasty, the title of Bhre Mataram was held by the
king's nephew and son-in-law Wikramawardhana, later the fifth king of Majapahit.

Mataram Sultanate (1587–1755)

During the reign of Sultan Agung Hanyokrokusumo (1613–1645), the Mataram Sultanate
reached its zenith as the greatest kingdom in Java, and expanded its influence to Central Java,
East Java, and half of West Java. After two changes of capital—to Karta and then to Plered,
both located in present-day Bantul Regency—the capital of the Mataram Sultanate finally
moved to Kartasura.

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Praja Cihna , coat of arms or crest of the Yogyakarta Sultanate that is upheld by Mataram society. The crest contains
the Javanese script a royal monogram/// Official seal of Yogyakarta city

Named after Ayodhya the city of Hindu God Ram

Named after the city of Ayodhya in Javanese-Hindu mythology. The Dutch name of the
Special Region is Djokjakarta. The Sultanate has existed in various forms and survived
through the rule of the Dutch and the 1942 invasion of the Dutch East Indies by the Japanese
Empire. In August 1945 Indonesia's first president, Sukarno proclaimed the independence of
the Indonesian Republic, and by September of that year, Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX and
Duke Sri Paku Alam VIII had sent letters to Sukarno expressing their support for the newly
born nation of Indonesia, in which they acknowledged the Yogyakarta Sultanate as part of the
Indonesian Republic. The Sunanate of Surakarta did the same, and both of
the Javanese kingdoms were awarded special status as special regions within the Indonesian
Republic. However, due to a leftist anti-royalist uprising in Surakarta, the Sunanate of
Surakarta lost its special administrative status in 1946 and was absorbed into the province
of Central Java.

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Ayutthaya is shown in the Fra Mauro map of the world (c. 1450) under the name "Scierno", derived from
the Persian "Shahr-I-Naw", meaning 'New City'

Yogyakarta's overwhelming support and the Sultan's patriotism were essential in the
Indonesian struggle for independence during the Indonesian National Revolution (1945–
1949). The city of Yogyakarta became the capital of the Indonesian Republic from January
1946 to December 1948 after the fall of Jakarta to the Dutch. Later, the Dutch also invaded
Yogyakarta causing the Indonesian Republic's capital to be transferred again
to Bukittinggi in West Sumatra on 19 December 1948. In return for Yogyakarta's support, the
declaration of Special Authority over Yogyakarta was granted in full in 1950 and Yogyakarta
was given the status of a Special Administrative Region, making Yogyakarta the only region
headed by a monarchy in Indonesia.

The Special Region was struck by a 6.3-magnitude earthquake on 27 May 2006, killing 5,782
people, injuring approximately 36,000, and leaving 600,000 people homeless. The region
of Bantul suffered the most damage and deaths.

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 Historiography

Arrival of Hinduism
Hindu influences reached the Indonesian Archipelago as early as the first century. In tales
like the "Kidung Harṣa Wijaya", which is a ballad which takes as its theme the story of the
founding of Majapahit by Raden Wijaya . Raden Wijaya became the first king with the title
Kertarajasa Jayawardhana. Song Harsawijaya tells the story of the fall of
the Singasari kingdom and the emergence of a new kingdom based on the previous kingdom,
Majapahit. Singasari was led by a king named Narashinga , and his queen consort, the king
had a son named Harsawijaya (Lembu Tal). Harsawijaya or Lembu Tal was the king's son
who was intelligent, handsome and braveone reads that "rata bhaṭṭāra Narasingha"
supposedly was a scion in the lineage of Hari, and that Hari is another word for "Vishnu".
Early translators of Kavi manuscripts misunderstood the "being a son of" and assumed that
Vishnu actually had human offspring and so on. Here however we must conclude a belonging
to a religious school of thought, Vaisnavism. Therefore, early Hinduism on Java, Bali, and
Sumatra consisted of both main schools of Hinduism. Thus, historical evidence is not entirely
unclear about the diffusion process of cultural and spiritual ideas from India. Java legends
refer to Saka-era, traced to 78 CE. Stories from the Mahabharata Epic have been traced in
Indonesian islands to the 1st century; whose versions mirror those found in southeast Indian
peninsular region (now Tamil Nadu and southern Andhra Pradesh). The Javanese prose
work Tantu Pagelaran of the 14th century, which is a collection of ancient tales, arts and
crafts of Indonesia, extensively uses Sanskrit words, Indian deity names and religious
concepts.[20] Similarly ancient Chandis (temples) excavated in Java and western Indonesian
islands, as well as ancient inscriptions such as the 8th century Canggal inscription discovered
in Indonesia, confirm widespread adoption of Shiva lingam iconography, his companion
goddess Parvati, Ganesha, Vishnu, Brahma, Arjuna, and other Hindu deities by about the
middle to late 1st millennium AD. Ancient Chinese records of Fa Hien on his return voyage
from Ceylon to China in 414 AD mention two schools of Hinduism in Java, while Chinese
documents from 8th century refer to the Hindu kingdom of King Sanjaya as Holing, calling it

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"exceedingly wealthy," and that it coexisted peacefully with Buddhist people and Sailendra
ruler in Kedu Plain of the Java island.

Hinduism expansion in Asia, from its heartland in the Indian Subcontinent to the rest of Asia, especially
Southeast Asia, started circa the 1st century marked with the establishment of early Hindu settlements
and polities in Southeast Asia.
The two major theories for the arrival of Hinduism in Indonesia include that South Indian sea
traders brought Hinduism with them, and second being that Indonesian royalty welcomed
Indian religions and culture, and it is they who first adopted these spiritual ideas followed by
the masses. Indonesian islands adopted both Hindu and Buddhist ideas, fusing them with pre-
existing native folk religion and Animist beliefs. In the 4th century, the kingdom
of Kutai in East Kalimantan, Tarumanagara in West Java, and Holing (Kalingga) in Central
Java, were among the early Hindu states established in the region. Excavations between 1950
and 2005, particularly at the Cibuaya and Batujaya sites, suggests that Tarumanagara revered
deity Wisnu (Vishnu) of Hinduism. Ancient Hindu kingdoms of Java built many square
temples, named rivers on the island as Gomati and Ganges, and completed
major irrigation and infrastructure projects.

Several notable ancient Indonesian Hindu kingdoms were Mataram, famous for the
construction of one of the world's largest Hindu temple complexes - the Prambanan temple,
followed by Kediri and Singhasari. Hinduism along with Buddhism spread across the
archipelago. Numerous sastras and sutras of Hinduism were translated into the Javanese
language, and expressed in art form. Rishi Agastya, for example, is described as the principal
figure in the 11th century Javanese text Agastya parva; the text includes puranas, and a
mixture of ideas from the Samkhya and Vedanta schools of Hinduism. The Hindu-Buddhist
ideas reached the peak of their influence in the 14th century. The last and largest among the
Hindu-Buddhist Javanese empires, Majapahit, influenced the Indonesian archipelago.

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Some native Indonesian ethnic groups that were isolated from the rest of the world until
recent centuries have their own native myths and gods. These native mythologies are
relatively free from foreign influences, such as Torajans, Nias, Bataks, Dayaks and Papuans.
By contrast, Javanese, Balinese and Sundanese were influenced by Hindu-Buddhist Indian
mythology as early as the 1st century CE. Hindu gods, legends and epics such
as Ramayana and Mahabharata were adopted and adapted into a uniquely local form.

Many Hindu-Buddhist mythical beings have a role in Sundanese, Javanese, and Balinese
mythology, including of Hindu gods and heroes, devatas, asuras, apsaras (known as hapsari
or bidadari), kinnaras, etc., while native gods of nature such as Semar, Dewi Sri, and Nyai
Roro Kidul are either given identified as their Hindu counterpart or incorporated into a Java-
Bali Hindu pantheon unknown in India. For example, native rice goddess Dewi Sri is
identified with Lakshmi the shakti of Vishnu, and Semar and his sons the Punakawans are
incorporated into the epic of Mahabharata in Javanese wayang kulit, as the clown servants of
the Pandawas. Several names refer to gods, such
as dewa (devas), dewi (devi), dewata (devatas), and in native traditions usually referred to
as Batara (male god) and Batari (female goddess). These names are similar to the native
Philippines mythology of Bathala and Diwata.

There are several Indonesian adaptations of Ramayana, including the Javanese Kakawin
Ramayana and Balinese Ramakavaca. The first half of Kakawin Ramayana is similar to the
original Sanskrit version, while the latter half is very different. One of the recognizable
modifications is the inclusion of the indigenous Javanese guardian demigod, Semar, and his
sons, Gareng, Petruk, and Bagong who make up the numerically significant
four Punokawan or "clown servants".

Kakawin Ramayana is believed to have been written in Central Java circa 870 AD during the
reign of Mpu Sindok in the Mataram Kingdom. The Javanese Kakawin Ramayana is not
based on Valmiki's epic, which was then the most famous version of Rama's story, but based
on Ravanavadha or the "Ravana massacre," which is the sixth or seventh century poem by
Indian poet Bhattikavya.

Kakawin Ramayana was further developed on the neighboring island of Bali becoming the
Balinese Ramakavaca. The bas-reliefs of Ramayana and Krishnayana scenes are carved on
balustrades of the 9th century Prambanan temple in Yogyakartaas well as in the 14th
century Penataran temple in East Java. In Indonesia, the Ramayana is a deeply ingrained
aspect of the culture, especially among Javanese, Balinese and Sundanese people, and has
become the source of moral and spiritual guidance as well as aesthetic expression and
entertainment, for example in wayang and traditional dances.

The Balinese kecak dance for example, retells the story of the Ramayana, with dancers
playing the roles of Rama, Sita, Lakhsmana, Jatayu, Hanuman, Ravana, Kumbhakarna and
Indrajit surrounded by a troupe of over 50 bare-chested men who serve as the chorus chanting
"cak". The performance also includes a fire show to describe the burning of Lanka by
Hanuman. In Yogyakarta, the Wayang Wong Javanese dance also retells the Ramayana. One
example of a dance production of the Ramayana in Java is the Ramayana Ballet performed on
the Trimurti Prambanan open air stage, with dozens of actors and the three main prasad spires
of the Prambanan Hindu temple as a backdrop.

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 Performance of Ramayana ballet is
common

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II
Design Implications- Borobudur in Ayodhya( Yogakarta)
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 Dr Uday Dokras

Yogyakarta; Ngayogyakarta is the capital city of Special Region of

Yogyakarta in Indonesia, in the south-central part of the island of Java. As the only
Indonesian royal city still ruled by a monarchy, Yogyakarta is regarded as an important
centre for classical Javanese fine arts and culture such as ballet, batik textiles,
drama, literature, music, poetry, silversmithing, visual arts, and wayang puppetry. Renowned
as a centre of Indonesian education, Yogyakarta is home to a large student population and
dozens of schools and universities, including Gadjah Mada University, the country's largest
institute of higher education and one of its most prestigious.
Apart from being the capital of the Yogyakarta Sultanate, it served as the Indonesian capital
from 1946 to 1948 during the Indonesian National Revolution, with Gedung Agung as the
president's office. One of the districts in southeastern Yogyakarta, Kotagede, was the capital
of the Mataram Sultanate between 1587 and 1613.
Yogyakarta is named after the Indian city of Ayodhya, the birthplace of the eponymous
hero Rama from the Ramayana epic. Yogya means "suitable; fit; proper", and karta means
"prosperous; flourishing". Thus, Yogyakarta means "[a city that is] fit to prosper".In colonial
era correspondence, the city is often written in the Javanese script as with the added
prefix nga-. In the orthography of the time, the proper name was spelt with the Latin
alphabet as "Jogjakarta". As the orthography of the Indonesian language changed, the
consonant /j/ came to be written with <y>, and the consonant /dʒ/ with <j>. Personal and
geographical names however, were allowed to maintain their original spelling according
to contemporary Indonesian orthography. Thus, the city can be written as "Yogyakarta",
which is true to its original pronunciation and the Javanese script spelling, or "Jogjakarta",
which is true to the old Dutch spelling and reflects popular pronunciation today, but differs
from the original Ayodhya etymology. One may encounter either "Yogyakarta" or
"Jogjakarta" in contemporary documents.
Mataram Kingdom (8th–10th century CE)
According to the Canggal inscription dated 732 CE, the area traditionally known as
"Mataram" became the capital of the Medang Kingdom, identified as Mdang i Bhumi
Mataram established by King Sanjaya of Mataram. The inscription was found in a Hindu
temple in Central Java, 40 km away from Yogyakarta and 20 km away from the
giant Borobudur temple complex. This Hindu temple itself was on the border between the
area of the Hindu Sañjaya dynasty and the area of the Buddhist Shailendra dynasty. Mataram
became the centre of a refined and sophisticated Javanese Hindu-Buddhist culture for about
three centuries in the heartland of the Progo River valley, on the southern slopes of Mount
Merapi volcano. This time period witnessed the construction of numerous candi,
including Borobudur and Prambanan.
Around the year 929 CE, the last ruler of the Sañjaya dynasty, King Mpu Sindok of Mataram,
moved the seat of power of the Mataram Kingdom from Central Java to East Java and thus
established the Isyana dynasty. The exact cause of the move is still uncertain; however, a
severe eruption from Mount Merapi or a power struggle with the Sumatra-based Srivijaya
kingdom probably caused the move. Historians suggest that some time during the reign
of King Wawa of Mataram (924–929 CE), Merapi erupted and devastated the kingdom's
capital in Mataram.

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Nearby to the city of Yogyakarta is Mount Merapi, with the northern outskirts of the city
running up to the southern slopes of the mountain in Sleman Regency. Mount Merapi
(literally "mountain of fire" in both Indonesian and Javanese), is an
active stratovolcano located on the border between Central Java and Yogyakarta. It is the
most active volcano in Indonesia and has erupted regularly since 1548, with the last eruption
occurring in May 2018.
It has hardly any parallel in the world, and it may be truly remarked of its artists that 'they
conceived like giants and finished like jewellers'. The life of the Buddha and other Buddhist
stories depicted on the sculptures of Barabudur are not the imagination of the artists but based
on the imagination of Sarvastivada and Vajrayana schools of Buddhism and are directly
related to the ancient texts like Avadanas, Jatakas, Jatakamala, Gandavyuhastura, etc.

A complete explanation of all that is depicted in this most splendid creation of Hindu-Javan
culture was, therefore, not very easy, though efforts had been made since the beginning of the
present century. It was possible thanks to the interest and enthusiasm of the then Government
of the Netherlands. A complete series of photographs of the monument were made between
1907 and 1911. Then Koninklijk Institut vooi de Taat, Land-en Volkenkunde van Neder-
Landsch-Indie was commissioned to publish the archaeological and architectural descriptions
of Barabudur. The result of this project was the publication of a monograph in Dutch, in two
volumes.

Therefore there is no parallel creation of this nature in the Buddhist STUPA domain of India
– from the earliest to the most modern. The Hindu temple archiytecture is another story and
the gigantic temples and intricate carvings can be a huge challenge to the Borodudur.
Yogyakarta is named after the Indian city of Ayodhya, the birthplace of the eponymous
hero Rama from the Ramayana epic. Yogya means "suitable; fit; proper", and karta means
"prosperous; flourishing". Thus, Yogyakarta means "[a city that is] fit to prosper".

Borobudur Merapi

Borobudur Merapi
If you embark on a tour today like the Borobudur Merapi Solo Tour which is one of the
favourite Yogyakarta Tour Packages take you on exciting tours within 4 nights and 5 days to

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study the lay of the land and the erction of the ancient structures, WHAT WOULDBYOU
SEE?
This tour package will bring you to visit many places of interest Yogyakarta particularly
Borobudur Temple. In additions, Merapi Volcano, Merbabu Valley, Sukuh Cetho Temple,
Solo Town, Prambanan Temple and Yogyakarta City is also on the list. We set up this tour
with the comfortable accommodations, delicious Indonesian cuisine at a local restaurant,
entrance ticket and others.

PRAMBHANAN Hindu temple dedicated to God

Vishnu RIGHT PIC-Taman Sari Water Castle Extreme right poc

If one starts for Yogyakarta one travels via Godean Village (beautiful view of rice field,
villages, etc). The journey continues to go to Borobudur Temple to see a breathtaking of
sunrise. While taking a deep breath of fresh air, you will admire the beautiful panorama of
‘thousand hills’ and then learn the Buddha philosophy by exploring the relief of Borobudur
temple. Nearby are Mendut as well as Plaosan temple and one can pass over them via Selo –
Boyolali passing through Mt. Merapi and Mt. Merbabu valley with full of magical view.
There is a mysterious 14th century Sukuh Temple and another of the same period at Cetho.
The road to Sangiran shows fossil remains of Pithecanthropus Erectus (Java man- a
discovery claimed right up to today as the oldest human remains in Java. There is the
museum displaying fossil of Stegadon tusks and teeth as well as visit the site of excavation.
Next stage of the journey starts for Solo sightseeing to visit Kraton Mangkunegaran,
Triwindhu Flea Market as well as Radya Pustaka Museum. The Sultan Palace
Yogyakarta, Taman Sari has come up here . Now one flies to YOGYAKARTA. If one starts
the climb at 05.00 Climb up to Borobudur Temple- one can wait the spectacular sunrise at

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05.45 One spends the time (06.00 am) walking around the temple to see the relief of
Borobudur. to Sukuh as well as Cetho Temples

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The rulers of Central Java's Sailendra dynasty manifested the concept of the god-
king, devaraja, on a grand scale. During their rule, they constructed many religious
monuments designed to instruct their people, as well as following generations, to enter the
path to enlightenment. The most famous of these monuments is Borobudur, a Buddhist
masterpiece of superior grandeur and beauty. Consisting of 1.3 million stone blocks, it was
carved and constructed by 50,000 Javanese over 50 years. At 115 feet tall and sitting atop a
403-foot square, it is still the largest Buddhist stupa in the world. To augment the grandeur,
the monument is set upon a small plateau that rises 40 feet above the Kedu Plain.

The first written records concerning Java are from 732 CE. In that year, a Hindu noble,
Sanjaya, established a kingdom called Mataram (or Medang) on the Kedu Plain. In 775 CE
his kingdom began construction on a monument to commemorate the introduction of
Hinduism to Java. A plateau created by the confluence of the Progo River and its tributaries
provided the temple’s site.

Ten years later this Hindu kingdom was replaced by the Buddhist Sailendra dynasty,
vassals to the Srivijaya Empire. Accordingly, they shifted the religious focus of the temple
from Hinduism to Buddhism. It took 50 more years to complete this architectural monument
– called Borobudur.

Borobudur is built in the style of the Indian tjandis with a pyramidal structure. However,
the Javanese introduced their own innovations. The Indian tjandis were meant to house the
gods - provide them a home - a resting spot - a sophisticated spirit house. However
Borobudur was not just meant as a memorial or shrine of the gods, a place of worship.
Instead it was meant to be an architectural representation of Buddhist philosophy. It was
designed to represent complex metaphysical theories. At this level, it was completely
original. In this manner, Borobudur provided the pattern for Angkor.
The temple mountain at Borobudur, like the Indian tjandi, was constructed from a solid
mass of stone, 2 million cubic feet around small hill, with little or no interior space - certainly
no internal shrines. (In contrast the Khmer temples of Angkor are noted for their vast amount
of empty space created by structural pillars.)

Based upon the supreme mystical power of the mandala, Borobudur has 10 stories
corresponding with the 10 stages that lead to Buddhist Enlightenment. The first level is the
entry level. The next five are associated with the 5 Buddhas. They represent the entire

17
external Universe - the vajra-dhatu - the realm of total reality. This group of 5 Buddhas is
familiar in the diverse areas of Tibet, Japan, and northeast India. The bottom levels are all
squarish, having a zigzag external design on their corners.
The next three levels are all circular terraces with stupas on top. They represent the 3
Buddhas of the esoteric tradition associated with Tantric Buddhism - the garbha-dhatu - the
womb of innermost secrets. The 10th level is empty, representing the final goal of
Enlightenment, the abandonment of attachment to Form. This is the Void of the Vairocana
Buddha.

On the walls of each level there are sculptured relief panels, 1500 over all, which
represent the trials and traps on the journey to enlightenment. The zigzag corridors and
prescribed direction concealed the Buddhist statuary so that the adherent wouldn’t be
distracted by what lay ahead and could focus upon the lesson at hand. Thus on one level the
entire monument is a Buddhist teaching device.

