The International Journal of Management Education 22 (2024) 101020

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The International Journal of Management Education

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Entrepreneurial intentions among polytechnic students in India:

Examining the theory of planned behaviour using PLS-SEM
Mohammad Razi-ur-Rahim a , Furquan Uddin b , Priya Dwivedi c , Dharen
Kumar Pandey d, *
a
Aligarh Muslim University Centre Malappuram, Kerala, India
b
Department of Management and Business Administration, Aliah University, Kolkata, India
c
Lucknow University, Lucknow, India
d
P. G. Department of Commerce, Magadh University, Bodhgaya, Bihar, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study delves into the factors that kindle entrepreneurial intentions among Indian polytechnic
Entrepreneurial intentions students, shedding light on the pivotal roles of course curriculum, institutional support, family,
Theory of planned behaviour and peers. Prior research in various fields has often employed the theory of planned behaviour to
Polytechnic students
explore entrepreneurial intentions. However, a noticeable gap exists as no study has investigated
Institutional support
India
this phenomenon among polytechnic students until now. This research uses the theory of planned
PLS-SEM behaviour to scrutinize entrepreneurial intentions among students in government polytechnic
colleges in Malappuram and Calicut districts in India. Analyzing data from 254 valid question­
naires, the study employs the Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modeling method for
analysis. The results reveal that peers significantly influence perceived behavioural control,
attitude, and subjective norms. These findings resonate with earlier studies and emphasize the
critical roles of peers, course curriculum, and institutional support in shaping entrepreneurial
intentions. Ultimately, the findings underscore the potential of tailoring polytechnic education
towards entrepreneurship, offering technical students opportunities for growth and facilitating
positive economic and societal transformations.

1. Introduction

An entrepreneurial intention (EI) is a cognitive process and psychological state of mind that drives individuals to engage in
entrepreneurial activities (Krueger Jr et al., 2000). Personal, social and cultural factors, such as educational level, course curriculum,
role models, mentors, and support systems, influence EI to a greater extent (Boubker et al., 2021; Cui & Bell, 2022; Igwe et al., 2021;
Moberg, 2014). EI leads to becoming an entrepreneur (Krueger Jr et al., 2000; Schlaegel & Koenig, 2014). Additionally, the entre­
preneurial culture among the citizens can stabilize a country’s economic and social growth Al-Mamary & Alraja, 2022). The un­
derstudies who undergo entrepreneurial education are more likely to develop EI (Almeida et al., 2021). Therefore, the
entrepreneurship ecosystem and education play a role in developing EI. The entrepreneurial ecosystem must begin with college and
university students at the most foundational level (India Today, 2022; Mann, 2023). Entrepreneurial education courses positively

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mrrahim786@gmail.com (M. Razi-ur-Rahim), furquanbhu@gmail.com (F. Uddin), priyadwivedi4@gmail.com (P. Dwivedi),
dharenp@gmail.com (D.K. Pandey).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2024.101020
Received 27 December 2023; Received in revised form 30 June 2024; Accepted 1 July 2024
1472-8117/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
M. Razi-ur-Rahim et al. The International Journal of Management Education 22 (2024) 101020