The Sacred Mountain

On another level, the viewer is meant to perceive this enormous pyramid as a sacred
mountain. The sacred mountain has many parallels in religion. The most immediate is Mount
Meru of Hindu mythology. Frequently, these tjandis, upon which Borobudur was based, were
meant to be temporal representations of Mount Meru, a mythical mountain in the center of
the Universe, which connects god and man.

This merged neatly with native beliefs. As with many early cultures, the Javanese had
always worshipped sacred places. Their central plain has 6 active volcanic mountains,
ranging in height from 6000 to over 10,000 feet. As such, the Javanese had great respect for
mountains. Mount Merabi, an active volcano in the vicinity of Borobudur, had already been
dedicated to Shiva - the entire mountain, not just a temple.

In constructing this mountain temple, the king was fulfilling his role as Bodhisattva, one
who has devoted his life to assist others attain merit as a means to enlightenment. This public
project enabled the king to accomplish his dharma duty on many planes simultaneously. As a
Bodhisattva, the king was constructing a teaching device to aid his people’s quest for
enlightenment. The king was also building this sacred mountain to establish his
correspondence with the gods. Finally he was providing an external circumstance where a
maximum of his subjects could earn merit towards enlightenment by service to their king.

Borobudur simulates Buddhist Pilgrimage

As a teaching device, Borobudur also simulates the pilgrim’s journey to enlightenment.

Although many wish to race to the top to see the magnificent vistas, the proper pilgrim style
is from the bottom up. Following is our direct experience of a Borobudur pilgrimage.

Soul-mate Laurie and I begin our pilgrimage by examining Borobudur's exposed 'foot' at
the base. As mentioned, the bottom levels are square. The standard square base enables the
structure to kiss the sky. However, because the planner’s vision exceeded the physical

18
possibilities, they had to expand the base at one point. This expansion hid the bas-reliefs at
the base – the foot of the temple. Initially, scholars and philosophers assigned mysterious
religious significance to the concealed friezes. Most now believe that the decision to enclose
the bottom was ultimately based upon practical considerations.

However, the friezes on what is called Borobudur's 'foot' are of a deliberately different
nature than the friezes on the higher levels. The subject matter is supposed to represent the
consequences to those who are trapped in the world of illusion. Note the sorrowful looks, the
shame, and the sense of fear exhibited by the sculpted figures.

The bas-reliefs of the 'foot' represents those who are still victims of their fears and
desires. The friezes of the next 4 layers are meant to represent the world of form. While the
pilgrim has escaped the world of desire, he is still trapped in the world of form – the everyday
world of thoughts, ideas, and personal life.

Another distinctive feature of Borobudur is the yantra shape of the bottom floors. The
yantra is a mystical Hindu mandala that supposedly inspires enlightenment if meditated upon
for sufficient duration. In this case, the yantra determines the architectural form of the walls.
The aerial view of Borobudur reveals the yantra form of the bottom layers complete with
interior circles at the top.

19
 The sharp right angles of the rectangular design prevent one from seeing ahead. Turning a
corner, we are greeted with surprise after surprise by the sculpted panels. Regular oohs and
aahs accompany our mystic quest upward through the world of form. The many angles also
provide an abundance of surface area for the artist to ply their sculptural talents. Just as every
square inch of land is covered in agriculture, every square inch of wall is covered in bas-
reliefs. The diversity is astounding. There are mythological creatures and voluptuous women.

Buddhas and ancient boats.

Besides the friezes, we also are greeted by Kala's gaping mouth at each doorway and
Makaras at the cornices of some of the balustrades.

20
 As we head from the bottom level upward, the forms and topics of the friezes become
simplified - less village life, more abstract Buddhas. On the bottom levels, tall corridors
blocked the vista of the surrounding countryside. Viewing the temple from the outside, these
intricate balustrades provide visual interest. On the inside, the walls enclose the pilgrim
within the world of form.

We finally reach the 7th platform - the first one that is round. We are barely able to see
over the wall to gaze out in wonder at the magnificent views. As we mover higher,
presumably into the deeper stages of enlightenment, we are able to escape the narrow
confines of our petty world to experience the grand picture. Not trapped in the immediacy of
the moment, we experience the eternal now that is everywhere at all times.The omnipresent
serene Buddhas are also on the top levels. But now they are enclosed, even hidden, within
mini-stupas – individual bell-shaped structures. They watch us and perform their magic from
within their little cell.

21
 Having reached enlightenment, we bow down and pray before the magnificence of
existence.

As an indication of the importance of this particular location to the Javanese, they also
consider it to be the center of the earth. Besides the volcanoes and magnificent vistas, the
visitor can also see Magelang, i.e. the Tidal Hill, from Borobudur’s top floor. This large
mound of earth rises abruptly from the relatively flat valley floor. According to tradition, all
islands and landmasses were wandering at the beginning of time. At one point, the gods
nailed Java to the Earth to fix its location. From that point forward, everything else revolved
around this fixed spot. The Javanese consider this sharp uplift to be the ‘Nail of Java’.

Tantra-inspired Mudras

Let’s look at Borobudur in a little more detail. On each level of the structure, there are
meditating Buddhas. These Dhyani Buddhas are distinctly different from the historical
Buddha. A transcendent eternal savior, the Dhyani Buddha has a dot on his forehead, a
symbol of the 3rd all-seeing eye. There are 504 meditating Buddhas at Borobudur. Each are
unique, but all are serene.
The bottom level, i.e. the hidden foot, doesn’t have any of these peaceful figures, as it
represents the corrupted realm of fears and desires,.The next 5 square levels symbolize the
world of form. These terraces contain 432 Buddhas, with the number decreasing as the visitor
moves to the higher floors (104, 104, 88, 72, 64). Each of these meditating figures has its own
cubicle located just above the friezes.

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 The next 3 round floors, representative of the stages of enlightenment, have another 72
Buddhas (32, 24, 16). Each of these is enclosed in its own mini stupa. Although hidden from
casual view, they can be viewed through the grates of the bell-shaped stupa.
Each of the Dhayni Buddhas has a specific symbolic hand position – a mudra. These
mudras are part of the Vajrayana sect of Mahayana Buddhism – the Tantric branch. The
Buddhas have 6 different mudras. On each terrace, the Buddhas have a different hand
position.
In each case, the left palm of the meditating Buddha faces upward. It is the right hand that
indicates the symbolism. The 4 lower terraces exhibit the same identical 4 mudras. The
mudras on these bottom levels are directional. In contrast, the upper terraces exhibit hand
positions that are unique to them and are omni-directional. Let’s see what this means.
On the first four square levels, all the Buddhas that face east have the same mudra. The
Buddha’s right palm is outward and points to the earth. This mudra indicates ‘right conduct’.
This position derives from one of his prior incarnations, when Buddha appealed to the earth
goddess to testify to his right conduct to refute Mara’s impeachment of his motives.
For the Buddhas that face north, the right palm faces forward, which is the mudra to
‘dispel fear’ or instill ‘courage’. For the westward facing Buddhas, both palms face up and
the thumbs touch indicating the importance of ‘meditation’. The hand position of the
southward facing Buddhas symbolizes the need for ‘charity’. The right palm faces upward
and out, while the fingers face down in a posture that indicates giving.
Each of these mudras is of equal importance as visitors can access the monument from
each of the 4 sides.
All the Buddhas on the 5th and final square terrace have the same mudra. It symbolizes
‘deliberation’. The right palm is outward and the forefinger touches the thumb.

The mudra of the 72 Buddhas on the next three round terraces is identical. The
complicated interlocking hand position suggests revolution and symbolizes the ‘Turning of
Dharma Wheel’. As mentioned, the Buddhas on the square terraces are easily visible in their
little cubicles. In contrast, the Buddhas on the round terraces are hidden in little stupas and
can only be seen through perforations in the bell-shaped enclosure. Evidently the mudras of
the bottom terraces are quite common, while the complicated ‘Turning of Dharma
Wheel’ mudra is not so widespread.
Visiting Borobudur in 2013, the more complicated mudras haven’t survived the ravages
of time and need restoration. For instance, there were only a handful of Buddhas on the
circular terraces whose hand position was still intact. The three dimensionality of the hand
positions that project into space seem to be particularly vulnerable to destruction. In contrast,
the mudras of nearly all the Buddhas whose hands were in their laps were intact.

23
 Right conduct, dispel fear, meditation, charity, deliberation, the turning of the Dharma
Wheel are the symbolic meanings of the 6 mudras. The hand positions of the meditating
Buddhas remind pilgrims of these important virtues as they ascend the monument walking
from terrace to terrace.

The Content of the Friezes from Chinese Mahayana

While the employment of mudras suggest the tantric influence, the content of the friezes
definitely derives from Mahayana Buddhism. The 6 square bottom terraces are filled with 3
kilometers (approximately 2 miles) of museum quality stone friezes. Of the 2672 friezes,
1460 are narrative and 1212 are decorative. The narrative friezes are devoted to Buddha’s
biography, primarily his past lives.
Recall that the goal of Mahayana Buddhists is to become a Bodhisattva through multiple
incarnations. In this regard, Mahayana de-emphasizes the importance of the historical
Buddha and instead focuses upon the events of his past lives that led to Buddhahood. Because
Mahayana denies the existence of everything, these past lives are akin to vibrations or
emanations of the Buddha essence rather than being connected to an individual. In similar
fashion, the meditating Buddhas with their 6 mudras are perfect abstractions rather than
humans with personality accompanied by character flaws.
The hidden ‘foot’ contains 160 relief panels that indicate the law of karma. Each frieze is
a story of cause and effect. In other words, blameworthy deeds lead to retribution. For
instance, one panel shows individuals slaughtering and cooking meat and then going to
Buddhist hell where they are slaughtered and eaten by demons. Each panel is self contained
with no connection to the rest. Although there are pictures of the friezes, the visitor can only
see a small fraction of them, as the rest of the foot has been enclosed.
The remainder of the friezes on the next five terraces, i.e. the ‘body’ of the monument, are
primarily representations of stories from Buddha’s past and present lives. Most of these
derive from 3 Buddhist works – Jataka, Awadana, and Gandavhaya.
The first visible terrace and half of the second are primarily devoted to the legendary life
of the historical Buddha, i.e. Gautama Siddhartha, and the Jataka Tales. The friezes on the
first level illustrate the entire story of Buddha’s life, beginning with his descent from heaven
until he achieves enlightenment. As a white elephant with 6 tusks, Buddha enters the womb
of Queen Maya. After birth, his life is then experienced as a dream. Prince Siddhartha’s
father builds 3 palaces to distract him from the spiritual life. However he has 4 encounters,
i.e. with the old, the sick, the dead and a monk. These chance encounters introduce him to
suffering and the transitory nature of life. After much travail, he attains enlightenment. His
life exhibits the possibility of salvation from suffering. Rather than leaving this world,
Buddha begins giving sermons regarding the law of Dharma to help individuals on the path to
enlightenment. All of these events are illustrated in sequential order on the carved panels.
The Jataka Tales are past life stories, where Buddha is frequently an animal. These animal
tales contain a Buddhist message. In this sense they are somewhat akin to Aesop’s fables.
Borobdur contains depictions of all 34 Jatakas from the Jataka Mala, the primary and
traditional collection of these tales.
460 friezes on the 3rd, 4th and half of the 2nd terrace are devoted to the Gandavhaya text.
This Mahayana text tells the story of the tireless wandering of Sudhana, one of Buddha’s past
lives. Sudhana’s many experiences are depicted on the walls of Borobudur. He has no less
than 30 teachers before he attains Bodhisattvahood. The panels on top level depict Sudhana
teaching the Mahayana doctrine post-enlightenment.
The Gandavhaya text is the last chapter and culmination of the Avatamsaka sutra.
Popularly known as the Flower Garland Sutra, this sutra is exceptionally important in Eastern

24
Asian Buddhism. This East Asian influence indicates the importance of the Chinese in the
transmission of Buddhism to Southeast Asia’s islands.
The 40 chapter long sutra is a compilation of many works, some of which are sutras in
their own right. Central Asian monks joined the diverse literary pieces into a single sutra in
the late 3rd and early 4th centuries of the Common Era. The entire work was first translated
into Chinese during the 5th century. It was one of the many sutras that the Kushan monks
employed to successfully convert the Chinese populace to Mahayana Buddhism.
The Flower Garland’s 40 chapters are on disparate topics. However there are 2
overarching themes: the interdependency of all phenomena (dharmas) and the Buddhist
progression to enlightenment. One of the chapters is devoted to the 10 stages it takes to
become a Bodhisattva. East Asians frequently cite this chapter as a sutra in its own right. As
an indication of its importance, this, the 10 Stages Sutra, was translated into Chinese in the
3rd century, a few centuries before the larger Flower Garland Sutra.
Sudhana’s biography, the last chapter of the sutra, encapsulates these 10 stages in story
form. Recall that Borobudur’s 10 levels symbolize these same developmental steps. Some
scholars even believe that Borobudur means ‘Mountain of virtues of 10 stages of the
Bodhisattva’. Although others believe the name the name of the monument derives from the
location – ‘monastery of Budur’, an ancient city, it is apparent that Borobudur’s 10 levels are
linked with the pilgrim’s journey to enlightenment.
Besides architectural similarities and the obvious influence of East Asian Mahayana upon
Borobudur, locals claim that the Chinese brought Buddhism to the islands. In these pregnant
times, it could be roughly said that Hinduism came to Southeast Asia’s islands from India,
while it seems that Buddhism was due at least in part to the Chinese influence.

A Stepped Pyramid: Ancestor worship combined with Buddhism

The Buddha’s past and present lives are depicted on the friezes. There are countless
meditating Buddhas. There are also innumerable mini and medium sized stupas throughout
the monument. Plus a tall stupa tops the entire structure. Most consider Borobudur to be the
largest Buddhist stupa in the world. But is it really only a stupa?
Although it is tempting to categorize this enormous monument as a stupa, this is stretch.
For one, the top is not the dominant feature, as it is in most stupas. Instead the pilgrim/visitor
initially experiences Borobudur as an enormous stepped stone pyramid. Only after viewing
the enormity of the angular stone fortress does one notice the round stupa at the top. In terms
of direct experience, it is probably more accurate to characterize the monument as a stepped
pyramid topped by a stupa.
In the Javanese tradition, the prasada is a stepped pyramid frequently located in the
mountains. The prasada is considered to be the abode of the ancestors. Gunung Padang is a
stepped pyramid from the Megalithic that is probably associated with ancestor worship. If so,
it is the earliest known example of a prasada. Not only in Java, but throughout Southeast
Asia, the stepped pyramid is associated with ancestor worship.
As mentioned, Southeast Asians, especially the Javanese, never gave up ancestor
worship. Instead they blended and continue to blend it with the newer religions, including
Buddhism, Hinduism and even Islam. At the time that Borobudur was built, the Javanese
were both ardent Buddhists and worshippers of their forefathers. In this regard, they
respected their elders as Bodhisattvas. As such, it makes perfect sense that the Javanese
would construct a monument that both honors their ancestors and simultaneously is a stupa,
the Buddhist symbol par excellence – an ideal fit with their inclusive temperament.
This interpretation of Borobudur was suggested by no less an authority than Professor
Soekmone, the Javanese scholar who was instrumental in the restoration of Borobudur.

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 Mount Meru as a Design fundamental

Mount Meru (also Sumeru (Sanskrit) or Sineru (Pāli) or Kangrinboqe) is the name of the
central world-mountain in Buddhist cosmology. Etymologically, the proper name of the
mountain is Meru (Pāli Meru), to which is added the approbatory prefix su-, resulting in the
meaning "excellent Meru" or "wonderful Meru".
It is the most active volcano in Indonesia and has erupted regularly since 1548. It is located
approximately 28 kilometres (17 mi) north of Yogyakarta city which has a population of 2.4
million, and thousands of people live on the flanks of the volcano, with villages as high as
1,700 metres (5,577 ft) above sea level.
Smoke can often be seen emerging from the mountaintop, and several eruptions have caused
fatalities. A pyroclastic flow from a large explosion killed 27 people on 22 November 1994,
mostly in the town of Muntilan, west of the volcano. Another large eruption occurred in
2006, shortly before the Yogyakarta earthquake. In light of the hazards that Merapi poses to
populated areas, it was designated as one of the Decade Volcanoes.
On the afternoon of 25 October 2010, Merapi erupted on its southern and southeastern
slopes. A total of 353 people were killed over the next month, while 350,000 were forced to
flee their homes;[5] most of the damage was done by pyroclastic flows, while heavy rain on
4th November created lahars which caused further damage. Most of the fissures had ceased
erupting by 30th November, and four days later the official threat level was lowered.
[6]
Merapi's characteristic shape was changed during the eruptions, with its height lowered 38
metres (125 ft) to 2,930 metres (9,613 ft).[
Since 2010, Merapi had experienced several smaller eruptions, most noticeably two phreatic
eruptions which occurred on 18 November 2013 and 11 May 2018. The first and larger of
these, caused by a combination of rainfall and internal activity, saw smoke issued up to a
height of 2,000 metres (6,562 ft). There have been several small eruptions since the
beginning of 2020, which are of great interest to volcanologists.

Mount Merapi viewed from 9th-century Prambanan Hindu temple, built during Mataram Kingdom era
Merapi is the youngest in a group of volcanoes in southern Java. It is situated at
a subduction zone, where the Indo-Australian Plate is subducting under the Sunda Plate. It is
one of at least 129 active volcanoes in Indonesia, part of the volcano is located in the
Southeastern part of the Pacific Ring of Fire—a section of fault lines stretching from the
Western Hemisphere through Japan and South East Asia.[14] Stratigraphic analysis reveals that
eruptions in the Merapi area began about 400,000 years ago, and from then until about 10,000

26
years ago, eruptions were typically effusive, and the out flowing lava emitted was basaltic.
Since then, eruptions have become more explosive, with viscous andesitic lavas often
generating lava domes. Dome collapse has often generated pyroclastic flows, and larger
explosions, which have resulted in eruption columns, have also generated pyroclastic flows
through column collapse.
Typically, small eruptions occur every two to three years, and larger ones every 10–15 years
or so. Notable eruptions, often causing many deaths, have occurred in 1006, 1786, 1822,
1872, and 1930. Thirteen villages were destroyed in the latter one, and 1,400 people were
killed by pyroclastic flows.
The very large eruption in 1006 is claimed to have covered all of central Java with ash. The
volcanic devastation is claimed to have led to the collapse of the Hindu Kingdom of
Mataram; however, the evidence from that era is insufficient for this to be substantiated.

Merapi in 1930

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28
Borubudur structures covered with plastic cloth to protect from the ash erupting from Merapi
Vplcano

29
Merapi in July 2005. The constant smoke from its summit is said to come from two sacred armourers living under the
mountain.