impact the development of a behavioural entrepreneurial mindset (Cui & Bell, 2022). This, in turn, influences both EI and behaviour.
Ample studies have highlighted the role of entrepreneurial education on college students in developing the intention to start new
enterprises (Boubker et al., 2021; Igwe et al., 2021; Moberg, 2014). Moriano et al. (2012) researched different university students in six
countries to study entrepreneurial intentions among them. They found that the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) developed by Ajzen
(1987) was a valid framework including attitude (ATE) (i.e., which represents the perceived likely outcome of the behaviour), sub­
jective norm (SN) (i.e., others’ expectation/preferences about whether one should or should not engage in a behaviour) and perceived
behavioural control (PBC) (i.e., the extent to which the individual perceives that the behaviour is under their control) for predicting the
entrepreneurial intentions among students. The TPB is widely regarded as the most effective framework for conducting theory-based
research on entrepreneurial intention (Elnadi & Gheith, 2021). Numerous studies have used this theory to assess entrepreneurial
intention (Aloulou, 2016; Barton et al., 2018; Entrialgo & Iglesias, 2016; Farooq et al., 2018; Romero-Colmenares & Reyes-Rodríguez,
2022; Sousa-Filho et al., 2023; Villanueva-Flores et al., 2023).
Prior investigations studied the role of significant variable(s) on EI among learners in different streams (Dao et al., 2021; Esfandiar
et al., 2019; Fayolle & Liñán, 2014). Lingappa et al. (2020) and Anwar et al. (2022) reported that earlier studies had not explored the
variables affecting EI among polytechnic/engineering diploma graduates. Individuals inclined to pursue entrepreneurship may be
drawn to fields that prioritize innovation and take risks (Fairlie & Holleran, 2012; Koh, 1996). Also, entrepreneurial attitudes among
students in a particular course are significantly affected by the academic setting of an institution (Klofsten et al., 2019). Therefore,
examining the impact of various variables on students from diverse streams is crucial since students’ risk tolerance and other variables
may vary depending on their academic background.
India has a substantial pool of technical human resources. Nearly 80,000 engineering diploma holders enter the job market
annually (ET Bureau, 2016). The government of India has emphasized technology-based entrepreneurship through its “Made in India”
strategy (Tnn, 2021). India is propelling towards $5 trillion economy (Connect, 2023). To achieve this target, India must encourage
entrepreneurship in the new generation (Chowdhury et al., 2019). Thus, the government can encourage new business ventures and
accelerate the pace of the economy by developing courses that can bring societal change to the understudy (Chowdhury et al., 2019).
At the understudy level, if factors that develop/affect entrepreneurial intentions can be found, it will encourage them to adopt
entrepreneurship as a profession at a young age (Deakins et al., 2005; El Hazzouri et al., 2015). Additionally, positive entrepreneurial
intentions lead to becoming an entrepreneur (Krueger Jr et al., 2000; Schlaegel & Koenig, 2014). Therefore, developing entrepre­
neurial aspirations among the students is crucial.
Developing and promoting EI among young technical graduates could be the most practical for the nation (Al-Mamary & Alshallaqi,
2022; Israr & Saleem, 2018). Technical education courses that do not impart skills are a disadvantage to society (Inyang & Enuoh,
2009). This is often a prevailing issue in developing countries (Brutonet al., 2008; Campos et al., 2017). The initiation of incubation
centres, especially in engineering and polytechnic colleges, can motivate the understudy to accept the challenges of becoming an
entrepreneur so that these students can become actors in creating societal change (Lalkaka, 2002).
Polytechnic colleges in India offer technical diplomas to the enrolled students. Technical diplomas train the enrolled students in
various engineering streams, viz. Mechanical, electronic, electrical, civil, informatics, humanities, graphics, media, designing, and
business strategy. The earlier studies considered polytechnic colleges a stepping stone for occupation rather than entrepreneurialism
(Böckerman et al., 2018; The Hindu Bureau, 2023). The scope of entrepreneurship for technical diploma graduates was normally
ignored, especially considering the positive societal change it can bring.
The researchers have not precisely delineated the factors leading to TPB’s establishment (Chan et al., 2014). The causes of ATE, SN,
and PBC in entrepreneurship are still understudied (Martins et al., 2022). The components of TPB can vary across different cultures,
periods, and social contexts. In their study, Maheshwari and Kha (2022) found that education establishes an indirect positive effect
through entrepreneurial self-efficacy and TPB components, leading to EI. Also, as society evolves, new factors and influences emerge,
leading to the need for ongoing research to understand how these constructs adapt and change over time. Hence, it is crucial to include
variables in the intention-based model. Therefore, this paper studies the variables affecting EI among polytechnic graduates in India.
These factors influence an individual’s learning experiences and general growth within their environment or surroundings (Plomin,
1989). Thus, TPB was adopted to conduct this research, studying and measuring various entrepreneurial process drivers.This study is a
valuable contribution to the existing body of research by examining the intention of entrepreneurship among polytechnic un­
derstudies. It will serve as a foundation for developing entrepreneurial intentions, thus making them self-reliant and may bring societal
change.
The rest of the paper is as follows. Section 2 delves into the existing literature to develop the testable hypotheses; Section 3 presents
the data, methods, and tools; Section 4 discusses the findings; and Section 5 concludes the paper.

2. Review of literature and hypotheses development

Becoming an entrepreneur is a pre-planned action (Armitage & Conner, 2001). An individual who wants to be an entrepreneur
decides well in advance, even before exploring the market opportunities, to be in the right business. Entrepreneurial intention (EI) is
the predecessor of entrepreneurial behaviour.
Human behaviour is a dynamic interaction of emotions, perceptions, situations and motives of an individual’s actions. A philo­
sophical mechanism through which human behaviour in various circumstances can be predicted is explained in the TPB. This theory is
grounded on behavioural and psychological concepts (Manstead & Parker, 1995). Recent studies have explored the entrepreneurial
intention of women and social leaders but not with the TPB theory as its base model (Dixit et al., 2023; Goel & Madan, 2019; Guo et al.,
2022; Ramadani et al., 2022; Rosca et al., 2020; Sandhu et al., 2021). Studies on entrepreneurship and gender roles also found that by

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promoting social mobility, both men and women entrepreneurs help the country’s economic growth (Aparicio et al., 2022).
Researchers have also looked into how the pandemic affected entrepreneurship, and their findings suggest that digital entrepre­
neurship, in particular, benefited from the COVID-19 pandemic (Afawubo & Noglo, 2022; Modgil et al., 2022). It has been argued that
the intentions of individuals are influenced by motivating variables that ultimately shape their behaviour (Maheshwari, 2021). Ajzen
(1991) posited that a positive association exists between intention and the probability of getting involved in entrepreneurship.
Numerous research studies have concurred that entrepreneurship results from deliberate and planned behaviour (Maheshwari & Kha,
2022). Establishing a start-up firm is vital in delineating entrepreneurial conduct, especially among students actively designing their
professional careers (Doanh et al., 2021).

2.1. Impact of course-curriculum (CUR) on antecedents of EI

EI is often affected by formal or informal entrepreneurial education. Aboobaker’s (2020) and Uddin et al. (2022) research revealed
that the inclusion of entrepreneurial education and training inside university courses has a beneficial impact on individuals’ incli­
nation to participate in entrepreneurial endeavours. This finding is particularly significant when considering the context of emerging
South-Asian settings, as it will have the largest young labour force by 2040, as per UNICEF (2019). The curriculum (CUR) encourages
and motivates students to start their businesses following graduation (Lawan et al., 2015; Premand et al., 2016). CUR develops
entrepreneurship awareness, skills, attitudes, and behaviours among the learners (Kazakeviciute et al., 2016). CUR encourages
cognitive thinking and guides students in establishing and operating an enterprise (Mapfaira & Setibi, 2014). The curriculum helps the
understudy learn the various approaches, business management, and how/from where to avail the resources (Fatoki, 2010; Katundu &
Gabagambi, 2016). That is why educational institutions include specific curriculum that promotes entrepreneurship among the un­
derstudy (Hattab, 2014). CUR significantly impacts EI by encouraging innovative thinking (Fayolle & Gailly, 2015; Ferreira et al.,
2017). SN and PBC were found to be inclined by entrepreneurship-related courses but not ATE (Aloulou, 2016). Solesvik (2013) re­
ported that CUR significantly impacts ATE and PBC but does not influence SN. Thus, whether the CUR supports the antecedents of EI in
polytechnic students, the following hypotheses were framed:
H1a. CUR has a significant relationship with ATE (antecedent of EI).
H1b. CUR has a significant relationship with PBC (antecedent of EI).
H1c. CUR has a significant relationship with SN (antecedent of EI).

2.2. Impact of institutional support in entrepreneurial skills development (ISUP) on antecedents of EI

Institutional support, such as internships and networking with the industry, benefits EI development (Basu & Virick, 2008). The
influence of individual entrepreneurial orientation on entrepreneurial intention is notably enhanced when supported by educational
institutions support, according to Aggarwal and Chauhan (2022). Institutional support facilitates cultivating entrepreneurial abilities
and generating innovative ideas among students while imparting the necessary information and competencies for entrepreneurship
(Youssef et al., 2021). The findings further suggest that students need sufficient educational assistance to cultivate a setting favourable
to entrepreneurial conduct. According to Coduras et al. (2008), ISUP has no notable significant impact on EI. Trivedi (2016) reported
that only PBC, not ATE and SN, are significantly associated with ISUP. However, Mustafa et al. (2016) found that ISUP has a favourable
impact on improving the interest to become an entrepreneur, thus affecting ATE, which in turn helps to improve business knowledge
and self-confidence, thereby improving PBC. Therefore, the following hypotheses investigate the effect of ISUP on antecedents of EI
with the help of substructure, networking prospects, and reassurance to aid entrepreneurial intentions among polytechnic
understudies.
H2a. ISUP is significantly related to ATE (antecedent of EI).
H2b. ISUP is significantly related to PBC (antecedent of EI).
H2c. ISUP is significantly related to SN (antecedent of EI).

2.3. Impact of family (FLY) on EI

The first school for a child is his/her family. FLY significantly influences individuals’ aspirations to pursue entrepreneurship. FLY
acts as a catalyst for youngsters by providing them with productive and efficient role models for entrepreneurial practices (Krueger,
1993; Pruet et al., 2009). These children could develop a clear desire for entrepreneurship (Krueger et al., 2000). FLY positively
impacts students in improving EI (Basu & Virick, 2008; Farrukh et al., 2017; Krueger, 1993; Van Auken et al., 2006). The study by
Saoula et al. (2023) reveals that family support significantly enhances young Malaysians’ entrepreneurial education and entrepre­
neurial intent. In addition, Ahmed et al. (2021) revealed the influence of family support in increasing regret among individuals with
high confidence in themselves and the impact of it on future entrepreneurial intentions. Ugwueze et al. (2022) recommend that ed­
ucators and policymakers consider family support when using policies or programmes to encourage entrepreneurship among college
students. The family plays a significant role as it can affect PBC and ATE. Previous studies have also found that FLY is a vital pre­
decessor of TPB, specifically impacting SN (Farrukh et al., 2019). Laspita et al. (2012) reported that FLY significantly affects EI’s
antecedents by improving SN, ATE, and PBC. The following hypotheses were framed to explore the significance of FLY in the factors

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that precede EI.

H3a. FLY is significantly related to ATE (antecedent of EI).
H3b. FLY is significantly related to PBC (antecedent of EI).
H3c. FLY is significantly related to SN (antecedent of EI).

2.4. Impact of peers (PEER) on EI

PEER is regarded to significantly influence deciding on a career path. PEER helps gather information, search for and develop al­
ternatives, and choose the right career. If peers are entrepreneurs, they act as mentors and exert a constructive impact on advancing
entrepreneurial goals (intentions). In this study, “peers” refer to other entrepreneurs or company owners affiliated with an institution
who assist fledgling enterprises, i.e., the diploma holders who become entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurs collaborate and share knowledge
with their colleagues, mitigating fragmentation in entrepreneurial ecosystems and generating social value (Cearra et al., 2021).
Furthermore, they are often more significant when motivating young individuals to become entrepreneurs. The impact of PEER
moderates the interrelationship between education and entrepreneurship intention (Jayawarna et al., 2014). Nanda and Sørensen
(2010) confirm that having peers with prior entrepreneurship experience increases the possibility of becoming an entrepreneur. PEER
entrepreneurs’ presence in institutions impacts the formulation of entrepreneurial intentions (Aldrich & Martinez, 2001; Falck et al.,
2012). Previous research has examined the significance of peer support and advice in fostering entrepreneurship intention among
students (Handayati et al., 2020; Nabi et al., 2018; Narmaditya & Wibowo, 2021). PEER influences students’ entrepreneurial
behaviour by motivating them to seek a business-related decision and inspiring them to pursue a course that helps him/her to start up
an enterprise (Hacamo & Kleiner, 2018). When PEER-related influences are strong, they significantly increase all three determinants of
EI, i.e., attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control (Falck et al., 2012). Consequently, the following hypotheses were
constructed and tested to study whether PEER improves EI.
H4a. PEER has a significant relationship with ATE (antecedent of EI).
H4b. PEER has a significant relationship with PBC (antecedent of EI).
H4c. PEER is significantly related to SN (antecedent of EI).
The TPB is comprehensive and valuable in understanding human nature in various situations (Armitage & Conner, 2001). TPB has
wide applications in psychology, social sciences and management (Garcez et al., 2023; Kim & James, 2016; Mancha & Yoder, 2015;
Schlaegel & Koenig, 2014). Thus, the TPB can describe entrepreneurial behaviour through its antecedents, attitude towards behaviour
(ATB, here ATE, i.e., attitude towards entrepreneurship), PBC, and SN (Maheshwari, 2022).
ATE, SN and PBC represent a critical portion of the variation in actual behaviour. ATB/ATE is the magnitude to which the person
has a desirable and undesirable perception of the behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). SN is a social variable corresponding to perceived social
obligation (Ajzen, 1991). PBC corresponds to the supposed affluence of executing the behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) to indicate familiarity
and expected hindrances and difficulties. Overall, the following assumptions were tested based on Ajzen’s (1991) TPB:
H5a. ATE has a significant relationship with EI.
H5b. PBC has a significant relationship with EI.
H5c. SN has a significant relationship with EI.