30
31
Merapi is very important to Javanese, especially those living around its crater. As such,
there are many myths and beliefs attached to Merapi.It is an important though neglected
consideration for the DESIGN of the Borobudur Stupa. The stupa itself resembles a Volcano.
When building the structure due care and assessment of the volcanic risk must have been
undertaken- of course the fact that the Yogokarta region was the capital of the kingdom was
an important element for first choice of the Stupa at the present location. Even
though Borobudur was located near many volcanoes but not all of them threat the temple.
Merapi is the most active and often threat Borobudur for instance eruption in 2010 that
Borobudur covered by volcanic ash
Creation
Although most nearby villages have their own myths about the creation of Mount Merapi,
they have numerous commonalities. It is believed that when the gods had just created the
Earth, Java was unbalanced because of the placement of Mount Jamurdipo on the west end of
the island. In order to assure balance, the gods (generally represented by Batara Guru)
ordered the mountain to be moved to the centre of Java. However, two armourers, Empu
Rama and Empu Permadi, were already forging a sacred keris at the site where Mount
Jamurdipo was to be moved. The gods warned them that they would be moving a mountain
there, and that they should leave; Empu Rama and Empu Permadi ignored that warning. In
anger, the gods buried Empu Rama and Empu Permadi under Mount Jamurdipo; their spirits
later became the rulers of all mystical beings in the area. In memory of them, Mount
Jamurdipo was later renamed Mount Merapi, which means "fire of Rama and Permadi."
Spirit Kraton of Merapi
The Javanese believe that the Earth is not only populated by human beings, but also by spirits
(makhluk halus). Villages near Merapi believe that one of the palaces (in Javanese kraton)
used by the rulers of the spirit kingdom lies inside Merapi, ruled by Empu Rama and Empu
Permadi. This palace is said to be a spiritual counterpart to the Yogyakarta Sultanate,
complete with roads, soldiers, princes, vehicles, and domesticated animals. Besides the rulers,
the palace is said to also be populated by the spirits of ancestors who died as righteous
people. The spirits of these ancestors are said to live in the palace as royal servants ( abdi
dalem), occasionally visiting their descendants in dreams to give prophecies or warnings. "
Spirits of Merapi

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To keep the volcano quiet and to appease the spirits of the mountain, the Javanese regularly
bring offerings on the anniversary of the sultan of Yogyakarta's coronation. For Yogyakarta
Sultanate, Merapi holds a significant cosmological symbolism, because it forms a sacred
north-south axis line between Merapi peak and Southern Ocean (Indian Ocean). The sacred
axis is signified by Merapi peak in the north, the Tugu Yogyakarta monument near
Yogyakarta main train station, the axis runs along Malioboro street to Northern Alun-alun
(square) across Keraton Yogyakarta (sultan palace), Southern Alun-alun, all the way to
Bantul and finally reach Samas and Parangkusumo beach on the estuary of Opak river and
Southern Ocean. This sacred axis connected the hyangs or spirits of mountain revered since
ancient times—often identified as "Mbah Petruk" by Javanese people—The Sultan of
Yogyakarta as the leader of the Javanese kingdom, and Nyi Roro Kidul as the queen of the
Southern Ocean, the female ocean deity revered by Javanese people and also mythical
consort of Javanese kings.
Javanese culture is the culture of the Javanese people. Javanese culture is centered in the
provinces of Central Java, Yogyakarta and East Java in Indonesia. Due to various migrations,
it can also be found in other parts of the world, such as Suriname (where 15% of the
population are of Javanese descent), the broader Indonesian archipelago region. Cape
Malay, Malaysia, Singapore, Netherlands and other countries. The migrants bring with them
various aspects of Javanese cultures such as Gamelan music, traditional dances and art
of Wayang kulit shadow play.
The migration of Javanese people westward has created the coastal Javanese culture that is
distinct from inland Sundanese culture in West Java and Banten. Being the largest ethnic
group, the Javanese culture and people influence Indonesian politics and culture, a process
sometimes described as Javanisation.

Common Rice dish decorated and shaped as

a volcano
Javanese literature tradition is among the earliest and the oldest surviving literature traditions
in Indonesia. The translations of Hindu epic Ramayana and Mahabharata into old
Javanese language took place during the era of Medang Kingdom and Kediri kingdom around
9th to 11th century. The Smaradhana is also composed during Kediri kingdom, and it became
the prelude of later Panji cycles that spread as far as Siam and Cambodia. Other literary
works include Ken Arok and Ken Dedes, based upon Pararaton, the story of the orphan who
usurped his king, and married the queen of the ancient Javanese kingdom.
During the reign of Majapahit several notable works was
produced. Nagarakretagama describes Majapahit during its height. Tantu
Pagelaran explained the mythical origin of the island and its volcanic nature. Kakawin
Sutasoma, written by Mpu Tantular during the reign of the Majapahit. It is the source of

33
the motto of Indonesia, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, which is usually translated as Unity in
Diversity, although literally it means '(Although) in pieces, yet One'. The kakawin teaches
religious tolerance, specifically between the Hindu and Buddhist religions.
Other works includes Babad Tanah Jawi is a literature which relates to the spread of Islam in
Java and Babad Dipanagara which tells the story of Prince Diponegoro.
Majapahit empire
Historically, Javanese follow a syncretic form of Hinduism, Buddhism and Kebatinan. The
Majapahit empire religious tolerance in their society can be summed as Bhinnêka tunggal ika
tan hana dharma mangrwa ('They are indeed different, but they are of the same kind, as there
is no duality in Truth').
Starting from the 15th century, Islam and Christianity came to Java and slowly spread. Due to
internal and external conflicts, Majapahit collapsed in the 16th century. Islam spread quickly
under the new Islamic monarchs. While the spread of Christianity was supervised by colonial
powers.
All the new religions were not taken literally but instead interpreted by the Javanese
according to the Javanese traditional values, creating a new set of religious beliefs unique to
local culture.
Hindu-Buddhist
Another minority are Buddhists and Hindus, they are mostly found in East Java. The
Javanese Tengger tribe is still practicing Javanese-Hindu until today.[11]
Kebatinan
Kebatinan are principles embodying a search for the inner self but at the core is the concept
of the peace of mind, connection with the universe, and with an Almighty God.
Although Kebatinan is not strictly a religious affiliation, it addresses ethical and spiritual
values as inspired by Javanese tradition. It is not a religion in usual sense of the word,
like Islam, Judaism, or Christianity. There are no scriptures such as the Bible or the Qur'an,
nor are there prophets. During the Soeharto era, this minority is acknowledged and protected
as penganut kepercayaan.
Many traditional Javanese customs or festivals such as meditation, slametan, naloni
mitoni, patangpuluhdinanan, nyatus and nyewu have their roots in the Kebatinan belief.
Javanese of other beliefs modify them accordingly, incorporating Muslims, Christian or
Hindu prayers instead. Details of the ceremonies differ from one community to the other.
Social Structure
The American anthropologist Clifford Geertz in the 1960s divided the Javanese community
into three aliran or "streams": santri, abangan and priyayi. According to him, the Santri
followed an orthodox interpretation Islam, the abangan was the followed a syncretic form of
Islam that mixed Hindu and animist elements (often termed Kejawen), and the priyayi was
the nobility.
But today the Geertz opinion is often opposed because he mixed the social groups with belief
groups. It was also difficult to apply this social categorisation in classing outsiders, for
example other non-indigenous Indonesians such as persons of Arab, Chinese and Indian
descent.
Social stratification is much less rigid in northern coast area, which is much more egalitarian.
now part of the general society and work in numerous fields.

34
"Javanese Landscape, with Tigers Listening to the Sound of a Travelling Group" was completed by
Raden Saleh in Dresden, the cultural centre of Saxony, and presented to his patron and friend His
Highness Ernest II, Duke of Saxe- Coburg and Gotha, in 1849. The painting was in the family for many
years as it was inherited by the second son, grandson and great-grandson of Queen Victoria and Prince
Albert.

Culturally, Javanese people adopt a bilateral kinship system, with male and female
descendants having equal importance. As such there is no preference on having a male heir
like paternalistic cultures in India or China. It is not customary for Javanese to have
a surname. Women have a high degree of autonomy and are respected in Javanese culture.

35
Village in the slope of Mount Semeru, East Java. Colonial period painting.

36
Traditionally, most Javanese are farmers. This was especially common because of the fertile
volcanic soil in Java. The most important agricultural commodity is rice.
The concept of Sumeru is closely related to the central Mount Meru of Hindu cosmology, but
it differs from the Hindu concept in several particulars. Volcanic Activity: island of Java is
almost entirely of volcanic origin, and contains numerous volcanoes, 45 of which are
considered active volcanoes. As is the case for many other Indonesian islands, volcanoes
have played a vital role in the geological and human history of Java. Indeed, land is created
on Java as a result of lava flows, ash deposits, and mud flows (lahars). Volcanoes are a major
contributor to the immense fertility of Java, as natural erosion transports volcanic material
as alluvium to the island's plains, forming thick layers of fertile sediment. The benefit is not
just in the immediate vicinity of the volcano, with fine ash emitted from eruptions being
dispersed over wide areas.
Climbing volcanoes (and other mountains) is increasingly popular.

Mount Merapi and Merbabu; with far view of Mount Ungaran, Sumbing, Sundoro, Dieng,
and Slamet in Central Java
This list is of volcanoes from the west of Java to the east. Local terminology and usage has
the word Gunung (mount or mountain) precede the names.
West Java

 Pulosari Stratovolcano
 Gunung Karang Stratovolcano
 Kiaraberes-Gagak Stratovolcano
 Perbakti Stratovolcano
 Mount Salak Stratovolcano
 Mount Gede Stratovolcano
 Mount Pangrango Stratovolcano
 Mount Patuha Stratovolcano
 Wayang-Windu Lava dome
 Mount Malabar Stratovolcano
 Tangkuban Parahu Stratovolcano
 Mount Papandayan Stratovolcanoes
 Mount Kendang Stratovolcano
 Kamojang Stratovolcanoes
 Mount Guntur Complex volcano
 Mount Tampomas Stratovolcano
 Galunggung Stratovolcano
 Talagabodas Stratovolcano
 Karaha Crater Fumarole field

37
 Mount Cereme Stratovolcano
Central Java

 Mount Slamet Stratovolcano

 Dieng Volcanic Complex Complex volcano
 Mount Sundoro Stratovolcano
 Mount Sumbing Stratovolcano
 Mount Ungaran Stratovolcano
 Mount Telomoyo Stratovolcano
 Mount Merbabu Stratovolcano
 Mount Merapi Stratovolcano
 Mount Muria Stratovolcano
 Mount Lawu Stratovolcano (bordering with East Java)
According to Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam (philosophical writings), Sumeru is
80,000 yojanas tall. The exact measure of one yojana is uncertain, but some accounts put it at
about 24,000 feet, or approximately 4-1/2 miles, but other accounts put it at about 7-9 miles.
It also descends beneath the surface of the surrounding waters to a depth of 80,000 yojanas,
being founded upon the basal layer of Earth. Sumeru is often used as a simile for both size
and stability in Buddhist texts.
Sumeru is said to be shaped like an hourglass, with a top and base of 80,000 yojanas square,
but narrowing in the middle (i.e., at a height of 40,000 yojanas) to 20,000 yojanas square. It is
the polar center of a mandala-like complex of seas and mountains. The square base of
Sumeru is surrounded by a square moat-like ocean, which is in turn surrounded by a ring (or
rather square) wall of mountains, which is in turn surrounded by a sea, each diminishing in
width and height from the one closer to Sumeru. There are seven seas and seven surrounding
mountain-walls, until one comes to the vast outer sea which forms most of the surface of the
world, in which the known continents are merely small islands. The known world, which is
on the continent of Jambudvipa, is directly south of Sumeru.
The 80,000 yojana square top of Sumeru constitutes the Trāyastriṃśa "heaven" (devaloka),
which is the highest plane in direct physical contact with the earth. The next 40,000 yojanas
below this heaven consist of sheer precipice, narrowing in like an inverted mountain until it is
20,000 yojanas square at a heigh of 40,000 yojanas above the sea.
From this point Sumeru expands again, going down in four terraced ledges, each broader than
the one above. The first terrace constitutes the "heaven" of the Four Great Kings and is
divided into four parts, facing north, south, east and west. Each section is governed by one of
the Four Great Kings, who faces outward toward the quarter of the world that he supervises.
40,000 yojanas is also the height at which the Sun and Moon circle Sumeru in a clockwise
direction. This rotation explains the alteration of day and night; when the Sun is north of
Sumeru, the shadow of the mountain is cast over the continent of Jambudvīpa, and it is night
there; at the same time it is noon in the opposing northern continent of Uttarakuru, dawn in
the eastern continent of Pūrvavideha, and dusk in the western continent of Aparagodānīya.
Half a day later, when the Sun has moved to the south, it is noon in Jambudvīpa, dusk in
Pūrvavideha, dawn in Aparagodānīya, and midnight in Uttarakuru.
The next three terraces down the slopes of Sumeru are each longer and broader by a factor of
two. They contain the followers of the Four Great Kings, namely nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas,
and kumbhāṇḍas.

38
The name Merapi is a compound of Sanskrit Meru meaning (mythology, religion, usually
with "Mount") The abode of the gods at the center of the universe in Hindu, Jain, and
Buddhist traditions.-"mountain" with Javanese api which means "fire"Thus Merapi can be
loosely translated as "Mountain of Fire" or "Fire Mountain". At the Smithsonian's National
Museum of Asian Art. Stands a Cosmic Buddha Vairochana with the Realms of Existence.

Draped in robes portraying the Realms of Existence, it is from hina

Northern Qi dynasty, 550–577, made of limestone, probably Henan
province. The sculpture is a larger-than-life standing figure missing its
head and both hands. It is carved in a pillar-like form and wears a
simple monk’s robe. Every inch of the robe is filled with
intricate relief carvings. The front of the robe shows a symbolic map
of the Buddhist universe, called the Realms of Existence. Start at the
top of the chest and scan down to the bottom hem of the
garment.Mount Meru shown as a pillar wrapped with dragons below
the neck. Buddha draped in robes portraying the Realms of Existence
(detail), Northern Qi dynasty, 550–577, limestone, China, probably
Henan province, 151.3 high, x 62.9 x 31.3 cm (Freer Gallery of Art,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC: Purchase — Charles Lang
Freer Endowment, F1923.15).The realm of divinities appears in the
section beneath the neck. Directly below, Mount Meru, the center of
the universe, is depicted as a pillar wrapped with a pair of dragons. It
is flanked by giant multiarmed demigods.

Those who suffer in Buddhist hells are shown far below, near the feet. In between are the
realms of humans, animals, and spirits. A similar hierarchy of heaven above earth is shown
on the back. On the sleeves of the figure are stories about the past lives of Shakyamuni,
the Historical Buddha, and the correlation between merit and rebirth, a central principle
of Buddhism.

The carved surface illustrations, so intricate and organized, cannot be explained as

mere textile patterns on the robe. They give a clue about the figure’s identity. The statue is
Vairochana, the Cosmic Buddha. In Buddhist texts, Vairochana is described as the generating
force behind all phenomena in the Buddhist universe. The narrative scenes are spiritual
emanations rising from the Buddha himself, indicating his cosmic nature.
The statue was first carved in northern China during the Northern Qi dynasty (550–
577). Buddhism at that time enjoyed great prosperity. It not only had support from
the imperial family but also had believers from different classes of society. As a result of
endorsement and financial support from the imperial family, Buddhist art grew more and
more sophisticated, as reflected by the meticulously carved scenes on this statue. The
different elements were probably painted after they were carved. The carvings are very
complicated and refer to different textual sources, suggesting the sculpture may have been
used in a monastery to help teach the basic concepts of Buddhism to believers who could not
read.

39
The Borobudur is also a MOUNT MERU. Seen on its carvings is the story of LIFE not only
of the Buddha but of us all. Hence the impotrance of the ancient Buddha with carvings of the
Mount Meru on its robes- that helps us understand the realm of Design that existed then .

Chinese K'o-ssu depicting Mount Meru. Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). Silk tapestry (kesi), 33 x 33 in. (83.8 x 83.8cm).
This elaborate tapestry-woven mandala, or cosmic diagram, illustrates Indian imagery introduced into China in
conjunction with the advent of Esoteric Buddhism. At the center is the mythological Mount Meru, represented as an
inverted pyramid topped by a lotus, a Buddhist symbol of purity. Traditional Chinese symbols for the sun (three-
legged bird) and moon (rabbit) appear at the mountain’s base. The landscape vignettes at the cardinal directions
represent the four continents of Indian mythology but follow the conventions of Chinese-style “blue-and-green”
landscapes. The dense floral border derives from imagery of central Tibet, particularly from monasteries with ties to
the court of the Yuan dynasty.

40
Bhutanese thangka of Mount Meru and the Buddhist universe, 19th century, Trongsa Dzong, Trongsa, Bhutan

A R C H I T E C T U R E

A traditional Javanese house from Kudus/Candi Plaosan in Prambanan (9th century).

Throughout their long history, the Javanese have produced many important buildings,
ranging from Hindu monuments, Buddhist stupa, mortuary temples, palace complexes,
and mosques.The paragon of religious monuments are Hindu temple of Prambanan and
Buddhist temple of Borobudur. Both of them 9th centuries temples which
are UNESCO World Heritage Site. Both are located near city of Yogyakarta in the slope

41
 of Mount Merapi.Meanwhile, example of secular building can be seen in ruins of former
capital city of Majapahit Kingdom (14th to 16th century AD) in Trowulan, East Java. The
complex covers an area of 11 km x 9 km. It consists of various brick building, ranging
from 20 to 40 meter-wide canal, purification pools, temples and iconic split gates. The
capital complex is currently being considered as a candidate for becoming a UNESCO
World Heritage Site.
Traditional Javanese building can be identified by its trapezoid shaped roof supported by
wooden pillars. Another common feature in Javanese building is pendopo, a pavilion with
open-side and four large pillars. The pillars and other part of the buildings can be
richly carved. This architecture style can be found at kraton or palace of the Sultanates
of Yogyakarta (palaces of Hamengkubuwono and Pakualaman) and Surakarta (palaces
of Pakubuwono and Mangkunegaran).

Semeru Mountain

Semeru Mountain, most people recognize as just Semeru, is a volcano mountain that settled
in East Java, precisely in Lumajang regency. Semeru in the highest mountain in Java which
has 3.676 meter above sea level and it also known as the Mahameru or Great Mountain.
The name Semeru was derived from Hindu-Buddhist mythical mountain of Meru or Semeru,
the abode of gods.

The summit crater in Semeru is called Jonggring Saloka. In 1913 and 1946 the Jonggring
Saloka Crater had dome with a height of 3744.8 M until end November 1973. At the southern
side, the dome is broke the edge of the crater, which causes the flowing lava into the south
side including Pronojiwo and Candipuro in Lumajang.The most incredible part of this
mountain is the fact that this mountain is still erupts periodically. It sometimes happened in
every 20 minutes, the volcano will belches out a huge cloud of steam and smoke. It is also
together with the ashes and stones.In times, Semeru’s eruptive history is extensive. Since
1818, there were at leat55 eruptions that have been recorded. Those eruptions are consisting
lava flows and pyroclastic flows. Since 1967, Semeru has been in a state of near-content
eruption until these days. Today, the small eruption is happen every 20 minutes or

42
so.Although, the trekking path to Semeru is not the easy way to hike, but those who like
adventurous thing are always craving to climb up The Mahameru. The tourists who want to
go to Semeru can start their journey from Ranu Pane to the North, but it is not the easy way
to go through.

It is advisable for not climbing the peak of Semeru, which is Jonggring Saloka. Also, it is not
recommended to climb from the south side, for there will be poisonous gas and lava flows,
this toxic gas known as Wedhus Gembel. Wedhus Gembel, in Javanese terms it means
dreadlocks sheep.The flora that live in Semeru are vary, but mostly are dominated by pine
trees, acacia and jamuju. There is also Edelweiss and endemic orchid that can be found
around the peak of Semeru. While, there are also some fauna that can be found like, panther,
leaf monkey, civet, deer, mouse deed and more.For those who want to conquer Mount
Semeru, they have to ask permission and need to prepare planning before hiking. When you
have the permission, the heaven is on the way.

Central Java (Indonesian: Jawa Tengah) is a province of Indonesia, located in the middle of
the island of Java. Its administrative capital is Semarang. It is bordered by West Java in the
west, the Indian Ocean and the Special Region of Yogyakarta in the south, East Java in the
east, and the Java Sea in the north. It has a total area of 32,800.69 km², with a population of
36,516,035 at the 2020 Census[2] making it the third-most populous province in both Java and
Indonesia after West Java and East Java. The province also includes the island
of Nusakambangan in the south (close to the border of West Java), and the Karimun Jawa
Islands in the Java Sea. Central Java is also a cultural concept that includes the Special
Region and city of Yogyakarta. However, administratively the city and its
surrounding regencies have formed a separate special region (equivalent to a province) since
the country's independence, and is administrated separately. Although known as the "heart"
of Javanese culture, there are several other non-Javanese ethnic groups, such as
the Sundanese on the border with West Java. Chinese Indonesians, Arab Indonesians,
and Indian Indonesians are also scattered throughout the province.
The province has been inhabited by humans since the prehistoric-era. Remains of a Homo
erectus, known as "Java Man", were found along the banks of the Bengawan Solo River, and
date back to 1.7 million years ago.[5] What is present-day Central Java was once under the
control of several Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms, Islamic sultanates, and the Dutch East
Indies colonial government. Central Java was also the centre of the Indonesian independence
movement. As the majority of modern-day Indonesians are of Javanese descent, both Central
Java and East Java have a major impact on Indonesia's social, political, and economic life.
The origin of the name "Java" can be traced from the Sanskrit chronicle which mentions the
existence of an island called yavadvip(a) (dvipa means "island", and yava means "barley" or
also "grain").Are these grains a millet (Setaria italica) or rice, both of which have been
widely found on this island in the days before the entry of Indian influence. It is possible that
this island has many previous names, including the possibility of originating from the
word jaú which means "far away". Yavadvipa is mentioned in one of the Indian
epic, Ramayana. According to the epic, Sugriva, the commander of the wanara (ape man)
from Sri Rama's army, sent his envoy to Yavadvip ("Java Island") to look for the Hindu
goddess Sita.[8]
Another possible assumption is that the word "Java" comes from the root words in a Proto-
Austronesian language, Awa or Yawa (Similar to the words Awa'i (Awaiki)
or Hawa'i (Hawaiki) used in Polynesia, especially Hawaii) which means "home".