3. Research methodology and results

3.1. Sample and data collection

While polytechnic graduates may have technical skills, they sometimes face challenges in finding employment that matches their
qualifications. It can be due to a disconnection between the skills acquired during their education and the skills demanded by em­
ployers. Studying polytechnic students’ unique challenges is essential, particularly in underemployment due to skills gaps. Such
research can inform educational institutions, policymakers, and employers about better-aligning education and workforce needs,
improving employment outcomes for polytechnic graduates, and promoting economic growth. It also helps develop a comprehension
of the diversity of educational pathways and their implications for entrepreneurship intentions.
The All-India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) annual report 2020 reported full utilization of technical education skills in
India. According to Statista (2022), polytechnic diploma courses have emerged as viable options for engineering degrees, allowing
students to acquire practical technical competencies. By understanding the experiences and outcomes of polytechnic students, India
can better prepare its workforce for the demands of a rapidly evolving job market and foster economic growth.
The polytechnic colleges provide career-focused and vocational courses in India and promote entrepreneurial programs. The
polytechnic institutes offer full-fledged diploma programs in different disciplines and develop the program in conjunction with the
Department of Higher Education and Training. As a whole, the objective of the curriculum is to train students in the technical area for
entrepreneurial engagement upon graduation. This study investigates the entrepreneurial intent among polytechnic students at
government polytechnic colleges in Malappuram and Calicut districts of Kerala state in India. The sample frame was the enrolment list

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of the students studying in the 4th year in the particular stream of the diploma program. A simple random sampling technique was
adopted to get the responses. Since the number of students in the 4th year of their graduation in the government polytechnic college in
Malappuram and Calicut was 1800, applying the sample size calculation with a confidence level 95% (5% margin of error), the sample
size of approximately 317 students. The suitability of government polytechnic students for this study is rationalized by the episte­
mological reasoning that a sample of these learners might include both future entrepreneurs and those who do not have entrepre­
neurship aspirations, as discussed by Ozaralli and Rivenburgh (2016), which will help to fill the research gap identified by Lingappa
et al. (2020) and Anwar et al. (2022).
The questionnaire was pilot-tested with 26 students, and then the questionnaire was updated to include their feedback. The
findings derived from the pilot testing suggest that the scale is suitable for the specific demographic being studied. The sample unit was
a polytechnic understudy at the 4th-year level in their respective stream. Usually, the males dominate the polytechnic colleges in the
number of admissions. Only a few females were enrolled on technical diploma courses. Overall, 335 students were approached at the
time of this study. In a survey study, it is preferred if participation is discretionary and unnamed (Ozaralli & Rivenburgh, 2016). The
students who participated in the study voluntarily obtained a copy of the questionnaire from the college auditorium and anonymously
dropped their completed survey forms in the collection box. Of the 302 questionnaires given to students, 282 were returned, resulting
in a response rate of 93.37%. After questionnaire screening, 28 returned surveys were deemed invalid due to incomplete replies and
discarded. Consequently, the investigation in the current work involved 254 useable questionnaires.
The respondents fall into the 16–24 years of age group. One hundred sixteen students (45.67%) fall in the 16–18 age group, fol­
lowed by the 19–21 age group, where 108 and between the ages of 22–24 years were only 30. From the sample of 254 student re­
spondents, 236 (92.9 %) were male, and only 18 (7.1%) were female. 97 (38.18%) of students were from mechanical engineering. The
other streams include civil engineering 57, automobile engineering 54, electrical engineering 25, and computer engineering 21 student
respondents. Table 1 presents the demographic profile of the sample.

3.2. Measures

The responses received were measured using a 5-point Likert scale response option ranging from 1 to 5, where 1 indicates strong
disagreement, and 5 indicates strong agreement. The present research is quantitative. TPB is comprehensive and grounded on
behavioural and psychological concepts; hence, it is useful in understanding human nature in various situations (Armitage & Conner,
2001). TPB has wide applications in psychology, social sciences, and management (Mancha & Yoder, 2015). Thus, TPB can describe
entrepreneurial behaviour through its antecedents, which are attitude towards behaviour (like ATB is ATE, PBC is ISUP, SN is FLY,
self-efficacy is CUR and PEER) (Kim & James, 2016). The instruments used in this study were derived from validated measurement
items utilized in prior analyses (see Table 2). The variables of TPB (ATE, SN, PBC, and EI) were derived from the research conducted by
Liñán (2008). The CUR consisted of four items derived from Mustafa et al. (2016), while ISUP included five items from Coduras et al.
(2008). Furthermore, the inclusion of FLY and PEER was based on a thorough examination of the research conducted by Farrukh et al.
(2017) and Falck et al. (2012), respectively. The measured parameters depended on several conditions, such as the composite reli­
ability value, which must be more than 0.6 (Chin, 1995); the average variance extracted value must be more than 0.6 (Fornell &
Larcker, 1981; Hair et al., 2016). The loading factor measurement forms the primary formers of the variable. The Cronbach’s alpha
value should be > 0.5.

3.3. Methodology used

The partial least square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) method was employed for data analysis and confirmation of
hypothesis testing. The PLS method is applicable even with a reduced sample size and disregards normality assumptions (Aguir­
re-Urreta & Marakas, 2010). However, the goodness-of-model fit measure is one of the critical drawbacks (Hair et al., 2016). A
measurement model and a structural model analysis under PLS-SEM were used to establish the instruments’ reliability and validity and
test the association between the various factors, respectively.

Table 1
Demographic profile.
Age Group Information Diploma in Engineering stream Gender

Age Group (yrs) Numbers %age Education Level Numbers %age Numbers %age

16–18 116 45.67 Automobile 54 21.26 Male 236 92.9

19–21 108 42.52 Computer 21 8.27 Female 18 7.1
22–24 30 11.81 Civil 57 22.45 Total 254 100.0
Total 254 100.0 Mechanical 97 38.18
Electrical 25 9.84
Total 254 100.0

Source: Questionnaire

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Table 2
Research instrument.
Constructs Scale Items References Codes

Attitude towards entrepreneurship (ATE) Becoming an entrepreneur is beneficial Liñán (2008) ATE1
Being an entrepreneur is a desirable professional ATE2
opportunity
Offers greater benefits ATE3
Being an entrepreneur is a fulfilling experience ATE4
Superior to other career paths ATE5

Subjective norm (SN) for entrepreneurship The family endorses entrepreneurial endeavours. Liñán (2008) SN1
Family considers entrepreneurship to be the better option. SN2
Friends would be in favour. SN3
Friends would feel impressed SN4

Perceived behaviour control (PBC) Easy to establish one’s own business Liñán (2008) PBC1
Potential alternative PBC2
Capability to oversee the establishment of a company PBC3
Conscious of the practical side of starting a business PBC4
Possess the required knowledge PBC5
My business will achieve success PBC6

Entrepreneurial intent (EI) Desires to become an entrepreneur Liñán (2008) EI1

My ambition is to become an entrepreneur EI2
Willingness to work hard to become an entrepreneur EI3
Considered starting own business EI4
I aspire to become an entrepreneur someday EI5

Course-Curriculum (CUR) in developing entrepreneurial skills Business management concepts taught Mustafa et al. (2016) CUR1
Learned how to solve problems in unusual circumstances CUR2
Acquiring the ability to solve unfamiliar issues CUR3
Promote learning by practice CUR4

Institutional Supportin entrepreneurial skills development Resources required available Coduras et al. (2008) ISUP1
(ISUP) Motivated to pursue entrepreneurship ISUP2
Workshops and seminars on entrepreneurship ISUP3
Student entrepreneurs’ networking ISUP4
Raising awareness of entrepreneurship ISUP5

Family (FLY) entrepreneurial experience Family members are self-employed Farrukh et al. (2017) FLY1
Immediate family members were self-employed FLY2
Involvement of extended family members in FLY3
entrepreneurship

Peer (PEER) entrepreneurial experience Have peers who own startups Falck et al. (2012) PEER1
Have peers who are interested in establishing a company PEER2
Have peers who value entrepreneurship PEER3
Have peers who motivate me to pursue entrepreneurship PEER4

Source: Compiled by the authors based on previous studies

3.4. Data analysis

Collinearity affects outer loading estimation and statistical significance. We use the Variance inflation factors (VIF) to test the
multicollinearity issues of the model. VIF values above 5 indicate a collinearity problem (Hair et al., 2016). Table 3 indicates that the
VIF of all the factors falls within the range of 1.252–1.999. The VIF results were precisely under the prescribed threshold. Thus, the
collinearity issue does not exist.

Table 3
VIF scores (Multicollinearity tests).
DV EI DV ATE DV SN DV PBC

Construct VIF Construct VIF Construct VIF Construct VIF

ATE 1.907 CUR 1.400 CUR 1.454 CUR 1.388

SN 1.999 ISUP 1.252 ISUP 1.632 ISUP 1.643
PBC 1.509 FLY 1.291 FLY 1.189 FLY 1.719
PEER 1.328 PEER 1.823 PEER 1.328

Notes: VIF = variance inflation factor; EI = entrepreneurial intention; ATE = attitude toward entrepreneurship; PBC perceived behaviour control; SN
= subjective norms; CUR = Course-Curriculum; FLY = family; PEER = peers; ISUP = institutional support; DV = dependable variable.

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3.5. Measurement model

The survey instrument’s reliability and validity were examined using a measurement model. In assessing validity, both convergent
and discriminant validity are considered. Convergent validity denotes the degree of correlation observed among measures that purport
to assess a shared construct. The average variance extracted (AVE) and outer loading values determine convergence. Fornell and
Larcker (1981) suggest AVE values for each dimension above 0.50 to evaluate convergent validity. Lee et al. (2015) recommend that
the construct’s item outer loadings exceed 0.60. Table 4 shows AVE values ranged between 0.5247 and 0.714; the outer loading values
ranged from 0.6009 to 0.8807. Thus, the convergent validity of the model was established. Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability
(CR) are two statistical measures that assess items’ reliability within a context. Values above 0.60 are considered satisfactory reliability
(Razi-ur-Rahim & Uddin, 2021). All the values met this criterion.
An item’s ability to distinguish between variables is measured in terms of discriminant validity. Discriminant validity can be
established when AVE’s square root exceeds the latent variable’s correlation (Hair et al., 2016). Table 5 shows that the square root of
AVE values of all the constructs was more significant than the inter-construct correlations; also, the latent variable correlation value
should not be greater than 0.9 (Lee et al., 2015). The results uncover that the highest inter-item correlation value is 0.4967 (i.e.,
between PBC and EI). Thus, the discriminant validity of the measurement model is established.

3.6. Structural model analysis

Hypotheses testing was done through structural model evaluation. The adequacy of the hypothesized model was evaluated by
assessing the value of R2. The result of Partial Least Square is shown in Fig. 1.