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An island called Iabadiu or Jabadiu is mentioned in Ptolemy's work
called Geographia which was made around 150 AD during the era of the Roman
Empire. Iabadiu is said to mean "island of barley", also rich in gold, and has a silver city
called Argyra at its western end. This name mentioned Java, which most likely origins from
the Sanskrit term Java-dvipa (Yawadvipa).
Chinese records from the Songshu and the Liangshu referred to Java as She-po (5th century
AD), He-ling (640–818 AD), then called it She-po again until the Yuan Dynasty (1271–
1368), where they began to call Zhao-Wa. [11] In the book Yingyai Shenglan, written by the
Chinese Ming explorer Ma Huan, the Chinese call Java as Chao-Wa, and it was once called
the She-pó (She-bó). When Giovanni de' Marignolli returned from China to Avignon, he
stopped at the kingdom of Saba, which he said had many elephants and was led by a queen;
this name Saba might be his interpretation of She-bó.
Pre-historic era

Fossil of the Java Man, found in Sangiran, Sragen Regency

Java has been inhabited by humans or their ancestors (hominina) since prehistoric times. In
Central Java and the adjacent territories in East Java remains known as "Java Man" were
discovered in the 1890s by the Dutch anatomist and geologist Eugène Dubois. It belongs to
the species Homo erectus,[14] and are believed to be about 1.7 million years
old . The Sangiran site is an important prehistoric site on Java.
Around 40,000 years ago, Australoid peoples related to modern Australian Aboriginals
and Melanesians colonised Central Java. They were assimilated or replaced by
Mongoloid Austronesians by about 3,000 BC, who brought with them technologies of
pottery, outrigger canoes, the bow and arrow, and introduced domesticated pigs, fowls, and
dogs. They also introduced cultivated rice and millet.
Hindu-Buddhist era
Recorded history began in what is now Central Java in the 7th century AD. The writing, as
well as Hinduism and Buddhism, were brought by the Indians from South Asia, at the time of
Central Java was a centre of power in Java back then. In 664 AD, the Chinese monk Hui-
neng visited the Javanese port city he called Hēlíng ( 訶 陵 ) or Ho-ling, where he translated
various Buddhist scriptures into Chinese with the assistance of the Javanese Buddhist monk
Jñānabhadra. It is not precisely known what is meant by the name Hēlíng. It used to be
considered the Chinese transcription of Kalinga but it now most commonly thought of as a
rendering of the name Areng. Hēlíng is believed to be located somewhere between Semarang
and Jepara.
The first dated inscription in Central Java was the Canggal from 732 AD (or 654 Saka). This
inscription, which hailed from Kedu, is written in Sanskrit in Pallava script. It is written that
a Shaivite king named Sri Sanjaya established a kingdom called Mataram. Under the reign of

44
Sanjaya's dynasty, several monuments such as the Prambanan temple complex were built. At
the same time, a competing dynasty Sailendra arose, which adhered to Buddhism and built
the Borobudur temple. After 820 AD, there was no more mention of the Hēlíng in Chinese
records. This fact coincides with the overthrow of the Sailendras by the Sanjayas who
restored Shaivism as the dominant religion. In the middle of the 10th century, however, the
centre of power moved to eastern Java. Raden Wijaya founded the Majapahit Empire, and it
reached its peak during the reign of Hayam Wuruk (m. 1350–1389). The kingdom claimed
sovereignty over the entire Indonesian archipelago, although direct control tended to be
limited to Java, Bali and Madura. Gajah Mada was a military leader during this time, who led
numerous territorial conquests. The kingdoms in Java had previously based their power on
agriculture, but Majapahit had succeeded in seizing ports and shipping lanes, in a bid to
become the first commercial empire on Java. The empire suffered a setback after the death of
Hayam Wuruk and the entry of Islam into the archipelago.
In the late 16th century, the development of Islam had surpassed Hinduism and Buddhism as
the dominant religion in Java. The emergence of the Islamic kingdoms in Java is also
inseparable from the role of Walisongo. At first, the spread of Islam was quick and was
accepted by ordinary people, until the entrance of da'wah and was carried out by the rulers of
the island. The Sultanate of Demak was the first recorded Islamic kingdom in Java, first led
by one of the descendants of the Majapahit emperor Raden Patah, who converted to Islam.
During this period, Islamic kingdoms began to develop from Pajang, Surakarta, Yogyakarta,
Cirebon, and Banten to establish their power. Another Islamic kingdom, the Sultanate of
Mataram, grew into a dominant force from the central and eastern parts of Java. The rulers of
Surabaya and Cirebon were subdued under the rule of Mataram, and it was only Mataram and
Banten Sultanates that were left behind when the Dutch arrived in the early 17th century.
Some kingdoms of Islamic heritage in Java can still be found in several cities, such
as Surakarta and Yogyakarta with two kingdoms each, Kasunanan and Mangkunegaran, and
the Yogyakarta Sultanate and Pakualaman, respectively.

Geography

Landscape of the Serayu River Valley, with Mount Slamet in the background./Mount Sindoro and Mount
Sumbing viewed from the Dieng Pleteau.

In the south of the area are the Northern Cretaceous Mountains and the Kendeng Mountains,
which are limestone mountains stretching from the east of Semarang from the Southwest end
of Pati then east to the Lamongan and Bojonegoro in East Java.

45
Beach in Karimunjawa Island, Jepara Regency
The main range of mountains in Central Java is the North and South Serayu Mountains. The
North forms a mountain chain that connects the Bogor range in West Java with the Kendeng
Mountains in the east. The width of this mountain range is around 30–50 km; on the western
end there is Mount Slamet, which is the highest mountain in Central Java as well as the
second-highest mountain in Java, and the eastern part is the Dieng Plateau with peaks of
Mount Prahu and Mount Ungaran. Between the series of North and South Serayu Mountains
are separated by the Serayu Depression which stretches from Majenang in the Cilacap
Regency, Purwokerto, to Wonosobo. East of this depression is the Sindoro and Sumbing
volcano, and the east again (Magelang and Temanggung areas) is a continuation of
depression which limits Mount Merapi and Mount Merbabu.
The Southern Serayu Mountains are part of the South Central Java Basin located in the
southern part of the province. This mandala is a geoantiklin that extends from west to east
along 100 kilometres and is divided into two parts separated by the Jatilawang valley, namely
the western and eastern regions. The western part is formed by Mount Kabanaran (360 m)
and can be described as having the same elevation as the Bandung Depression Zone in West
Java or as a new structural element in Central Java. This section is separated from the Bogor
Zone by the Majenang Depression.
The eastern part was built by the Ajibarang anticline (narrow anticline) which was cut by
the Serayu River stream. In the east of Banyumas, the anticline developed into an
anticlinorium with a width reaching 30 km in the Lukulo area (south of Banjarnegara-
Midangan) or often called the Kebumen Tinggi. At the very eastern end of Mandala, the
South Serayu Mountains are formed by the dome of the Kulonprogo Mountains (1022 m),
which is located between Purworejo and the Progo River.
The area of the south coast of Central Java also has a narrow lowland, with a width of 10–
25 km. In addition, there are South Gombong Karst Areas. Sloping hills stretch parallel to the
coast, from Yogyakarta to Cilacap. East of Yogyakarta is a limestone mountain area that
extends to the southern coast of East Java.
The Javanese cultural area can be divided into three distinct main regions: Western, Central,
and Eastern Javanese culture or in their Javanese names as Ngapak, Kejawèn and Arèk. The
boundaries of these cultural regions coincide with the isoglosses of the Javanese dialects.
Cultural areas west of Dieng Plateau and Pekalongan Regency are
considered Ngapak whereas the border of the eastern cultural areas or Arèk lies in East Java.
Consequently, culturally, Central Java consists of two cultures, while the Central Javanese
Culture proper is not entirely confined to Central Java.
The architecture of Central Java is characterised by the juxtaposition of the old and the new
and a wide variety of architectural styles, the legacy of many successive influences from the
Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, China, and Europe. In particular, northern coastal cities

46
such as Semarang, Tegal, and Pekalongan can boast European colonial architecture. The
European and Chinese influence can be seen in Semarang's temple of Sam Poo
Kong dedicated to Zheng He and the Domed Church built in 1753. The latter is the second-
oldest church in Java and the oldest in Central Java. In the former capital of Surakarta, there
are also several European architectures.
Central Java also has some notable religious buildings. The Borobudur and
the Prambanan temple complexes are among the largest Buddhist and Hindu structures in the
world. In general, a characteristic Javanese mosque does not have a dome as its roof but
a Meru-like roof which is reminiscent of a Hindu or Buddhist temple. The tower of the
famous Mosque of Kudus resembles a Hindu-Javanese or Balinese temple more than a
traditional Middle Eastern mosque.
Coat of arms and emblem: The emblem basic shape remembles that of a "Kundi Amerta", a
ceremonial water jug. A five-pointed shape and a star
symbolize Pancasila. Borobudur represents creativity, culture, and tradition, and twin
mountains symbolize unity between local government and its people. The mountains, sea,
and green background represents the natural geography of this province with its various
resources as a source of livelihood for the Central Javan People. Below the star is a bambu
runcing or sharpened bamboo, a traditional weapon to symbolize heroism, rice and cotton
symbolize prosperity, red and white pennant on top symbolize nationalism. The motto
"Prasetya Ulah Sakti Bhakti Praja" is a sanskrit word which means A vow and devotion with
all might to build the nation and the country.

Other pre- Borobudur Stupas that were standing in India that could have inspired the
Indonesians were:

The Indonesian bronzes and votive tablets from this period show the creativity of its people,
yet

the iconographic themes overlap with those found at Nalanda and nearby region. Monks from
Indonesia, Myanmar and other parts of southeast Asia came to Nalanda during the Pala rule.
The Mahayana Buddhism followed in Vietnam, China, Korea and Japan, flourished within
the walls of the ancient school. A number of scholars have associated some Mahayana texts
such as the Shurangama Sutra, an important sutra in East Asian Buddhism, with the Buddhist
tradition at Nalanda. Ron Epstein also notes that the general doctrinal position of the sutra

47
does indeed correspond to what is known about the Buddhist teachings at Nalanda toward the
end of the Gupta period when it was translated.

Several Buddhist institutions overseas have chosen to call themselves Nalanda to

acknowledge Nalanda's influence. These include Nalanda Buddhist Society in
Malaysia and Nalanda College, Colombo, Sri Lanka, Nalanda Buddhist Education
Foundation, Indonesia, Nalanda Buddhist Institute, Bhutan.

The Pāla Empire (r. 750–1161 CE) was an imperial power during the post-classical period in
the Indian subcontinent, which originated in the region of Bengal. It is named after its ruling
dynasty, whose rulers bore names ending with the suffix Pāla ("protector" in Prakrit). The
empire was founded with the election of Gopāla as the emperor of Gauda in late eighth
century CE. The Pala stronghold was located in Bengal and eastern Bihar, which included the
major cities of Gauḍa, Vikramapura, Pāṭaliputra, Monghyr, Somapura, Ramavati
(Varendra), Tāmralipta and Jagaddala.[

The Pālas were astute diplomats and military conquerors. Their army was noted for its
vast war elephant corps

The Palas were patrons of Mahayana Buddhism. A few sources written much after Gopala's
death mention him as a Buddhist, but it is not known if this is true. The subsequent Pala
kings were definitely Buddhists. Dharmapala made the Buddhist philosopher Haribhadra his
spiritual preceptor. He established the Vikramashila monastery and the Somapura
Mahavihara. Taranatha also credits him with establishing 50 religious institutions and
patronising the Buddhist author Haribhadra. Devapala restored and enlarged the structures at
Somapura Mahavihara, which also features several themes from the
epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. Mahipala I also ordered construction and repairs of
several sacred structures at Saranath, Nalanda and Bodh Gaya. The Mahipala geet ("songs of
Mahipala"), a set of folk songs about him, are still popular in the rural areas of Bengal.

The Palas developed the Buddhist centres of learnings, such as the Vikramashila and
the Nalanda universities. Nalanda, considered one of the first great universities in recorded
history, reached its height under the patronage of the Palas. Noted Buddhist scholars from the
Pala period include Atisha, Santaraksita, Saraha, Tilopa, Bimalamitra, Dansheel, Dansree,
Jinamitra, Jnanasrimitra, Manjughosh, Muktimitra, Padmanava, Sambhogabajra,
Shantarakshit, Silabhadra, Sugatasree and Virachan.

As the rulers of Gautama Buddha's land, the Palas acquired great reputation in the Buddhist
world. Balaputradeva, the Sailendra king of Java, sent an ambassador to him, asking for a
grant of five villages for the construction of a monastery at Nalanda.[56] The request was
granted by Devapala. He appointed the Brahmin Viradeva (of Nagarahara, present-day
Jalalabad) as the head of the Nalanda monastery. The Buddhist poet Vajradatta (the author of
Lokesvarashataka), was in his court.[17] The Buddhist scholars from the Pala empire travelled
from Bengal to other regions to propagate Buddhism. Atisha, for example, preached
in Tibet and Sumatra, and is seen as one of the major figures in the spread of 11th-century
Mahayana Buddhism.

Patronage

The Palas continued to patronise Shaivism, and epigraphic evidence suggests that Mahipala I
and Nayapala were initiated as Shaivites by their royal preceptors. Vigrahapala III's

48
Amagachi inscription describes him as "devoted to Śiva worship", and this tradition
continued under his successor Ramapala. Poet Sandhyakar Nandi describes Ramapala's son
Madanapala as a devotee of Shiva.

The Palas supported the Saiva ascetics, typically the ones associated with the Golagi-Math.
[57]
Besides the images of the Buddhist deities, the images of Vishnu, Siva and Sarasvati were
also constructed during the Pala dynasty rule.

Devapala built a temple dedicated to Shiva's consort, and Mahipala patronised a Shaivite
monastery. A 1026 CE inscription recording renovations of Buddhist structures at Sarnath by
Pala princes states that Mahipala I had them built "hundreds" of temples of Shiva,
Chitraghanta, and other deities in Varanasi.

Narayanapala's Bhagalpur inscription suggests that he built several Shiva temples, and
records his grant of a village to Pashupatas.[12] Narayanapala also attended a sacrifice by his
Brahmin minister. Nayapala's Siyan inscription suggests that he built several temples
dedicated to Shiva and his various aspects (such as Bhairava), plus temples dedicated to
the Nine Durgas, the Mother Goddess, Vishnu, and Lakshmi. Despite this, it is unlikely that
Nayapala had rejected Buddhist teachings, since Taranatha states that he had a Buddhist
preceptor.Madanapala's queen Chitramatika, gifted land to a brahmana named Vateshvara-
svami Sharma as his remuneration for reciting the Mahabharata.[

1. Sanchi Stupa, Madhya Pradesh

The Buddhist complex, Sanchi is famous for its Great Stupa which is one of the most famous
stupas in India. The Great Stupa (Mahastupa) is situated on a hilltop is considered one of the
oldest stone structures in the country. The monument is very valuable, important, and the
best-preserved ancient stupa. Its construction was commissioned by Ashoka the Great and he
along with his wife supervised the work. He even constructed one of the pillars which are

49
inscribed with his proclamation. The famous sandstone pillar of Ashoka is still at the
complex in Sanchi. Toranas, the free-standing arched gateways are intricately engraved. The
hemispherical stone had a ‘chatra’ which intended to honor and shelter Buddha’s relics. The
Sanchi Stupa is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is also featured on the rear side of the
200 rupees note.

Although the initial craftsmen for stone reliefs in Sanchi seem to have come from Gandhara,
with the first reliefs being carved at Sanchi Stupa No.2 circa 115 BCE, the art of Sanchi
thereafter developed considerably in the 1st century BCE/CE and is thought to predate the
blooming of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, which went on to flourish until around the
4th century CE. The art of Sanchi is thus considered as the ancestor of the didactic forms
of Buddhist art that would follow, such as the art of Gandhara. It is also, with Bharhut, the
oldest.

As didactic Buddhist reliefs were adopted by Gandhara, the content evolved somewhat
together with the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism, a more theistic understanding of
Buddhism. First, although many of the artistic themes remained the same (such as Maya's
dream, The Great Departure, Mara's attacks...), many of the stories of the previous lives of
the Buddha were replaced by the even more numerous stories about the Bodhisattvas of the
Mahayana pantheon. Second, another important difference is the treatment of the image of
the Buddha: whereas the art of Sanchi, however detailed and sophisticated, is aniconic, the art
of Gandhara added illustrations of the Buddha as a man wearing Greek-style clothing to play
a central role in its didactic reliefs.
The presence of Greeks at or near Sanchi at the time is known (Indo-
Greek ambassador Heliodorus at Vidisha circa 100 BCE, the Greek-like foreigners illustrated
at Sanchi worshiping the Great Stupa, or the Greek "Yavana" devotees who had dedicatory
inscriptions made at Sanchi, but more precise details about exchanges or possible routes of
transmission are elusive.

The monuments at Sanchi today comprise a series of Buddhist monuments starting from
the Mauryan Empire period (3rd century BCE), continuing with the Gupta Empire period (5th
century CE), and ending around the 12th century CE. It is probably the best preserved group
of Buddhist monuments in India. The oldest, and also the largest monument, is the Great
Stupa also called Stupa No. 1, initially built under the Mauryans, and adorned with one of
the Pillars of Ashoka. During the following centuries, especially under the Shungas and
the Satavahanas, the Great Stupa was enlarged and decorated with gates and railings, and
smaller stupas were also built in the vicinity, especially Stupa No.2, and Stupa No.3.

50
2. Dhamekh Stupa, Sarnath

51
Located at Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, the Dhamekh Stupa is a massive structure, originally built
in 249 BCE and later reconstructed in 500 CE. It was commissioned by Ashoka the Great,
who wanted to enshrine the relics of Buddha and his disciples. There is an Ashoka pillar with
engraved edicts standing on the site. The Dhamekh stupa is an exquisite piece of Buddhist
architecture and is engraved with birds, flowers, humans, and inscriptions in Brahmi
script. The shape is a strong cylinder of bricks and stones with a diameter of 28 meters and a
peak of 43.6 meters. The Stupa is believed to mark the spot of a deer park where Lord
Buddha delivered his first sermon after attaining enlightenment in Bodh Gaya. The panels of
the stupa also have ‘Swastikas’ on them. However, some later stupas, such as
at Sarnath and Sanchi, seem to be embellishments of earlier mounds. The Dhamek Stupa was
built in 500 CE to replace an earlier structure commissioned by the
great Mauryan king Ashoka in 249 BCE, along with several other monuments, to
commemorate the Buddha's activities in this location. Stupas originated as circular mounds
encircled by large stones. King Ashoka built stupas to enshrine small pieces of calcinated
bone and other relics of the Buddha and his disciples. An Ashoka pillar with an edict
engraved on it stands near the site.

52
 litho from 1891

3. Amaravati Stupa, Andhra Pradesh

53
 Imag
e-

The Amarāvatī Stupa, popularly known as the great stūpa at Amarāvathī, is a

ruined Buddhist monument, probably built in phases between the third century BCE and
about 250 CE, at Amaravathi village, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, India. The site is
under the protection of the Archaeological Survey of India. The campus includes
the stūpa itself and the Archaeological Museum. The important sculptures from the site are
now in a number of museums in India and abroad; many are considerably damaged. The great
majority of sculptures are in shallow relief, and the original sculptures do not include large
iconic Buddha figures. Its stunning architecture and a diameter of about 50 meters and a
height of 27 meters. Built during the reign of Ashoka in 200 CE, the Stupa has a circular
vedika that portrays Lord Buddha on top of an elephant. The stupa was called a Mahachaitya
in ancient inscriptions. It is an important spot for Buddhism as the Vajrayana teachings of
Kalachakra are practiced here. The stupa was neglected and was buried under dust and debris
but some of its relics, sculptures, and inscriptions that depict the life of Lord Buddha are
preserved in several museums. There are a few broken pillars that remain at the site for
significance and past glory of the stupa.