Table 4
Measurement model analysis.
Constructs Items Loadings Cronbach’s Alpha CR AVE Communality

ATE ATE1 0.7982 0.8472 0.8909 0.6205 0.6205

ATE2 0.7606
ATE3 0.7911
ATE4 0.8124
ATE5 0.7751

CUR CUR1 0.7329 0.8278 0.8863 0.6617 0.6617

CUR2 0.8504
CUR3 0.8684
CUR4 0.7957

EI EI1 0.8016 0.8644 0.9022 0.6485 0.6485

EI2 0.8147
EI3 0.8026
EI4 0.8217
EI5 0.7854

FLY FLY1 0.8807 0.7991 0.882 0.714 0.714

FLY2 0.8638
FLY3 0.7875

PBC PBC1 0.6009 0.8174 0.8666 0.5247 0.5247

PBC2 0.6717
PBC3 0.7928
PBC4 0.7651
PBC5 0.8271
PBC6 0.7264

PEER PEER1 0.6827 0.79 0.8636 0.6141 0.6141

PEER2 0.8393
PEER3 0.7918
PEER4 0.8119

SN SN1 0.7544 0.7702 0.8529 0.5918 0.5918

SN2 0.7701
SN3 0.7892
SN4 0.7633

ISUP ISUP1 0.7663 0.8537 0.8922 0.6236 0.6236

ISUP2 0.7593
ISUP3 0.8109
ISUP4 0.8339
ISUP5 0.7757

Notes: CR = Composite Reliability; AVE = Average Value Extracted; Sqrt = Square Root; EI = entrepreneurial intention; ATE = attitude toward
entrepreneurship; PBC perceived behaviour control; SN = subjective norms; CUR = course-curriculum; FLY = family; PEER = peer; ISUP = insti­
tutional support.

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M. Razi-ur-Rahim et al. The International Journal of Management Education 22 (2024) 101020

Table 5
Showing discriminant validity (fornell-larcker criterion).
Latent Variable ATE CUR EI FLY PBC PEER SN ISUP

ATE 0.6205
CUR 0.2851 0.6617
EI 0.4588 0.2941 0.6485
FLY 0.0874 0.1501 0.1391 0.714
PBC 0.3021 0.2242 0.4967 0.1283 0.5247
PEER 0.2963 0.1865 0.2681 0.1289 0.3114 0.6141
SN 0.4461 0.3325 0.3834 0.1624 0.3404 0.3108 0.5918
ISUP 0.0969 0.1881 0.1431 0.1154 0.1982 0.1068 0.1098 0.6236

Notes: Bold diagonals indicate square root of AVE, ATE = attitude toward entrepreneurship; CUR = course-curriculum; ISUP = institutional support;
EI = entrepreneurial intention; FLY = family; PBC = perceived behavioural control; PEER = peer; SN = subjective norms; AVE = average variance
extracted.

Fig. 1. Path Coefficient values with outer loadings.

Notes: ATE = attitude toward entrepreneurship, CUR= Course-curriculum, ISUP= Institution support, EI = Entrepreneurial intention, FLY= Family,
PBC = perceived behavioural control and PEER = peer influence and SN= Subjective norms.

Table 6
Results of hypothesis testing.
Hypotheses Constructs Path Coefficients (β) t-Statistics Hypothesis Result

H1a CUR - > ATE 0.353 5.3317 Supported

H1b CUR - > PBC 0.1876 3.1149 Supported
H1c CUR - > SN 0.3713 6.1387 Supported
H2a ISUP - > ATE 0.0303 0.4633 Not Supported
H2b ISUP - > PBC 0.2139 3.7393 Supported
H2c ISUP - > SN 0.013 0.2372 Not Supported
H3a FLY - > ATE 0.013 0.2539 Not Supported
H3b FLY - > PBC 0.0765 1.2673 Not Supported
H3c FLY - > SN 0.1303 2.3171 Supported
H4a PEER - > ATE 0.3777 6.4462 Supported
H4b PEER - > PBC 0.3799 6.3665 Supported
H4c PEER - > SN 0.3465 5.9428 Supported
H5a ATE - > EI 0.3505 6.1079 Supported
H5b PBC - > EI 0.4358 8.688 Supported
H5c SN - > EI 0.1308 2.4603 Supported

Notes: CUR = course-curriculum; ISUP = institutional support; ATE = attitude toward entrepreneurship; PBC = perceived behaviour control; SN =
subjective norms; FLY = family; PEER = peer; EI = entrepreneurial intention.

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M. Razi-ur-Rahim et al. The International Journal of Management Education 22 (2024) 101020

The hypotheses tests (Table 6) reveal that the antecedent of entrepreneurial intentions (EI) had a significant influence. The
antecedent ATE (β = 0.3505, t > 1.96), PBC (β = 0.4358, t > 1.96), and SN (β = 0.1308, t > 1.96) showed a significant impact on EI.
Therefore, hypotheses H5a, H5b and H5c were supported. EI was most significantly impacted by PBC, followed by ATE and SN.
Additionally, the results of the hypothesis testing indicated that both CUR (β = 0.353, t > 1.96) and PEER (β = 0.3777, t > 1.96)
exert a major influence on ATE. H1a and H4a were therefore supported. PEER has a higher impact on ATE than CUR. In contrast, FLY (β
= 0.013, t < 1.96) and ISUP (β = 0.0303, t < 1.96) do not have a major influence on ATE. Therefore, H3a and H2a were not accepted.
CUR (β = 0.1876, t > 1.96), PEER (β = 0.3799, t > 1.96), and ISUP (β = 0.2139, t > 1.96) show a significant influence on PBC. Thus,
H1b, H4b, and H2b were accepted, and PEER had the highest effect on PBC, followed by ISUP and CUR. Whereas FLY (β = 0.0765, t <
1.96) did not significantly influence PBC, H3b was not supported. CUR (β = 0.3713, t > 1.96), FLY (β = 0.1303, t > 1.96) and PEER (β =
0.3465, t > 1.96) have a significant influence on SN.Thus H1c, H3c, and H4c were accepted. CUR has the maximum impact on SN,
followed by PEER and FLY. Meanwhile, ISUP (β = 0.013, t < 1.96) showed no significant influence on SN. Hence, H2c was not
supported.
The results of the hypotheses testing and path coefficient values (Fig. 1) showed that PBC had a major influence on EI, followed by
ATE and SN, respectively. PEER impacted more on PBC and ATE. Overall, CUR had the second position in influencing PBC, ATE and
SN. Table 6 indicates a moderate to small effect on all endogenous dependent variables as the Path Coefficients (β) value lies between
0.1303 and 0.4358 except for those not supported by the hypotheses. Small, medium, and high impacts are indicated by Cohen’s effect
size values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35, respectively (Cohen, 1988). ATE has the most significant effect size on EI, i.e., 56.03%.

4. Discussion

Entrepreneurship gains an excellent scope in the Indian economy. The study reveals that ATE, SN and PBC positively and pro­
foundly impact polytechnic students’ EI. The results of this study confirm the findings of Autio et al. (2001), Carr and Sequeira (2007),
Gird and Bagraim (2008), and Shook and Bratianu (2010). From the analysis of the study, it is clear that EI among polytechnic students
is highly affected by PBC, followed by ATE and SN.
Among the four independent variables (i.e., CUR, ISUP, FLY and PEER), PEER showed the highest influence across all the three
factors of TPB (i.e., PBC, ATE and SN). PEER acts in different roles, such as role models, motivators, supporters, co-partners, sources of
information, etc., actively stimulating entrepreneurial intention among the students. The results of the current study support the
outcomes of Hacamo and Kleiner (2018) and Falck et al. (2012). As deciding to enter entrepreneurship or not is crucial in one’s career
journey, students might have some fear while finalizing it. They overcome this fear if there is extensive support from their PEER. PEER
significantly influenced all the factors: ATE, PBC, and SN. PEER framework suggests that personal and environmental factors influence
ATE, PBC and SN, shaping EI. Personal and environmental factors foster a positive ATE, PBC and SN that increases individuals’ in­
tentions to pursue entrepreneurial activities, ultimately contributing to entrepreneurial success.
The second highest impact after PEER on the antecedent of EI was CUR. CUR improves awareness, i.e. cognitive thinking approach
towards using resources available, and thus guides the understudy in operating an enterprise (Fatoki, 2010; Katundu & Gabagambi,
2016; Kazakeviciute et al., 2016; Mapfaira & Setibi, 2014). The academic curriculum must include specific entrepreneurship-oriented
courses and creativity training so that they can act as the thriving forces that encourage students to commence their business start-ups.
That means the curriculum can make a concrete foundation for entrepreneurship and build students’ confidence to be entrepreneurs,
thus creating a positive attitude towards entrepreneurship. This study confirms that CUR has a significant impact on ATE and supports
the finding of Solesvik (2013) but contradicts the findings of Aloulou (2016). At the same time, CUR significantly impacts PBC and SN,
supporting the findings of Aloulou (2016). It also proves the findings of Solesvik (2013) regarding PBC, which contradicts the findings
on SN. The findings of this study state that SN followed by ATE and PBC has significant impacts, which are the antecedents of EI. SN
plays a vital role in influencing EI by shaping one’s perception of social pressure, expectations and support for becoming an entre­
preneur. This finding contradicts Romero-Colmenares and Reyes-Rodríguez (2022). A positive ATE drives innovation, resilience, and
adaptability to becoming an entrepreneur. PBC influences an individual’s self-efficacy, resource accessibility, outcome expectancy,
and risk perception, which together drive EI.
The impact of curriculum on shaping the elements of TPB aligns with the research conducted by Maheshwari and Kha (2022),
which revealed that the connection between educational support and EI is mediated by personal attitude (PA) and PBC. Inspiration,
collaboration, facility, and role model advice are all elements of institutional support. Student-related supportive activities like in­
ternships and mentoring in new ventures enrich apparent self-efficacy elements among the students.
ISUP does not impact ATE and SN but does impact PBC, which supports the findings of Trivedi (2016) and contradicts the findings
of Mustafa et al. (2016). The institutions, while providing resources, creating supportive environments, internships, industry inter­
action, imparting necessary information, etc., create an entrepreneurial ecosystem conducive to EI. The reason ISUP does not impact
ATE and SN may be that the government polytechnic college/s lacks proper laboratory set up, hands-on work in these labs, and
regularity in workshops is absent. Predominantly, such institutions suffer due to insufficient funds and proper technical staff.
Most decisions taken by every individual greatly influence family in Indian society. According to previous studies, these cultural
elements significantly impact the highly SN, which are the antecedents of TPB (Farrukh et al., 2019). However, the findings of the
present study reveal that FLY does not impact any of ATE, PBC, except SN, which contradicts the findings of Krueger (1993), Van
Auken et al. (2006), Basu and Virick (2008), Laspita et al. (2012), Farrukh et al. (2017, 2019). FLY provides support, serves as a role
model, offers financial assistance, influences SN, and impacts EI. The researchers find it as the family who have entered into entre­
preneurship in their family businesses and have not become as successful as they should be, thus losing to influence their wards. The
new generations want to do something based on what their family members do as entrepreneurs.