4. Bavikonda Stupa, Andhra Pradesh

Located at a distance of 16 km from Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, the Bavikonda
Buddhist Complex is situated about 130 meters above mean sea level on a hill. Bavikonda is
also known as the hill of wells as the place has many wells for rainwater collection. This
Buddhist complex is an excavated site and it contains numerous relics which date back to the
3 rd century BCE. The excavated remnants included remains of Buddha, pottery, bricks,
coins, caskets, inscriptions, etc. which were recovered by the State Archaeological
Department. Bavikonda along with three other places is a heritage site by UNESCO. The
term Bavikonda in Telugu means a hill of wells. As per its name, Bavikonda is a hill which
has wells for the collection of rainwater. BavikondaMonastic ruins dates back to the 3rd
century BCE.

54
A large Buddhist complex was excavated at this . ite. The excavated remnants are as follows:

 A piece of bone stored in an urn, supposed to be one of the remains of the Buddha,
 Inscriptions,
 Pottery,
 Relic caskets,
 Tiles,
 Bricks,
 Coins etc.
were recovered here by the State archaeological Department.
The Buddhist sites of Thotlakonda and Pavurallakonda are situated close by.

5. Chaukhandi Stupa, Sarnath

55
The Chaukhandi Stupa in Sarnath, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh was initially built as a terraced
temple between the 4th and 6th centuries to mark the area where Lord Buddha met his first
disciples on their journey from Bodh Gaya to Sarnath. Afterward, Raja Todar Mal’s son
redesigned the stupa and built the octagonal tower to celebrate the visit of Mughal ruler,
Humayun. However, the stupa became declared a monument of countrywide significance in
June 2019. The stupa is a high earthen mound with brickwork all over it and the place is
surrounded by lush gardens and museums.
The Chaukhandi Stupa is thought originally to have been built as a terraced temple during
the Gupta period between the 4th and 6th centuries to mark the site where Buddha and his
first disciples met traveling from Bodh Gaya to Sarnath. Later Govardhan, the son of a
Raja Todar Mal, modified the stupa to its present shape by building the octagonal tower to
commemorate the visit of Humayun, the powerful Mughal ruler.
Today the stupa is a high earthen mound covered with a brickwork edifice topped by an
octagonal tower. It is maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India.

Ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo

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 III
MATARAM KINGDOM and ARCHITECTURE of the THE TWIN PLAINS

Kewu Plain, also known as Prambanan Plain or Opak River valley, is a fertile volcanic
plain that lies between Merapi-Merbabu complex in the north, Bantul lowlands
and Sewu karst limestone range in the south, Bengawan Solo river valley in east, and
the Progo River in the west, and Kedu Plain on northwest. It is located within the Yogyakarta
Special Region, Sleman Regency, Klaten Regency and Solo City (Central Java).

The temple is located on the Prambanan Plain, between the southeastern slopes of the Merapi
volcano and the Sewu mountain range in the south, near the present border
of Yogyakarta province and Klaten Regency in central Java. The plain has many
archaeological sites scattered only a few miles apart, which suggests that this area served as
an important religious, political, and urban center.

57
MATARAM KINGDOM
Historically the area was identified as Mataram. The region was the center of both
the Medang i Bhumi Mataram kingdom in the 8th to 10th centuries, and later the Mataram
Sultanate in the 16th century. It has been an important location in Central Javanese history
and culture for over a millennium since it contains many ancient archaeological remnants of
historic significance. If each temple structure was counted separately, the 9th century Central
Java period could be said to have produced thousands of temples, scattered from Dieng
Plateau, Kedu Plain to Kewu Plain.
Apart from the Prambanan Roro Jonggrang complex, Kewu Plain along with the valley and
hills around it is the location of some of the earliest Hindu-Buddhist temples in Indonesia.
Adjacent to the complex to the north are Bubrah temple, Lumbung temple, and Sewu temple;
to the east are found Plaosan temple. Kalasan temple and Sari temple are to the west, and
further is the Sambisari temple. The Ratu Boko compounds are on higher ground just to the
south. The discoveries of archaeological sites scattered only a few miles away suggested that
this area was once an important religious, political, and urban center of central Java. Despite
the smaller scale of its temples, the diversity and sophistication of the archaeological sites in
this plain are comparable to Angkor archaeological site in Cambodia. Borobudur and
Prambanan in particular, are popularly regarded as the two Indonesian temples to
rival Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
In 2012, the Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala Jawa Tengah (BP3, or the Central
Java Heritage Preservation Authority) suggested that the area in and around Prambanan
should be treated as a sanctuary. The proposed area is in the Prambanan Plain measuring
measured 30 square kilometres (12 sq mi) spread across the Sleman and Klaten regencies.
The area includes major temples such as Prambanan, Ratu Boko, Kalasan, Sari and Plaosan
temples. The sanctuary is planned to be treated in a similar fashion to the Angkor
archaeological area in Cambodia, which suggests that the government should prevent or
regulate permits to construct any new buildings, especially the multi-storied buildings, as
well as BTS towers. This was meant to protect this archaeologically-rich area from modern
day visual obstructions and the encroachments of hotels, restaurants and any tourism-related
buildings and businesses. There are a number of temples in this area- both Hindu and
Buddhist:

Shiva temple, the main temple at Prambanan temple complex rising 47m high (130
feet)and measures 34m x 34m at its base. The main temple houses the statue of Shiva
Mahadewa, Ganesha, Durga Mahisashuramardhini, and Agastya on each chamber of

58
cardinal points. On the far right is stood Wishnu temple. Around the ballustrade of the
Shiva temple adorned with panels of bas reliefs narating the story from Ramayana.
This ninth century temple complex was build by Hindu Mataram Kingdom.

 Kalasan. According to Kalasan inscription it is the oldest temple built in the plain. This
early 8th century Buddhist temple built to honor female bodhisattva Tara.
 Sari. Once a sanctuary or monastery for Buddhist priests. 8th century. Nine stupas at the
top with two rooms beneath, each believed to be places for priests to meditate.
 Ratu Boko. Complex of fortified gates, bathing pools, and elevated walled stone
enclosure, all located on top of the hill south of Prambanan.
 Lumbung. Buddhist-style, consisting of one main temple surrounded by 16 smaller ones.

59
 Bubrah. Buddhist temple related to nearby Sewu temple.
 Sewu. This Buddhist temple complex is older than Prambanan temple. The original name
of this temple is Manjusrigrha and it was a royal buddhist temple of the kingdom. A main
sanctuary surrounded by many smaller temples. Well preserved guardian statues, replicas
of which stand in the central courtyard at the Jogja Kraton.
 Prambanan. A large compound of 9th century Shivaic Trimurti Hindu temple. The
construction of grand Hindu temple was probably the sign that Hinduism once again gain
royal patronage of Medang kings.
 Plaosan. Buddhist, probably 9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu king for
his Buddhist queen. Two main temples with reliefs of Bodhisattva and Tara. Also rows of
slender stupas.
 Sojiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and
staircase are decorated with animal fables. Sojiwan was probably the mortuary temple for
a buddhist queen, Sang Sanjiwana or Pramodhawardhani.
 Banyunibo. A Buddhist temple with unique design of roof.
 Barong. A Hindu temple complex with large stepped stone courtyard. Located on the
slope of the hill not far from Banyunibo and Ratu Boko.
 Ijo. A cluster of Hindu temple located near the top of Ijo hill. The main temple houses a
large lingam and yoni.
 Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing
different poses and expressions.
 Gebang. A small Hindu temple discovered in 1937 located near the Yogyakarta northern
ring-road. The temple display the statue of Ganesha and interesting carving of faces on
the roof section.
 Gana. Rich in statues, bas-reliefs and sculpted stones. Frequent representations of
children or dwarfs with raised hands. Located in the middle of housing complex. Under
restoration since 1997.
 Sambisari. Discovered in 1966, this Hindu temple was buried in volcanic lahar 4m deep.
A main temple housen a large linggam and yoni with three smaller temple at the front.
 Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4m deep. Square base of main temple
visible. Secondary temples not yet fully excavated. This temple shared similar design and
style with Sambisari.
 Morangan. Hindu temple complex buried several meters under volcanic ashes, located
northwest from Prambanan.
 Pustakasala. Discovered in 2009 buried in Indonesia Islamic University ground.
Together with Morangan these temple is the northernmost of temples discovered in this
area.
KEDU
The other plain is the Kedu Plain, also known as Progo River valley, is the fertile
volcanic plain that lies between the volcanoes, Mount Sumbing and Mount Sundoro to the
west, and Mount Merbabu and Mount Merapi to the east, roughly corresponds to present-
day Magelang and Temanggung Regency of Central Java, Indonesia.
The Progo River runs through the center of this plain, from its source on the slope of Mount
Sundoro to the southern coast of Java facing the Indian Ocean. It has been a significant
location in Central Javanese history for over a millennium, as it contains traces of
the Sailendra dynasty as well as Borobudur and associated locations. During the
colonial Dutch East Indies period, the Kedu Plain was located in the Kedu Residency, which
at that time covered what are now the Magelang Regency, Magelang City, and Temanggung

60
Regency administrative units.
The Kedu Plain hosts a large number of Hindu and Buddhist temples dated, from the 8th to
the 9th century. Because of this, the Kedu Plain is considered the cradle of classic Indonesian
civilization. The temples in the region include:

Stupas overlook the Kedu Plain

 Borobudur: The gigantic 8th century stone mandala Buddhist monument was built by
the Sailendras.
 Mendut: The 8th century Buddhist temple is housing three large stone statues
of Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara, and Vajrapani.
 Pawon: The small 8th century Buddhist temple near the bank of Progo River is located
between Mendut and Borobudur.
 Ngawen: The 8th century Buddhist temple is located about 5 kilometers east of Mendut
temple.
 Banon: The ruins of a Hindu temple; located several hundred meters north of Pawon
temple. However, no significant remains of the temple have survived, thus, its
reconstruction is impossible. Only the statues of Shiva, Vishnu, Agastya,
and Ganesha have been discovered, which are now displayed at the National Museum of
Indonesia, Jakarta.
 Canggal: also known as Candi Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest Hindu temples in the
area. The temple is located in the Muntilan area, near the temple a Canggal
inscription connected with Sri Sanjaya, the king of Mataram Kingdom was discovered.
 Gunung Sari: The ruins of a Hindu temple on top of a hill, located near Candi Gunung
Wukir, on the outskirts of Muntilan.

61
 Umbul: in Grabag, Magelang; it served as a bathing and resting place for the kings
of Mataram

The map of Hindu-Buddhist kingdom of Kalingga , circa 6th to 7th century CE. Located
somewhere on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia.

This plain lay in the Kingdom of the Kalingga which was one of the first Hindu-Buddhist
kingdoms in Central Java, located between present-day Pekalongan and Jepara. That is one
reason why there is a blend of Hindu and Buddhist temples in this area.

The kingdom was described as being surrounded by wooden fortresses, with the King residing
in a multiple storied palace covered with a roof made of the leaves of Arengga pinata trees.
The kingdom exported silver, gold and elephant tusks. The Kalingga kingdom was very
orderly and serene, and led by Queen Sima. It was a center of Buddhist studies and practice,
and the Chinese came to Kalingga to study Buddhism., which around that time became the
official religion in China. Two temples remain from the Kalingga Kingdom: Candi
Angin and Candi Bubrah in Tempur Village, the present day Jepara.
Kalingga was a 6th-century Indianized kingdom on the north coast of Central
62
Java, Indonesia. It was the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Central Java, and together
with Kutai and Tarumanagara are the oldest kingdoms in Indonesian history.
The archaeological findings and historical records from this period are scarce, and the
exact location of kingdom's capital is unknown. It is thought to be somewhere between
present-day Pekalongan or Jepara. A place named Keling subdistrict is found in northern
coast of Jepara Regency, however some archaeological findings near Pekalongan and Batang
regency shows that Pekalongan was an ancient port, suggests that Pekalongan might be an
altered name of Pe-Kaling-an. Kalingga existed between the 6th and 7th centuries, and it was
one of the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms established in Java. The historical record of this
kingdom is scarce and vague, and comes mostly from Chinese sources and local traditions.
Kalingga appeared in the 5th century which is thought to be located in the north of Central
Java . Information about the Kalingga Kingdom is obtained from inscriptions and records
from China . In 752, the Kalingga Kingdom became Sriwijaya's conquered territory because
this kingdom was part of a trading network, along with the Dharmasraya and Tarumanagara
Kingdoms which Srivijaya had previously conquered . The three kingdoms became strong
competitors of the Srivijaya - Buddhist trading network .

In the 15th–16th century the small city of Pekalongan emerged as a corridor for
communication between two powerful sultanates centred near Java’s northern coast: Cirebon,
to the west, and Demak, to the east. In the 17th century the regency of Pekalongan came
under control of the Mataram sultanate of south-central Java. When Mataram lost power in
the 18th century, it granted Pekalongan to the Dutch East India Company. In 1753 the Dutch
built a fort in Pekalongan city. The fort became a prison in the 19th century and was used as
an internment centre during the Japanese occupation (1942–45) of Java during World War II.
The structure has continued to function as a penitentiary in the 21st century. Today the
Pekalongan, (city) is the capital of the kabupaten (regency), Central Java (Jawa Tengah)
situated on the northern coastal plain of the island of Java.

Pekalongan Harbour, which lies within the city limits, is one of the principal fishing ports on
Java, and the city itself is home to one of the island’s largest fresh-fish markets. Pekalongan
city is also recognized as a major centre of batik production. Food (including fish)
processing, textile production, and the manufacture of chemical products are among the

63
important industries. Exports include batik, tea, rubber, locally refined sugar, and other
goods. Sugarcane, rice, kapok, cinchona, indigo, and corn (maize) are grown in the regency’s
fertile river valleys and coastal plains. Area regency, 323 square miles (837 square km); city,
17 square miles (44 square km). Pop. (2010) regency, 838,621; city, 281,434.
HISTORY

The Tukmas inscription was estimated to be originated from Kalingga period. It was
discovered on the western slope of Mount Merapi, at Dusun Dakawu, Lebak village,
Kecamatan Grabag, Magelang Regency, Central Java, and is written in Pallava
script in Sanskrit tells about a clear spring water that is so sacred that adored as the analogue
of holy Ganges's source in India. The inscription also bears Hindu signs and imageries, such
as trisula, kamandalu (water jar), parashu (axe), kalacengkha (shell), chakra and padma (red
lotus), those are symbols of Hindu gods.
Another inscription dated from around the same period is Sojomerto inscription, discovered
in Sojomerto village, Kecamatan Reban, Batang Regency, Central Java. It is written in Kavi
script in Old Malay language, estimated dated from 7th century. The inscription tell about a
ruler named Dapunta Selendra, son of Santanu and Bhadrawati, and husband of Sampula.
Indonesian historian Prof. Drs. Boechari suggested that Dapunta Selendra was the ancestor
of Sailendras that later rule in Mataram Kingdom.
Both inscriptions suggest that c. 7th century on the northern coast of Central Java, once
flourish a Hindu Shivaist kingdom, today identified as Kalingga kingdom. Some oldest
Javanese candis are also can be found in mountainous surrounding areas on northern Central
Java, such as the Hindu temples of Dieng Plateau, and Gedong Songo temples, but they are
probably built in later period, during the early Mataram Kingdom. Historian suggested that
there was a link between this old kingdom with later kingdom flourish in Southern Central
Java Kedu Plain, the Sailendra of Mataram Kingdom.

The Chinese sources come from China and date back to the Tang Dynasty. According to the
Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing, in 664 a Chinese Buddhist monk named Huining had arrived
in Heling and stayed there for about three years. During his stay, and with the assistance of
Jnanabhadra, a Heling monk, he translated numerous Buddhist Hinayana scriptures.
In 674 the kingdom was ruled by Queen Shima, notorious for her fierce law against thievery,
which encouraged her people to be honest and uphold absolute truth. According to tradition,
one day a foreign king placed a bag filled with gold on the intersection in Kalingga to test the
famed truthful and honesty of Kalingga people. Nobody dared to touch the bag that did not
belong to them, until three years later when Shima's son, the crown prince, accidentally
touched the bag with his foot. The queen issued a death sentence to her own son, but was
over-ruled by a minister that appealed the queen to spare the prince's life. Since it was the
prince's foot that touched the bag of gold, so it was the foot that must be punished through
mutilation.[3] According to Carita Parahyangan, a book composed in later period,
Shima's great-grandson is Sanjaya, who is the king of Sunda Kingdom and Galuh Kingdom,
and also the founder of Mataram Kingdom.
Between 742 and 755, the kingdom had moved further east from the Dieng Plateau, perhaps
in response to the Buddhist Sailendras

The Buddhist king Panangkaran who ruled the Medang Kingdom started the construction of
the great Manjusrigrha Temple (‘House of Manjushri’, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom), which is

64
the original name of the Sewu Temple complex, the second largest Buddhist complex in
Indonesia after Borobudur, with 249 buildings. Archaeologists believe the original name for
the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha which is Sewu an eighth
century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north of Prambanan in Central
Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the
common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at
Prambanan. Although the complex consists of 249 temples, this Javanese name translates to
'a thousand temples,' which originated from popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro
Jonggrang).

Candi Sewu temple layout

Sewu is an eighth century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north
of Prambanan in Central Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist
temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the
second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu
predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at Prambanan. Although the complex consists of

65
249 temples, this Javanese name translates to 'a thousand temples,' which originated from
popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro Jonggrang). Archaeologists believe the original
name for the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha.

CONSTRUCTION
Manjusrigrha inscription (792 CE), discovered in 1960 at the outer west perwara temple no. 202 (row 4
no. 37) of Sewu Buddhist temple.
According to the Kelurak inscription (dated from 782 CE) and the Manjusrigrha
inscription (dated from 792 CE), which were discovered in 1960, the original name of the
temple complex was probably "Manjusri grha" (The House of Manjusri). Manjusri is
a Bodhisattva from Mahayana Buddhist teachings that symbolizes the "gentle glory" of
transcendent wisdom (Sanskrit: prajñā). Sewu Temple was built by the end of eighth century
at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's reign and was completed during the reign of his
successor, King Indra. Rakai Panangkaran (746–780 CE) was well known as a devoted
Mahayana Buddhist king who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom.
Built 70 years before tge Hindu Shiva temple of Prambhanan, the Manjusrigrha temple was
the largest Buddhist temple in the Prambanan Plain region and the Borobudur was completed
37 years later.
Located in the heart of Mataram, the temple served as the royal Buddhist temple of the
kingdom. Stately religious ceremonies were held here regularly. The Manjusrigrha inscription
(792) praises the perfect beauty of the prasada (tower) of this temple compound.
The Bubrah temple, (read later in this paper ) is located several hundred meters south, and
the Gana temple, located is ob east of the Sewu temple. Both these are supposedlyguardian
temples for the Manjusrigrha complex, guarding the four cardinal directions around the Sewu
temple. Prior to the construction of Borobudur and Prambanan, Sewu likely served as the
kingdom's main temple. The temples are arranged in the mandala layout, which symbolizes
the universe in Buddhist cosmology.
Sewu temple was probably expanded and completed during the rule of Rakai Pikatan, a
prince who married a Buddhist princess from the Sailendra dynasty, Pramodhawardhani.
Most of his subjects retained their old religions after the court returned to favour Hinduism.
The proximity of the Sewu temple to Prambanan, a Hindu Temple, suggests that the Hindu
and Buddhist communities lived in harmony during the era in which the temples were built.
And the scale of the temple complex suggests that Candi Sewu was a royal Buddhist temple
that served as an important religious site.

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Candi Sewu main temple at left and one of apit temple at right BELOW Aerial view of Sewu temple near Prambanan
shows the mandala layout of the main temple surrounds by smaller perwara temples.

Rediscovery

Although buried deep beneath the volcanic debris around Mount Merapi, the temple ruins
were not completely forgotten by the local Javanese inhabitants. However, the origins of the
temple were a mystery. Over the centuries, tales and legends infused with myths of giants and
a cursed princess were recounted by villagers. Prambanan and Sewu were purport to be of
supernatural origin, and in the legend of Loro Jonggrang they were said to have been created
by a multitude of demons under the order of Bandung Bondowoso. Such tales are most likely
the reason the temples were preserved through the centuries prior to the Java War (1825–
1830). The local villagers dared not remove any of the temple stones, believing the ruins to
be haunted by supernatural beings.
1. In 1733, Pakubuwono II granted the Dutch merchant Cornelius Antonie Lons
permission to make a sightseeing tour through the heartland of Mataram. Lons' report
of this trip contains the first known extant description of the Sewu and Prambanan
temples and in the years 1806–07, the Dutch archaeologist Hermann
Cornelius unearthed the Sewu temples.
2. During the Java War (1825–1830) some of the temple stones were carted away and
used in fortifications. In the years that followed the temples suffered from looting.
3. Many of the Buddha statues were decapitated and the heads stolen. Some Dutch
colonists stole sculptures and used them as garden ornaments, and native villagers
used the foundation stones as construction material.
4. Some of the temple's best preserved bas-reliefs, Buddha's head, and some ornaments
were carried away from the site and ended up in museums and private collections
abroad.
5. In 1867, Isidore van Kinsbergen photographed the ruins of Candi Sewu after an
earthquake had caused the dome in main temple to collapse.
6. In 1885 Jan Willem IJzerman, revising some plans of the temple complex made
earlier by Cornelius, made notes regarding the temple's condition. He noted that

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 several Buddha heads were missing.
7. By 1978 none of the Buddha heads had survived, all of them having been looted from
the site completely
8. In 1901 a new set of photographs was taken, sponsored by Leydie Melville.
9. In 1908 Theodoor van Erp [nl] initiated the clearing and reconstruction of the main
temple.
10. In 1915 H. Maclaine Pont drew the reconstruction of a temples of the second row. It
was de Haan who reconstructed the Perwara temples with the aid of Van Kinsbergen's
photographs.
11. Subsequently, the temple became a subject of study among archaeologists
Contemporary events
Since the early 20th century the temple has been slowly and carefully reconstructed, yet it has
not been completely restored. There are hundreds of temple ruins, and many stones are
missing. The main temple reconstruction and two of the apit temples on the east side were
completed in 1993 and inaugurated by President Soeharto on 20 February 1993.
The temple was severely damaged during the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. The structural
damage was significant, and the central temple suffered the worst. Large pieces of debris
were scattered about on the grounds, and cracks between stone blocks were detected. To
prevent the central temple from collapsing, metal frame structures were erected on the four
corners and attached to support the main temple. Although some weeks later in 2006 the site
was reopened for visitors, the main temple remained closed for safety reasons. Today the
metal frame has been removed, and visitors may visit and enter the main temple.
The Sewu Temple often hosts the annual Vesak ceremony.

A lithograph of Tjandi Sewoe ruins near Prambanan, circa 1859

Image extracted from page 281 of volume 1 of Neerlands-Oost-Indie. Reizen over Java, Madura,(1852-1857), by BUDDINGH, Steven Adriaan. Original
held and digitised by the British Library.

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 Candi Sewu Layout

An architectural model of Candi Sewu temple compound, reconstruct the complete condition of

69
the 8th century Sewu temple in Central Java, Indonesia.
The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area, with
rectangular grounds that measure 185 meters north-south and 165 meters east-west. There is
an entrance on all four cardinal points, but the main entrance is located on the east side. Each
of the entrances is guarded by twin Dvarapala statues. These large guardian statues have been
better preserved, and replicas can be found at Jogja Kraton. There are 249 buildings in the
complex are arranged in a Mandala pattern around the main central hall. This configuration
expresses the Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe. There are 240 smaller temples,
called Perwara (guardian) temples, with similar designs that are arranged in four rectangular
concentric rows. Two outer rows are arranged closer and consist of 168 smaller temples,
while two inner rows, arranged at certain intervals, consist of 72 temples. The 249 temples
located in the second precinct were all made with a square frame but varied by different
statues and orientations. Many of the statues are now gone, and the arrangements on the
current site are not in the original orientations. The statues are comparable to the statues
of Borobudur and were likely made of bronze.

Along the north-south and east-west central axis at a distance of about 200 meters, between
the second and third rows of the smaller temple are located the apit (flank) temples, a couple
on each cardinal point facing each other. The apit temples are the second largest temples after
the main temple, however only eastern twin apit and a northern one still remain today. These
smaller temples encompass a larger sanctuary that has been heavily looted. Behind the fourth
row of smaller temples lies the stone paved courtyard where the main temple stood on the
center.
The nearby temples, Gana temple in the east and Bubrah temple in the south, are suggested as
the part of greater Manjusrigrha vajradhatu mandala complex. Both temples are located
around 300 metres from the Sewu main temple. There are northern and western ruins
discovered around the same distance from the main temple, however the stones was too
scarce for reconstruction. These temples suggested that indeed the Sewu temple compound
was completed with four additional temples, located 300 metres from the main temple, which
is corresponds with the mandala and the guardians of the directions concept.
The main temple measures 29 meters in diameter and soars up to 30 meters high. The
ground plan of the main temple is a cross-shaped 20-sided polygon. On each of the four
cardinal points of the main temple, there are four structures projected outward, each with its
own stairs, entrances and rooms, crowned with stupas, which form a cross-like layout. All of
the structures are made from andesite stones.
The main temple has five rooms, one large garbhagriha in the center and four smaller rooms
in each cardinal direction. These four rooms are all connected with outer corner galleries with
balustrades bordered by rows of small stupas. From the findings during the reconstruction
process, it was suggested that the original design of central sanctuary only consisted of a
central roomed temple surrounded by four additional structures with open portals. Doorways
were added later. The portals were narrowed to create door frames on which to attach wooden
doors. Some of the holes to attach doors are still visible. The doorways join the temples
together into one main building with five rooms.
The central chamber can be reached from the eastern room. The central chamber is larger
than other rooms with a higher ceiling and a taller roof. Now all the five rooms are
empty. However the lotus carved stone pedestal in the central chamber suggests that the
temple once contained a large bronze Buddhist statue (possible the bronze statue

70
of Manjusri), probably reaching a height of four meters. The statue is missing, probably
looted for scrap metal over the centuries. However another theory suggested that the main
statue was probably constructed from several stone blocks coated with vajralepa plaster.

The ruin of Bubrah temple in 2006, prior of reconstruction/ The makara stairs adornment of
Bubrah temple in 1900s

As an architectural masterpiece built in the 8th century and older than Borobudur and
Prambanan Temples, Sewu Temple has an important role in the development of archipelago’s
architecture. The background of the temple building can be known through the ornaments
that decorate parts of the temple. Ornaments contain certain meanings with Hindu-Buddhist
principles, not only as visual ornament elements, so the role of ornaments is important.
Ornaments are an artistic component that is added to decoration in crafts, including
architecture. Ornamentation cannot be separated from the socio-cultural background of the
community and the area of origin of the ornament, because ornamentation is a means of
communication to reduce culture from the previous generation to the next generation.
Therefore, it is necessary to further study the evolution or development of the forms and

71
meanings of architectural ornaments in the archipelago with a time series of architectural
developments in the Hindu-Buddhist era and traditional architecture, especially Java,
following the location of the temple. The purpose of this study is to examine the evolution of
forms, patterns, and meanings of Hindu-Buddhist architectural ornaments found in Sewu
Temple in their development towards traditional Javanese architecture. This research uses
descriptive qualitative method. This research found that there is a relationship between
1
Javanese architectural ornaments and architectural ornaments
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Evolution of Hindu–Buddhist Architectural Ornaments Into Javanese Traditional Architecture:

Case Study of Sewu Temple Ayu Ratna Pertiwi- Advances in Social Science, Education and
Humanities Research, volume 421 4th International Conference on Arts Language and Culture
(ICALC 2019)

Once a bustling city, Prambanan is a multi-religious temple-complex at the center of Java.

While the site is best known for its Hindu temples, it is also home to Candi Sewu, the largest
enterable Buddhist temple in all of Indonesia. Composed of hundreds of small stupas
surrounding a cruciform central shrine, the complex covers more than twenty-seven square
kilometers (seventeen square miles) and is replete with finely carved Buddhist deities. In the
spread of Indian religious ideas, Buddhists played an especially active role. Buddhist
communities found great sponsorship in Indonesia’s eighth- and ninth-century rulers. The
plethora of Buddhist figures at Candi Sewu proclaim the establishment’s religious dedication,
and the temple’s massive scale points to elite patronage.

72
Candi Sewu; Right: Sundaravarada-Perumal temple; south India, Tamil Nadu, Uttiramerur; Pallava period, 9th century; granite.
(RIGHT) Today, many of Candi Sewu’s freestanding buddhas are missing their heads. Such losses are due
to looting, intentional destruction, and forces of nature over the course of the last millennium.

The eighth and ninth centuries were a period of heightened contact between India and
Southeast Asia. Imagery and texts circulated along with the people who traveled across the
regions. Candi Sewu’s sculptures show close connections with Indian sculpture from this
period. See, for example, the lions that are positioned at corners along the temple’s base.
Much like the lion at a temple in Tamil Nadu, the animal sits back on its haunches, its tail
upturned and mouth open, and its head seems to support the structure above

Relief carvings on surviving and restored buildings have better stood the test of time.
Prominent imagery includes bodhisattvas in palatial settings, gandharvas and devatas (minor
deities), and flying rishis (sages) who shower devotees with blessings as they enter the
temple. Bells and billowing garments evoke sound and movement.RIGHT - A flight of stairs
leads through a vestibule and into the central shrine, which quickly plunges into darkness.

73
In the middle of the chamber is an altar with an empty throne positioned high on a
semicircular platform.From the top, temple priests could have lustrated an image or a holy
person with sacred fluids and possibly flowers. https://asia.si.edu/collections-area/southeast-
asian/sacred-sites-in-southeast-asia-candi-sewu/

The Buddhist temple of Bubrah or Candhi Bubrah is a 9th-

century Buddhist temple located within the complex of the Prambanan Temple
Archaeological Park, in Central Java, Indonesia. The temple is located within Prambanan
or Kewu Plain, an archaeologically rich area dotted with numerous Hindu-Buddhist temples
dated circa 8th to 9th century CE. To visit Bubrah temple, visitors can go through
the Prambanan temple compound entrance.
The temple is located around 300 meters south from Sewu temple. Archaeologists suggest
that the temple is actually a part of the greater Sewu temple compound (Manjusrigrha
complex), as the southern temple marking the southern point of the mandala layout. This
suggestion is based on the fact that there is a similar-sized temple on the eastern side called
Candi Gana that marking the eastern end on Manjusrigrha mandala. On northern and western
sides around 300 metres from Sewu main temple, there were also ruins discovered, however,
the stones are too scarce to reconstruct. In conclusion, Bubrah temple were originally part of
four vanguard temples placed around 300 meters in four cardinal points from the main temple
of Sewu. Bubrah is the guardian temple of southern direction, according to mandala
and guardians of the directions concept.
The original name of this temple is unknown, however the local Javanese named the temple
"candi bubrah", which means "ruins temple" in the Javanese language. The name reflect the
conditions of this temple during its discovery, which was a heap of 2 metres tall stone
ruins. Bubrah means broken, in ruins or disorderly in Javanese, it has been in a state of ruins
for many years, until it was reconstructed between 2011 and 2017. The temple is a part
of Prambanan Temple Compounds, a World Heritage Site since 1991.
It is located between Sewu temple compound in the north and Lumbung temple in the south.
Administratively, this temple is located in Bener Hamlet, Bugisan Village, Prambanan
District, Klaten Regency, Central Java . Unlike the Prambhanan. Bubrah temple is a
Buddhist temple, and was built around the 9th century during the era of the Mataram
kingdom that ruled Central Java and some parts of Eastern Java. The temple is closely related
to Sewu temple which is located around 300 metres to the north. [2] Bubrah temple believed
was constructed around the same period or slightly later after the completion of nearby Sewu
and Lumbung temple, all three being a Buddhist-style mandala. The Sewu complex was built
by Rakai Panangkaran hailed as Shailendra Wamsatilaka, or the ornament of the Shailendra
dynasty. Bubrah temple seems to be added later to complete Manjusrigrha (Sewu) vajradhatu
mandala as the southern shrine dedicated as the guardian of directions. Thus possibly Bubrah
temple was constructed after the reign of Panangkaran, either during the reign
of Dharanindra, or possibly Samaragrawira, which means the temple was constructed in the
early 9th century.
After the move of the capital to eastern Java circa the 11th century, the temple was neglected.
For centuries later, it fell into disrepair, buried under Mount Merapi volcanic debris and
shaken by earthquakes.
The temple was in ruins during its rediscovery back in the early 19th century, along with
nearby Prambanan and Sewu temple compound. During its rediscovery, the temple took form
of a 2 metres tall mounds of stone, thus the gave the name Bubrah which in Javanese means
"ruins". Throughout the 20th century, nothing much had been done to restore and reconstruct

74
the temple, as the temple stones were left scattered around the area.
In 1992, the temple was included within the area of Prambanan Archaeological Park or
Prambanan Temple Tourism Park, along with nearby Lumbung, Sewu, and Prambanan
temples, registered as Prambanan Temple Compound and recognized as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site.
Between 2011 and 2017 the temple had undergone reconstruction. The project developed in 7
stages, and was completed on 14 December 2017, inaugurated by Muhajir Effendy,
Indonesian Minister of Education and Culture. The reconstruction took 7 years and 11 billion
rupiah cost.
The temple plan measures 12 x 12 metres and facing east side, with flight of stairs, portico
and portal facing east. The design of the temple is similar to the Apit temple within the Sewu
temple compound and Sojiwan temple not far south. The roof is lined with rows of smaller
stupas, with larger main stupa as the pinnacle of the structure.

0000000000000000000000000000000000000000

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 IV
THE 2 DURGA TEMPLES OF YOGYAKARTA
Durga is a major Hindu goddess (Devi), worshipped as a principal aspect of the mother
goddess Mahadevi. She is one of the most popular and widely revered Hindu deities. She is
associated with protection, strength, motherhood, destruction and wars.
Durga's legend centres around combating evils and demonic forces that threaten peace,
prosperity, and Dharma the power of good over evil. Durga is believed to unleash her divine
wrath against the wicked for the liberation of the oppressed, and entails destruction to
empower creation. Durga is seen as a motherly figure and often depicted as a beautiful
woman, riding a lion or tiger, with many arms each carrying a weapon and often defeating
demons. She is widely worshipped by the followers of the goddess centric sect, Shaktism,
and has importance in other denominations like Shaivism and Vaishnavism.

Shiva And Shakti, Maan Durga And Lord Shiva

To understand the concept of Durga it better it is beneficial to understand the association

between Shiva and Shakti.

Their Relation

Within the Hindu cosmology Lord Shiva is the the Lord and master of all creation. He holds
the prime position of power as the destroyer who keeps the cycle of creation rolling on. He
maintains the crucial balance between life and death without which creation and sustenance
becomes impossible. Shiva manages to effortlessly coordinate these onerous tasks because he
is the master of all elements, known in Sanskrit as 'Bhootnath'. As Mahakaal, Shiva is the
absolute master of eternity and infinity, he is omniscient and omnipresent. Indestructible and
eternal, Shiva is 'Avinash'. In simpler words, Shiva, which literally translated into English
approximates to 'auspiciousness' brings order and harmony to all of creation. A task that
requires enormous amount of energy, that needs to be used with surgical precision and divine
grace. Durga provides Shiva with the energy as Shakti and as the Eternal Mother Goddess
lends Shiva the grace needed to beneficially use the vast, incalculable power for the benefit of
creation. Their coming together as the primordial couple provides purpose and sustenance to
the universe.

In no other form does Shakti appear more majestic than as Durga. The legend goes that a
certain demon named Mahishasur or the Buffalo demon had acquired from Brahma the power
of invincibility except at the hands of a woman. He had reasoned since no woman could ever
challenge him physically, he was as good as immortal. The story from this point differs
depending on the source of the account and Durga does feature in countless mythological
texts.

According to the first and the most popular account, Mahishasur became tyrannical after
receiving the boon of invincibility from Brahma. He took over all the three realms of Swarg,
Marth and Paatal (Heaven Earth and Hell respectively) and put an end to the vedic way of life
by banning sacrificial rites and by enslaving the different Gods and Kings. Every being,

76
earthly and celestial found themselves inadequate to contain the corruption of Mahishasur.
He had to many forms and no visible sign of weakness that baffled even Lord Shiva. Unable
to help the situation and in the interest of the preservation of creation all the Gods got
together and created a pool of their combined energy. Out of the glittering pool of sheer
power stepped out a beautiful woman- Durga. Armed by the weapons of the all the Gods
Durga rode upon a majestic lion and challenged Mahishasur to a one on one combat.

The second reading of the myth holds Mahishasura as a greatly learned deon King who had
figured out the secrets to life due to the boon of Brahma. He learnt that once born, every
living creature must die and depending upon one's acts or Karma, they were forced to be
reborn on earth 7 consecutive times. If an only if such an individual may manage to lead a
completely sinless life, were they entitled to attaining Moksha or freedom from the cycles of
life and death. The only way to bypass this cyclical process was to be slain by a God. Give
his strength and knowledge of the dark and fair arts, Mahishasura realised nothing in creation
could kill him. So he forced the hand of the Gods to create a new force that alone could grant
him Moksha.

Regardless of this difference in perception, which can be accounted for sociologically, the
myth held that Durga and Mahishasur fought using strength and technique that dazzled all
that looked on, for over ten continuous days. By the 5th day of the fight Mahishasur seemed
to be gaining the upper hand. Indomitable as Durga was, Mahishasur quickly picked up
Durga's moves and used them against her. The Gods got worried. Durga had all their powers
and skills but not their immunity from injury or harm. Mahishasur and Durga managed to
deal deadly blows to each other and had to retreat to recover. Lord Vishnu found the solution
and retrieved some of the Amrit he had prevented the demon Rahu from obtaining in the
aftermath of the Samudra Manthan and administered it to Durga on the 8th day.

This was the day the battle decisively began turning to Durga's favour. By the 9th day Durga
relentlessly attacked Mahishasur forcing him to resort to shape shifting. Ultimately on the
10th day, Mahishasur transformed himself into a fearsome buffalo and charged Durga. Her
Lion tackled the buffalo, bloodied yet unyielding Mahishasur discarded the buffalo body and
charged at Durga with his sword flashing. Durga pulled out Shiva's primary weapon, the
Trishul and stabbed Mahishasura in the heart. This is the pose in which almost all of Duga
idols are worshipped in during the Durga Puja. In some cases Durga's face is seen flush with
rage, matching that of Mahishasur and in other cases, she is seen with a serene face and
Mahishasur is seen almost baring his chest to embrace the Trishul.

Meaning and Significance

Durga's victory is celebrated every year. It marks the victory of good over evil, of light over
darkness. It is telling therefore that the festival is celebrated every year in the same way. Evil
in this philosophy is not something that is external to existence. Regardless of which
interpretation of Mahishasur's intentions one goes by, his slaughter is seen as a rite of
passage. No one questions that Mahishasur attained Moksha. Durga continues to be hailed as
the protector of the weak and the disempowered. The demon that is slain returns every year
because corruption and moral failings rest in human hearts. Unbridled ambition and self
aggrandisement are inherent to the human condition. Right from the moment the silt of the
river Ganga is harvested till the point the idol is re immersed into the water after the 10 days
of puja typically highlight the cyclical motions of life, death and rebirth. Durga comes
visiting as a daughter along with Saraswati, Laxmi, Ganesha and Kartikeya, every year, and

77
every year she returns. The puja and its rituals therefore are not only a homage to the power
of Shakti but the maternal, preserving power of a woman. It is the worship that teaches to
channelize combustive energy in creative ways conducive to regeneration and continuance of
life.

We see therefore that Shiva and Shakti are not only two deities who happen to be married,
but they are mutually dependent ideologies that keep the fabric of society and time intact.
Historically too, the cults of the Devi worshippers have come together to join hands with
Shaivaites on account of socio-historical evolution, argue several theologians and
anthropologists. One factor emerges unchallenged out of all debates- Shiva and Shakti are
inseparable concepts that have equally religious and socio-historic importance, powerful
enough to facilitate spiritual rejuvenation in millions of hearts across the world, for what is
evidently a time span of centuries.

Durga is Java

Sang Hyang Bathari Durga: the Mother Goddess and the Javanese Candi (Left Pic)

In India, the temples called Mandir or devalaya . In Bali they are called pura. Why are
temples in Java called candi?
Candi means ‘old throne’ and is one of the names of Durga (known as Sang Hyang Bathari
Durga in Java), the Mother Goddess, who is born from the Cosmic energy to save the world
threatened of destruction by the demons. She is called Chandika, Ambika or Durga.
She was especially venerated by the Javanese common people, who brought offerings to her,
whereas the kings and aristocracy venerated the Shiva linga in the most sacred part of the
temple. With time, her name, Candi, became the generic name for the temple itself.

She was so popular in Indonesia that the Museum Nasional in Jakarta today has 32
Durga statues. More are regularly discovered. At least 135 ancient statues of Durga have

78
been found in Java, where she is known by the common people as Loro Jonggrang (“slender
maiden”). The most famous temple in Java is the Candi Lara Jonggan of Prambanan, where a
murti of Durga stands in the northern niche.

Durga is the wife of Sada Shiva. Durga in Java is exclusively found in candis dedicated to
Shiva.
Sang Hyang Bathari Durga today is worshiped either as Tara or under her manifestation as the
Queen of the South Seas, Nyai Lara Kidul.

A manifestation of Shakti
In Hindu cosmology, Durga is one of the manifestations of Adi Parashakti (shortened as
Shakti), the female cosmic energy that creates and supports the visible world. Shakti is
worshiped in order to maintain the cycles of life and to attain enlightenment and deliverance.
Shakti can take on the form of various goddesses in the Hindu and Buddhist pantheon. She
alternatively appears as Durga, Parvati, Lakshmi and Tara. All the goddesses are endowed
with a variety of attributes and special powers. The fierce and destructive form of Shakti is
Durga Mahisasuramardini (literally ‘the one who crushes Asura Mahisa’ (the demon with a
buffalo appearance)) .
The most important Purana related to the stories of the Great Goddess is the Devi Mahatmya,
which is part of the Markandeya Purana. Rishi Markandeya was one of the great sages who
first brought this knowledge to Sumatra, Java and Bali.

The majority of Durga statues show a very serene figure. Durga often smiles and has her eyes
half closed as in meditation.
But in her fierce form as Mahisasuramardini, Durga is the fierce protector of the world,
expressing the fearsome aspects of divine forces. An inscription mentions that
King Airlangga went into the forest to worship Durga in order to win her support in an
upcoming battle.

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Durga is usually represented with a high headdresses, lots of jewellery and multiple arms.

Javanese artist Didi Trowulanesia carving a murti of Durga

The fierce (krodha) form of Durga is the consort of Shiva in his wrathful form,
called Bhairava. Durga in her dreadful form is also called Kali, with a sacred cord made from
skulls, wild hair and sharp teeth. Within the Kala Bhairava branch of Shaivism in Java, Durga
transformed into this fearful goddess.
Evidence from Javanese relief carvings and scriptures tells us about Durga’s appearance and
interaction with her worshipers, and the immense power she has over the life and death of
humans and in the world.

Javanese bronzes of Durga — Right, standing on the bull Nandi

Durga in the holy scriptures

The word Durga in Sanskrit literally means “impassable”, “invincible, unassailable”,
“beyond defeat”. It is related to the Sanskrit root durg which means “fortress, something
difficult to defeat or pass”.
The word Durga appears in the most ancient scriptures of humanity, such as the Rig
Veda [hymns 4.28, 5.34, 8.27, 8.47, 8.93] and in sections 10.1 and 12.4 of the Atharvaveda.
She is also mentioned in section 2.451 of the Mahabharata and section 4.27.16 of
the Ramayana.
Durga is further described in the Devi Mahatmya, the Markandeya Purana and the Devi-
Bhagavata Purana. The Devi Upanishad and other Shakta Upanishads also contain the
philosophical and mystical aspects of Durga as Devi, identifying her to be the same
as Brahman.
One of the most important texts of Shaktism is the Devi Mahatmya, which celebrates Durga as
the Supreme Being and the Creator of the Universe. The Devi Mahatmya is considered by
Shakta Hindus to be as important as the Bhagavad Gita.
‘’I have created all worlds at my will without being urged by any higher Being, and dwell
within them. I permeate the earth and heaven, and all created entities with my greatness and
dwell in them as eternal and infinite consciousness.’’ — Devī sūkta, Rigveda 10.125.8

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Navadurga: the 9 Forms of Goddess Durga

The Navadurgā (‘Nine forms of Durga’) are the nine manifestations of Durga, who is
especially worshiped during Navratri, when each of the nine forms is venerated respectively
each night: Shailaputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skandamata, Kaalratri,
Katyayani, Mahagauri and Siddhidhatri.

Each manifestation of Durga is known by her respective name, governing planet,

iconography, mantra for invocation (usually repeated 108 times at each sitting during the
period of Navratri), dedication day for Navratri and respective prayers.

A rustic shrine dedicated to a manifestation of Durga at Demping Jenawi

From: https://medium.com/@Kalpavriksha/sang-hyang-bathari-durga-the-mother-
goddess-and-the-javanese-candi-ccc9a5ebf421#:~:text=At%20least%20135%20ancient
%20statues,the%20wife%20of%20Sada%20Shiva.

V
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 The DURGA Mahisasuramardini Temple
of Sambisari

The Candi Sambisari compound

Durga Mahisasuramardini, one of the statues adorning the main temple’s outer walls
Imagine an alternate world where ninth-century cathedrals across Europe and
mosques throughout the Middle East and North Africa were buried deep in the
ground for centuries until being rediscovered in the 20 th century. People only knew a
little about their existence, mostly from stories told over many generations, until the
fork-hoes and plows of modern-day farmers hit something hard – the long-gone
places of worship themselves – while preparing their land for the next planting
season. In the real world we live in, this is in fact what happened (and will always
happen) on Java, an elongated island near the equator that is peppered with more
than a dozen active volcanoes, rocked by powerful earthquakes from time to time,
and showered with abundant rainfall. All of this combined makes its soil one of the
most fertile on the planet, and where there is fertile land, civilization thrives.

Apart from the larger ancient temples like Borobudur and Prambanan which had
never been completely buried despite suffering from the brute forces of nature that
have shaped and reshaped the island, most structures built in the Hindu-Buddhist
period of Java had fallen into oblivion as they were hidden underneath the ground for
centuries. Some of them were accidentally rediscovered by local farmers, but many
are believed to remain covered by thick layers of soil and volcanic ash. One such
structure that has finally been kissed by the sun and drenched by the rain again after
slumbering in darkness for hundreds of years is Candi Sambisari, a ninth-century
Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva, one of the principal deities in Hinduism.

In 1966, a farmer was working on a plot of land to the northeast of the city of
Yogyakarta when suddenly his hoe hit a piece of stone made of andesite, a type of
volcanic rock that was used in ancient Java to build Hindu and Buddhist temples.
Upon closer inspection, the stone bore some carvings, and this marked the
beginning of the unearthing of Candi Sambisari – candi is a term Indonesians use to
call any ancient Hindu and Buddhist temples. Following strict guidelines, it took 21
years to fully excavate the site and reconstruct the temple as close as possible to its
original appearance, and it was seven or eight years later when I first learned about
the

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existence of this cultural heritage. However, it was only last year, in the middle of
Java’s dry season, that I finally paid this temple a visit.

The upper structure beckons from a distance but the ancient temple is difficult to see
because that the Candi Sambisari compound lies lower than the ground surface of
its immediate surroundings.

ARCHITECTURE

Three perwara (ancillary) temples stand to the west of the largest structure, but none
of the former have been restored to their original appearance. What remains in two
of them are only the lower half of the walls, while the other one has been reduced
merely to its base. The main temple, however, is in a much better condition; most of
its original stones were still intact during the excavation which allowed for a more
complete reconstruction. At the base of the staircase that leads up to the temple’s
sanctum are two Makara heads, each of them supported by a gana (a dwarf
character often depicted in an almost squatting position with his two hands raised
above his head). Meanwhile, the temple’s walls are adorned with floral patterns with
conch shells carved at the center of some of the bas-relief panels.

On the north, east and south sides of the temple’s walls are niches in which statues
associated with the worship of Shiva stand, including one of Durga
Mahisasuramardini (Durga slaying the buffalo demon) that is in relatively good
shape. We climb up the stairs to reach the dark sanctum. Inside, a lingga/lingam sits
atop a yoni, both acting as symbolic representations of Shiva and Shakti (the
embodiment of Shiva’s feminine energy).

The western approach of the temple compound. These structures were once buried
in the ground for centuries

Walking toward the main temple

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Candi Sambisari’s most important structure where the sanctum is located/ Makara
heads at the base of the staircase of the main temple

Floral patterns carved more than 1,000 years ago

A bas-relief panel with a conch shell at its center//Going up to reach the sanctum

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A Naga head carved on a yoni inside the sanctum
It’s fascinating to think that for a long time generations of people who once lived in
the village where Candi Sambisari is located were unaware of the existence of this
beauty in their own backyard. Its location a little over 24 kilometers to the south of
Mount Merapi – Java’s most active and unpredictable volcano – was the reason why
this temple compound was eventually buried deep underground. The risk is still
present, though, although the direction of Merapi’s lahars change from time to time.
We walk inside and around the main temple before deciding to return to the stairs
that take us back to ground level, more than 6 meters above the base of the temple.
Prior to this trip, James, who had heard about another ancient temple called Candi
Kedulan, proposed a visit this lesser-known ruin right after Candi Sambisari due to
their relative proximity to each other.

Nur, who apparently lives not far from Candi Sambisari, takes us through small roads
that connect villages as opposed to backtracking to the main artery. He claims it’s
faster to take this route, and because he’s a local we trust him. Of course he’s right;
it only takes us ten minutes to reach Candi Kedulan. However, no other visitors are
in sight. In fact, the entire temple compound, which was also buried by lahars in the
past, is still undergoing reconstruction work with its main entrance closed and a
perimeter fenced off by barbed wire, probably to discourage looters. Its peaceful
ambiance, however, makes up for our slight disappointment for not being able to
come closer to the structures within the Candi Kedulan complex. In many ways, it
reminds me of Candi Sambisari for both temples were built around the ninth century
and now sit below the ground surface, thanks to multiple eruptions of Mount Merapi
over the centuries. But there is one significant difference: while Candi Sambisari’s
main temple faces west, Candi Kedulan’s largest structure faces east.

Everywhere I look there are signs of ongoing restoration work in this place. Semi-
transparent netting usually used at plant nurseries cover the perwara temples, most
likely to provide workers with protection from the sun while they meticulously arrange

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the stones back in their original place; a small excavator sits idly at the eastern fringe
of the temple’s perimeter; and a small truck rests at the far end of the compound,
probably used to transport layers of soil from the site. Candi Kedulan was discovered
by local sand diggers in 1993, but it took more than 25 years for reconstruction work
to begin in earnest. This makes me think of Candi Losari, a smaller Hindu temple
outside Jogja which was also buried in the ground for centuries but only
rediscovered in 2004. Currently no one, apart from ancient heritage enthusiasts,
visits this intriguing place. But that may one day change if larger-scale reconstruction
work is carried out on this site.
Both Candi Sambisari and Candi Kedulan have shed more light on the cultural scene
in Java when Hinduism and Buddhism were the dominant religions on this island. I
believe there are still a lot of other temples hidden deep in the ground beneath our
feet. Some of them may still be intact, but some others may not be as fortunate since
Java is after all the most developed part of Indonesia – houses and factories may
stand right on top of some of these ‘lost temples’. However, in our next exploration of
Jogja’s ancient temples, instead of going down below the Earth’s surface, we go up
to a hill where a majestic 10 th– or 11th-century temple compound stands gracefully on
top, overlooking the city’s old airport and some of the bigger structures that were
built during Java’s classical period.

The west side of the main temple

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The ongoing restoration work at Candi Kedulan/ The east-facing main temple and
the ancillary structures (beneath the netting)

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000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

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 VI
The Durga -Shiva Sextet of PRAMBHANAN Complex
For more detils on the Prambanan Main Temple read my book
Prambanan Temple
https://www.academia.edu/49220670/Prambanan_Temple_BOOK

Prambanan Temple Compounds

Prambanan is a Hindu temple compound dedicated to Trimurti, the three highest gods in
Hinduism, while Sewu, Lumbung and Bubrah temples are Mahayana Buddhist temples.

Durga

Prambhanan is also a Durge temple because of the presence of the idol of Durga at one niche,
In that context it is known as Lolo Jinggorang.

Durga or Loro Jonggrang

This statue is eight-handed form of a woman holding a wide range of weapons: Chakra,
Gada, darts, bulls, Sankha, shields, bows, arrows and hair-headed Mercury Asura. He stood
on top of Nandi bull in a “Tribangga” (3 styles of motion that form the hollow body 3). Nandi
bull actual incarnation of Asura in disguise.
Durga successfully beat and stepped out of his mouth so forth Asura ago arrest. He is one
aspect of the “magic” (wife) of Shiva.
According to mythology he created from the flames coming out of the bodies of the gods.
Durga is the goddess of death, because the statue is facing north which is the cardinal’s death.

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This statue is actually very beautiful when seen from a distance looks like a living da smile
but his nose has been damaged by ignorant hands. This statue illustrates consort of King
Balitung.

Both Prambanan and Sewu are actually temple compounds arranged in the mandala layout,
surrounded with hundreds of pervara (guardian complementary) temples. Originally,
Prambanan consists of 240 structures, Sewu consists of 249 structures, while Lumbung
temple consists of 17 structures. With combined numbers of over 500 temples, Prambanan
Temple Compounds represents not only an architectural and cultural treasure, but also an
example of religious harmony and peaceful cohabitation between faiths in Indonesia's past.
Built in the 10th century, this is the largest temple compound dedicated to Shiva in Indonesia.
Rising above the centre of the last of these concentric squares are three temples decorated
with reliefs illustrating the epic of the Ramayana, dedicated to the three great Hindu
divinities (Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma) and three temples dedicated to the animals who serve
them. Prambanan Temple itself is a complex consisting of 240 temples. All the mentioned
temples form the Prambanan Archaeological Park and were built during the heyday of
Sailendra’s powerful dynasty in Java in the 8th century AD. These compounds are located on
the border between the two provinces of Yogyakarta and Central Java on Java
Island.Prambanan Temple Compounds consist of Prambanan Temple (also called Loro
Jonggrang), Sewu Temple, Bubrah Temple and Lumbung Temple. While Loro Jonggrang,
dating from the 9th century, is a brilliant example of Hindu religious bas-reliefs, Sewu, with
its four pairs of Dwarapala giant statues, is Indonesia’s largest Buddhist complex including
the temples of Lumbung, Bubrah and Asu (Gana temple).

The Hindu temples are decorated with reliefs illustrating the Indonesian version of the
Ramayana epic which are masterpieces of stone carvings. These are surrounded by hundreds
of shrines that have been arranged in three parts showing high levels of stone building
technology and architecture from the 8th century AD in Java. With over 500 temples,
Prambanan Temple Compounds represents not only an architectural and cultural treasure, but
also a standing proof of past religious peaceful cohabitation.

These are the original structures that were built in the 9th century AD. The temples
collapsed due to earthquake, volcanic eruption and a shift of political power in the early 11th
century, and they were rediscovered in the 17th century. These compounds have never been
displaced or changed. Restoration works have been conducted since 1918, both in original
traditional method of interlocking stone and modern methods using concrete to strengthen the
temple structure. Even though extensive restoration works have been done in the past and as
recently as after the 2006 earthquake, great care has been taken to retain the authenticity of
the structures.

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Prambanan Temple Compounds (Indonesia) © UNESCO

Indonesian Hindu architecture

Prambanan, an example of Indonesian temple architecture

The Trinity at Prambanan composes of 3 temples of the Hindu Gods Shiva, Brahma and
Vishnu

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Indeed the temple complex is the largest Hindu temple in ancient Java, with no other
Javanese temples ever surpassed its scale. Prambanan served as the royal temple of the
Kingdom of Mataram, with most of the state's religious ceremonies and sacrifices being
conducted there.

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Prambanan-Temples

It is characterized by its tall and pointed architecture, typical of Hindu temple

architecture, and by the towering 47-metre-high (154 ft) central building inside a large
complex of individual temples. This magnificent Shivaite temple derives it name from the
village where it is located. Prambanan Temple is locally known as the Roro Jonggrang
Temple, or the Temple of the "Slender Virgin", it is the biggest and most beautiful Hindu
temple in Indonesia. How old is Prambanan Temple?1,166 years old built in the year c. 856
AD
Being at Prambanan is a bit like standing inside a forest of temples, the tall spires reaching
towards the skies. There are over 200 monuments inside this complex, but only some of them
have survived intact, most having been destroyed by earthquakes over the centuries. Every
temple has a character of its own, with unique and profuse carvings on walls and pillars,
particularly the bas-relief of the Ramayana in the central ones.Though Prambanan is
a Hindu temple compound dedicated to Trimurti, the three highest gods in Hinduism, while
Sewu, Lumbung and Bubrah temples are Mahayana Buddhist temples. Both Prambanan and
Sewu are actually temple compounds arranged in the mandala layout, surrounded with
hundreds of pervara (guardian complementary) temples. Originally, Prambanan consists of
240 structures, Sewu consists of 249 structures, while Lumbung temple consists of 17
structures. With combined numbers of over 500 temples, Prambanan Temple Compounds
represents not only an architectural and cultural treasure, but also an example of religious
harmony and peaceful cohabitation between faiths in Indonesia's past.

93
94
 Temples and archaeological sites in Prambanan Plain
Prambanan is a Hindu temple compound dedicated to Trimurti, the three highest gods in
Hinduism, while Sewu, Lumbung and Bubrah temples are Mahayana Buddhist temples. Both
Prambanan and Sewu are actually temple compounds arranged in the mandala layout,
surrounded with hundreds of pervara (guardian complementary) temples. Originally,
Prambanan consists of 240 structures, Sewu consists of 249 structures, while Lumbung
temple consists of 17 structures. With combined numbers of over 500 temples, Prambanan
Temple Compounds represents not only an architectural and cultural treasure, but also an
example of religious harmony and peaceful cohabitation between faiths in Indonesia's past.
Prambanan
Prambanan temple or locally known in Javanese as Rara Jonggrang, is a grand Hindu temple
complex dating from the 9th century, it is notable for its shrines and statues of Hindu patheon
and Ramayana bas relief. Murtis or Hindu deity statues venerated in Prambanan complex
including the main deity Shiva Mahadeva, Vishnu, Brahma, Durga Mahisasuramardini,
Ganesha, Agastya, and Nandi bull.[1]
Sewu
Sewu or originally known as Manjusrigrha complex, with its four pairs of Dvarapala giant
statues, is the largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia, and the second largest Buddhist
temple after Borobudur. Archaeologists believe the original name for the temple compound
to be Manjusrigrha, which means "the house of Manjusri", one of the
major Bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism belief.
Bubrah
Bubrah is a 9th-century Buddhist temple located between Lumbung in the south and Sewu in
the north. Experts believe that the temple was designed as a part of the greater Sewu temple
compound mandala
Lumbung

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Candi Lumbung a 9th-century Buddhist temple compound located within the complex
of Prambanan Temple Tourism Park, Central Java, Indonesia. The original name of this
temple is unknown, however the local Javanese named the temple "Candi Lumbung", which
means "rice barn temple" in Javanese language.

Prambanan temple compound/Sewu temple compound/ Lumbung temple

Bubrah temple

Outside of Prambanan Temple Tourism Park there are numerous temples and archaeological
sites located just a few kilometres away, they are:

 Kalasan. According to Kalasan inscription it is the oldest temple built in the plain. This
early 8th century Buddhist temple built to honor female bodhisattva Tara.
 Sari. Once a sanctuary or monastery for Buddhist priests. 8th century. Nine stupas at the
top with two rooms beneath, each believed to be places for priests to meditate.
 Ratu Boko. Complex of fortified gates, bathing pools, and elevated walled stone
enclosure, all located on top of the hill south of Prambanan.
 Lumbung. Buddhist-style, consisting of one main temple surrounded by 16 smaller ones.
 Bubrah. Buddhist temple related to nearby Sewu temple.
 Sewu. This Buddhist temple complex is older than Prambanan temple. The original name
of this temple is Manjusrigrha and it was a royal buddhist temple of the kingdom. A main
sanctuary surrounded by many smaller temples. Well preserved guardian statues, replicas
of which stand in the central courtyard at the Jogja Kraton.
 Prambanan. A large compound of 9th century Shivaic Trimurti Hindu temple. The construction
of grand Hindu temple was probably the sign that Hinduism once again gain royal patronage
of Medang kings.
 Plaosan. Buddhist, probably 9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu king for his
Buddhist queen. Two main temples with reliefs of Bodhisattva and Tara. Also rows of
slender stupas.
 Sojiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and staircase are
decorated with animal fables. Sojiwan was probably the mortuary temple for a buddhist queen,
Sang Sanjiwana or Pramodhawardhani.
 Banyunibo. A Buddhist temple with unique design of roof.

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 Barong. A Hindu temple complex with large stepped stone courtyard. Located on the slope of the
hill not far from Banyunibo and Ratu Boko.
 Ijo. A cluster of Hindu temple located near the top of Ijo hill. The main temple houses a
large lingam and yoni.
 Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing different
poses and expressions.
 Gebang. A small Hindu temple discovered in 1937 located near the Yogyakarta northern ring-
road. The temple display the statue of Ganesha and interesting carving of faces on the roof
section.
 Gana. Rich in statues, bas-reliefs and sculpted stones. Frequent representations of children or
dwarfs with raised hands. Located in the middle of housing complex. Under restoration since
1997.
 Sambisari. Discovered in 1966, this Hindu temple was buried in volcanic lahar 4m deep. A main
temple housen a large linggam and yoni with three smaller temple at the front.
 Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4m deep. Square base of main temple visible.
Secondary temples not yet fully excavated. This temple shared similar design and style with
Sambisari.
 Morangan. Hindu temple complex buried several meters under volcanic ashes, located northwest
from Prambanan.
 Pustakasala. Discovered in 2009 buried in Indonesia Islamic University ground. Together with
Morangan these temple is the northernmost of temples discovered in this area.

Prambanan/Lumbung/Bubrah

Sewu/Kalasan/Sari

Plaosan Lor/Plaosan Kidul/Gebang

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 Sambisari/Kedulan/Kimpulan (Pustakasala)

Sojiwan/Ratu Boko/Banyunibo/Barong/Ijo
HISTORY of the COMPOUNDS
The temple compounds date from the 8th to 9th century CE, linked with historic Mataram
Kingdom that ruled Central Java during that period. Shailendras, the ruling family of the
kingdom were known as the avid temple builders. Indeed, some temples in the area,
including Kalasan, Sari, and Sewu are credited to their second monarch King Panangkaran.
Among these temple compounds, Sewu is the oldest, completed in 792 according
to Manjusrigrha inscription. Lumbung and Bubrah also dated from around the same period or
slightly later. Prambanan however, was the latest addition in the complex, finished and
inaugurated in 856 during the reign of King Pikatan according to Shivagrha inscription.
After the move of the capital to eastern Java circa the 11th century, the temple was neglected.
For centuries later, it fell into disrepair, buried under Mount Merapi volcanic debris and
shaken by earthquakes. The temple collapsed in about 1600s due to a massive earthquake.
The temple was in ruins during its rediscovery back in early 19th century in the British
Java period. In 1918, the Dutch colonial government began the reconstruction of the
compound, and proper restoration took place in 1930 with modest result due to loss of the
temple stones. Only a number of the smaller pervara shrines of Prambanan and Sewu
complex were reconstructed during the Dutch East Indies period prior to the Pacific War.
After the World War II, the reconstruction efforts continues by implementing
the anastylosis method, which means the temple will be reconstructed if only at least 75
percent of the original stones remains. The reconstruction of the main Shiva temple in
Prambanan complex was completed around 1953 and inaugurated by Indonesia's first
president Sukarno. Brahma temple reconstruction was finished in 1987, while Vishnu temple
was completed in 1991, both were inaugurated by Suharto.
In 1991, the temple compounds gained UNESCO World Heritage Site status. The temple
compounds are located within Prambanan Tourism Park (Indonesian: Taman Wisata Candi
Prambanan) Sewu main temple was completed in 1993, while Bubrah restoration was
completed in 2017. Since the temple compound consists of hundreds of pervara temples or
complementary smaller shrines that most are still in ruins, restoration efforts still continue to
this day.

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 Brahma Statue in Prambanan Temple/// Nandi the bull of SHIVA- Interiors of
Prambanan Temple

The temple was actually a response to the nearby Borobudur and Sewu temples of the
Buddhist Sailendra Dynasty. It has been suggested by historians that, the temple marked the
return of Hindu Sanjaya Dynasty in power over central Java after the domination of Buddhist
Sailendra Dynasty.

Nandi Statue Prambanan Temple Inside

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 Prambanan Temple Inside Compounds

Prambanan Temple Inside Statue

Structure of Prambanan
Based on Vaastu Shastra, the structure of the temple displays traditional Hindu architectural
designs of mandala (a spiritual symbolic representation of the universe in Hindu and
Buddhist religions) and spiral towers. The temple compound consists 240 temples that
include 3 Trimurti temples, 2 Apit and Vahana temples, 4 Patok and Kelir temples, and 234
Pervara temples.

Building..Description
Enshrinement Prambanan complex consists of the background, middle ground and
background of the (background center) are increasingly in the direction of the higher lying.
Consecutive sequential breadth: 390 square meters, 222 square meters and 110 square meters.
Lower background did not contain any. In the middle ground there are ruins of temples
ancillary.

If seluruhya been completely refurbished, there will be 224 temples that are all the same size,
namely broad basic 6 meters and 14 meters high. Background center is paramount above
background stand 16 large and small temples. The main temples consist of two rows facing

100
each other. The first row is the temple of Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma temple. The second row
of the Nandi temple, the temple and the temple Garuda Geese. At the opposite end of the
hallway that separates the two rows of the temple there is a temple Apit. Eight other smaller
temples. Four of them temples screen and four other temple called temple Angle. Overall
enshrinement consists of 240
temples.********************************************************************
***

TEMPLE of SHIVA
The temple with a base 34 meters high and 47 meters square is the largest and most
important.
Named siwa temple because in it there is a statue of Siwa Mahadewa the biggest statue. The
building is divided into three sections vertically legs, body and head / roof. Foot of the temple
depict “the underworld” where humans are still shrouded in lust, the temple described the
“middle world” where people who have left the world and the roof depict “the world over”
place of the gods. Figure cosmos appears also in the presence of statues of gods and celestial
beings who describing Mahameru mountain (Mount Everest in India) where the gods.
Prambanan is the enshrinement reflika mountain was proved by the statues of gods carved
Lokapala siwa temple on foot. Four entrances to the temple according to the four cardinal
directions, the main door facing east with the greatest entry stairs. On either side stand two
giant statues guard with a mace which is the seminal vestment of siwa. In the temple, there
are four rooms facing the four cardinal directions and surround biggest room in the middle.
Rooms forefront empty, while the other three rooms each containing statues’ siwa guru,
ganesha and durga “. Basic foot of the temple surrounded corridor bordered by balustrades. In
the dining ledge next to the story of Ramayana there is a relief which can be followed by
“circumambulation” (running clockwise) starting from the main door. The ornaments on the
outer wall of the form “-Kinari Kinari” (bird-headed human bodied creatures) “kalamakara”
(the head of a giant tongue tangible mythology) and other heavenly beings. The temple roof
terraced with a very complex arrangement each decorated srjumlah “jewel” and the peak
there is a “jewel” greatest.

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Grand Master Shiva (To RIGHT) ARCA Siwa Mahadewa

ARCA Siwa Mahadewa

According to the teachings of the most revered Hindu trinity of Brahma is the creator, then as
a custodian of Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva as the destroyer of nature. But in India and
Indonesia, the most famous is Lord Shiva. In Java, Lord Shiva is considered the most high,
because there is honor as Mahadeva. This statue has a height of 3 feet standing on a stone
foundation as high as 1 meter. Among the statues legs and bases are round-shaped stone lotus
flower. This statue depict King Balitung, signs as Shiva is the skull on top of the crescent
moon on his crown, third eye on his forehead, with four sweepstakes snake, tiger skin around
his waist and arms trident on the back of the statue. His hands were holding a fan, rosary,
lotus buds and round object as a seed of the universe. King Balitung seen as the embodiment
of Shiva that was established after the death of a Shiva statue by heredity and its people.

Grand Master Shiva statue

This statue of a bearded old form standing with belly fat. kananya hands holding prayer
beads, his left hand holding a jar and shoulders are fans. All these are signs of a hermit.
Trident is located on the right rear indicates the typical weapon Siwa.Arca illustrates a priest
of nature in the court of King Balitung well as an advisor and teacher. Because of great merit
in spreading Hindu-Shiva, he is viewed as one aspect (shape) of Shiva.

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Durga

Ganesha-statue
This statue of the elephant-headed human form handed sitting with belly fat. Hands holding
prayer beads and ax behind him while holding hands depanya own fault tusks and a bowl.
The tip is inserted into the bowl trunk illustrating that he was never satisfied gulp science.
Ganesha is a symbol of wisdom and knowledge, blocker every difficulty. On the crown there
is a skull and crescent as a sign that he is son of Shiva and Uma, his wife. This statue depict
crown once warlord King Balitung.

Durga or Loro Jonggrang

This statue is eight-handed form of a woman holding a wide range of weapons: Chakra,
Gada, darts, bulls, Sankha, shields, bows, arrows and hair-headed Mercury Asura. He stood
on top of Nandi bull in a “Tribangga” (3 styles of motion that form the hollow body 3). Nandi
bull actual incarnation of Asura in disguise.
Durga successfully beat and stepped out of his mouth so forth Asura ago arrest. He is one
aspect of the “magic” (wife) of Shiva.
According to mythology he created from the flames coming out of the bodies of the gods.
Durga is the goddess of death, because the statue is facing north which is the cardinal’s death.
This statue is actually very beautiful when seen from a distance looks like a living da smile
but his nose has been damaged by ignorant hands. This statue illustrates consort of King
Balitung.

Brahma-Temple
Basically spacious 20 square meters and 37 meters high.In the only room there stood the

103
statue of the four-headed Brahma and sleeves 4. This statue is actually very beautiful but it is
damaged.One hand holds a rosary that only holds “Kamandalu” place of water. The four face
Vedic scriptures describe four each facing the four cardinal directions. Fourth by hand
describes the four cardinal directions. As a creator he is carrying water for the whole universe
out of the water. rosary describe the time. Basic foot of the temple is also surrounded by a
restricted corridor next to the carved balustrade reliefs of Ramayana continued story and
similar relief at the Shiva temple to finish

Vishnu Temple

Shapes, sizes and wall hangings outer relief with Brahma temple. In the only room there
stood the statue of four-armed Vishnu who holds Gada, Chakra, oysters. On the wall to the
ledge next to the carved reliefs of Krishna’s story as “Avatara” or incarnation of Vishnu and
Balarama (Balarama) brother.

Nandi Temple

Basically spacious 15 square meters and a height of 25 meters. didala the only room
available, lies the statue of a bull in a manner merseka length of approximately 2 meters. In
the back corner there is a statue of the god Chandra. Candra-eyed 3 standing on a chariot
drawn by seven horses ekir. This temple collapsed.

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Angsa Temple

The temple has a room that is not filled with anything. Basically spacious 13 square meters
and a height of 22 meters. Perhaps this room is only used for the enclosure Geese, animals
usually driven by Brahma.

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Garuda Temple

The shape, size and ornate temple walls with Geese. In the only room that was there in the
form of a small statue of Garuda on a dragon.Garuda is the vehicle of Vishnu.

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Apit Temple

Essentially broad 6 meters with a height of 16 meters. The room is empty. Perhaps this
temple used to meditate before entering the main temples. Because keindahanya he probably
used to implant aesthetics in Prambanan complex enshrinement.

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Bubrah Temple/ Kelir Temple

Basically spacious square with a height of 1.55 meters 4.10 meters. This temple has no
entrance stairs. Its function as a repellent reinforcements.

Sudut Temple

The size of the temples is the same as the temple Kelir.

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Lumbung Temple

Sewu Temple

Temple Barns, Bubrah, and Sewu temple is in ruins but still enjoyed keindahanya Sewu all
located in the complex of Prambanan Garden.

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Plaosan Temple

It is located 1 km to the east of the temple Sewu. The temple was built in the mid 9th century
AD by Rakai Pikatan as a gift to the queen. Group Plaosan Lor temple (north) consists of two
main temple, 58 and 126 pieces ancillary stupas. Group South Plaosan temple (south) only in
the form of a temple. Divided into 2 main temple courtyard, each of which stands on top of a
two-storey convent. Level up to the abode of the Buddhist monks and the lower level for
religious activities.

Sojiwan Temple

The location of this temple is 2 km to the south east of the enshrinement of Prambanan. Some
are just in ruins. At the foot of the temple reliefs sculpted animal stories containing the values
of philosophy.
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Boko Temple

It is located 3 km to the south of the monument Prambanan, stood on the hill that the South is
the continuation of a Thousand mountains with scenic views of the surrounding nature. The
building is very unique, different from other buildings and more impressive each other a
palace (palace). Estimated Balaputra Gods of the Buddhist Sailendra dynasty, founded in the
mid-9th century AD as a strategic bulwark against Rakai Pikatan. According to legend this is
where lies the Ratu Boko, Loro Jonggrang father.

Banyunibo Temple

The temple is located 200 m to the southeast of the Boko temple, standing on top of a valley.
“Banyu” means “water”, “Nibo” means “falling drip”. Both have a poetic meaning for the
Javanese people. This Buddhist temple was founded in the 9th century AD.

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Sari Temple

Sari means “beautiful” or “pretty” as the slim shape .. Perhaps because keindahanya that
interest he is so called. Peak of the roof is decorated with the same nine stupas congruent and
arranged in 3 rows. At the bottom of each stupa contained 2-storey rooms were used as a
residence, a place of meditation and teaching.

Bodhisattva statues carved on the outer walls. The walls are decorated with very beautiful.
Buddhist monastery built in the 8th century AD, is located on the left side of Yogya-Solo
highway, go 500 meters to the north. Building with panjang17, 32 meters and 10 meters wide
is a part of a collection of temples that have been lost.

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Kalasan Temple

Remains of Buddhism in Yogyakarta and Central Java are Kalasan.Letak temple on the right
side of Yogya-Solo highway miles. 13 entered a few hundred meters towards the south. The
temple was founded by Panangkaran, the second king of the ancient Mataram kingdom in the
8th century BC as an offering to the goddess Tara. Curved “Kala-makara” with ornate carved
above the heaven above the entrance so beautifully. The beauty of the decoration and relief-
relief caused by the use of the same ancient cement “Bajralepa”. This temple is considered a
gem of art in Central Java.

Sambisari Temple

It is located approximately 5.5 km from Prambanan enshrinement to the west and about 2.5
km to the north of the highway Yogya-solo. Once buried for centuries because of the eruption
of Mount Merapi in July 1966 it was rediscovered by chance by a farmer working on his

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land. In 1986 has been completely refurbished. Keunikanya he located 6.5 meters below the
ground surface and do not have the actual foot of the temple. The building consists of a main
temple and three ancillary temples discarnate or legs. On the sides of the outer walls of the
temple are the parent niches containing statues: Durga, Ganesh and Shiva are Mahaguru.Di in
ruanganya phallus and yoni, the two aspects of Shiva. Totality and unity they represent
fertility. This Hindu temple is expected to start up between approximately 812-838 AD.

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 ABOUT DR UDAY DOKRAS

© Dr. Uday Dokras-

DEAN
INDO NORDIC AUTHORS’ COLLECTIVE
Institute of International Historiography
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University,Kingston, CANADA
Graduate Diploma in Law & PhD, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Vedic Architecture, Vaastu and Astrology Consultant
7
Holder of the WORLD RECORDS
Highest number of research Papers and Books written
Hindu Temples
Buddhism
Vaastu
2 - Worldwide Book of

#1 7 x
Records
2 - Unique World Record
1-INDIA Book of RECORDS
1-Kalam Book of Records
1 Institute of International
Historiography

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 780- BOOKS & 2500 RESEARCH PAPERS- in academia.edu.
3 million Readers as on 1 June, 2024.
Dr.Uday Dokras, a leading historiographer, is Ranked as #1 in the world in SIX categories
for having written the highest number of books and research papers on-Vedic Architecture,
Dhamma, (including Borobudur Buddhism), Angkor Wat (Vrah Vishnuloka), Shivagriha at
Prambanan, Design elements of the ancient Kingdoms of Dvaravati and Vandan in Indo
China.

A senior management professional in HR domain prior to his retirement, he was Group Vice -
President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go Air ( Go
Airlines India Pvt Ltd-Mumbai) , Hotel Holiday Inn; Lata Mangeshkar Hospital and Medical
College- amongst other corporate entities. Resident of Sweden for 12 years, where he studied
and worked, he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB.

He has studied in Nagpur for B. Sc. B.A. (Economics) and LLB.

He has done his Graduate Studies from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston
He has a PhD, Stockholm University, Sweden.
Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in Singapore.
A scholar of the Swedish Institute for 5 years, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and
Wineroth Fund Awardee.

In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labor Law Project of the University of
California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there.
In 1985 he was invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the
labor laws of Seychelles.

Author of thousands of research papers and almost 640 + books, his brief life sketch is part of
the English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English-
SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - SPOTLIGHT 8- and Lausnir.

His books adorn many International Libraries and the US Library of Congress has awarded
him a copyright. A prolific writer and decipherer of ancient mysteries. Is currently Consultant
in Vedic Architecture and Dean of the Indo Nordic Authors’ Collective, Stockholm,
SWEDEN and President of the International Institute of Historiography, Tampare ,
FINLAND.
Dr Dokras has his family in Gurugram, India-Australia and New Jersey, USA.

2700 Research Papers and 780 BOOKS written by DR UDAY DOKRAS

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Referred to in more than 200+ research papers and theses .Contributor to various magazines and
literary Fora.

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World# Honorifics by following Agencies & other titles
1
Largest Number of Religious Research papers written by an individual-world-
record
https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/largest-number-of-religious-
research-papers-written-by-an-individual-world-record-by-uday-dokras
MOST ARTICLES ON DHAMMA
https://www.uniqueworldrecords.com/records/posts/most-articles-on-
dhamma

Maximum number of books written on Hindu Temples by an Individual

https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/maximum-number-of-books-
written-on-hindu-temples-by-an-individual-world-record-by-dr-uday-
dokras#:~:text=The%20World%20Record%20For%20Maximum,The
%20Worldwide%20Book%20Of%20Records.

Highest number of articles and books written on Hindu Buddhist Temples

of Indonesia( Including Borobudur and Prambanan)

Highest number of Research Papers/ Books (Literary endeavours) published

by an Individual- UNIQUE Book of world records

Maximum sociocultural research papers uploaded by an individual

on a single website INDIA BOOK of RECORDS
recordsmanagement@indiabookofrecords.in

Award and honor Bahujan Hitai Sangh award for writing highest
number of books and Research on BOROBUDUR

https://www.academia.edu/110112500/
Bahujan_Hitai_Sangh_Fetes_dr_Uday_for_highest_number_of_Boo
ks_and_Research_papers_written_on_BOROBUDUR
The Jain Foundation presented the Jaina Achiever Trophy to Dr Uday Dokras
for his prolific writings on historiography of Jainism and Jain religious
structures and contributing erudite articles to numerous Jain Journals such as
Nagabharana: Recent Trends in Jainism Studies and SWASTIKA: Epigraphy,
Numismatics, Religion and Philosophy
https://www.academia.edu/110112203/
Jaina_award_to_Dr_Uday_Dokras
Economic Times (20 July 2022) mentions and acknowledges contribution of
Dr. Uday to design elements of New Parliament House of India vis-a-vis
Dwarpals or door guardians.
https://www.academia.edu/109139672/
Design_components_of_the_new_Parliament_complex_of_INDIA_inspired_by
_the_author_Dr_Uday_Dokras_work

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 https://
drive.google.com/file/d/1rr86sEWr4SVN4pdIMHkS-lqmKF6jl5nR/view?usp=sharing

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 World Record Holders 2023
Maximum Number of Research
Papers Completed by an Individual
Person
Dr Uday Dokras
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From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018

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Iceland & Sweden- both countries use the English Text book
SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras
https://mms.is/sites/mms.is/files/atoms/files/
7057_spotlight_8_nem.pdf (page 44)

Prof. S.Deshpande,Past President of the Indian Institute of

Architects, New Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras
HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA times ( May 2020)

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