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M. Razi-ur-Rahim et al. The International Journal of Management Education 22 (2024) 101020

Finally, the findings of this study confirm the findings of Ajzen (1991), which confirms that ATE, PBC and SN have a significant
impact on EI. For shaping individuals’ perceptions of entrepreneurship, confidence in their ability to succeed, and perceptions of social
support and approval, ATE, PBC, and SN are significant psychological factors that influence EI. Understanding and tending to these
elements are fundamental for advancing business and encouraging an enterprising attitude among polytechnic students.

5. Conclusion

This paper emphasizes how much each of the variables, namely, course curriculum, family, peers and institutional support, impact
the entrepreneurial intention of a polytechnic understudy. This research established the impact of key factors crucial for entrepre­
neurial intention, and implementing these factors will contribute to social change by developing students as future entrepreneurs. This
study, along with most previous studies, has also shown that peers significantly impact all the components of TPB. Thus, policymakers
and other stakeholders should concentrate their further studies on finding how peers can be successfully utilized in developing
entrepreneurial intention. Peer groups can be formed with like-minded students interested in entrepreneurship, which may help foster
their entrepreneurial intentions. Universities must encourage students to get together and train through seminars, competitions,
entrepreneurship-related courses, and business activities. Such activities can boost self-reliance and reduce apprehensiveness. As a
result, institutes must look into the possibilities of increasing peer relationships through creative approaches to promote EI.
It is clear from the study that universities have a high significance in developing entrepreneurial intention among students. Uni­
versities should consider including and updating the curriculum on business creation ventures. Business-oriented teaching techniques
should be motivated. There must be some training at the academic level to foster creative skills in students. Training sessions led by
interactions with successful ventures, internships, mentoring, etc., must be implemented with a vision to motivate students towards
entrepreneurship. After implementation, tracking and continuously assessing the entrepreneurial development strategies and their
progress is also necessary. Universities should take the initiative to connect successful entrepreneur alumni with current students.
Along with theoretical courses that communicate the scope and importance of entrepreneurship, there should be practical-oriented
approaches like sessions with business incubators and industry experts.

5.1. Theoretical contributions

This study adds to the expanding body of knowledge on TPB and EI since most hypotheses were confirmed empirically, supporting
the theoretical model. The research on entrepreneurial intention has yet to be extensively investigated using a conventional frame­
work, such as the components of the TPB, while also including emergent support constructs such as FLY, PEER, CUR, and ISUP. This
research first examines the fundamental factors contributing to the antecedents of the TPB and then explores the impact of these
antecedents on EI. Variables such as FLY, PEER, CUR, and ISUP enhance the TPB’s explanatory capacity within the entrepreneurship
domain. This research investigation stresses the assistance students need throughout their formative educational years. Including a
well-designed curriculum and providing peer support are essential components for catalyzing transformative change among young
people. This transformation, in turn, has the potential to significantly impact the economic landscape by fostering a culture of
entrepreneurship. This research’s distinctiveness lies in avoiding excessive complexity within the theoretical model, achieved by
refraining from pulling variables from many theories. The study used an expanded iteration of the TPB by integrating many significant
variables at the individual level. Also, the study adopts the PLS-SEM approach, which is appropriate for evaluating a model’s predictive
capacity, which is one of the key focuses of this study (Hair et al., 2020).

5.2. Practical implications

The problems of population increase and economic disparities are further exacerbated by various socio-economic crises and, most
recently, the COVID-19 pandemic. These issues culminate in the dilemma of unemployment. An economy’s prosperity is contingent
upon providing appropriate entrepreneurship training and skills to the younger generation for self-employment by academic in­
stitutions. This research proposes a potential resolution to the aforementioned societal problem via the recommendation of a proper
entrepreneurial education curriculum and the provision of peer support from individuals sharing similar aspirations to foster a more
prevalent culture of entrepreneurship among students (Ratten & Jones, 2021). There is potential for promoting an entrepreneurship
ecosystem in India, similar to other emerging economies such as Latin America and the Caribbean, where a significant portion of the
population aspires to become entrepreneurs (Bosma et al., 2020, pp. 5–7; Martins et al., 2022). The entrepreneurship curriculum
should include project-based learning and practical application of theoretical concepts. Also, it should provide resources, mentorship
and an ecosystem for advancing new businesses. Thus, the study suggests that an entrepreneurship curriculum is critical to developing
personality characteristics, talents, and capabilities such as creative thinking, proactive actions, and risk-taking, which is vital for the
entrepreneurship ecosystem.

5.3. Scope for further study

Future studies can focus on exploring the significance of other factors, including personal attitude, regional cultures, social factors,
academic culture, etc., on entrepreneurial intention. The study was conducted using the data collected from northern Kerala; hence, it
can be generalized with obligatory modifications. The low male-to-female ratio, even due to the low ratio of enrolment in the poly­
technics, questions the applicability of the study to whole genders. Future studies should be based on data that maintains equal

10
M. Razi-ur-Rahim et al. The International Journal of Management Education 22 (2024) 101020

demographic distribution. Further scope exists for detailed studies on how the impacting variables can be altered to support entre­
preneurship. The role of gender and age group as mediators/moderators can be explored further, which can expand this research. The
future study may use other theories of behaviour to explore entrepreneurial intentions.

5.4. Limitations

The generalizability of the study’s results was limited due to its geographical scope, i.e., the districts of Kerala. To enhance the
applicability of the results, it is recommended that analogous inquiries be undertaken at other polytechnic colleges and universities
situated in different states of India. The study gathers data from students of government polytechnic colleges at a single point of time.
Understanding the student’s intentions and behaviour becomes more evident once we collect data after students have begun working
on their business. Thus, a longitudinal study would more effectively gather the necessary data and confirm the model’s validity. An
augmentation in the sample size might yield alternative results. Additionally, this research primarily examined the influence of TPB
dimensions on EIs; however, in the era of digital technology, a more targeted inquiry into digital entrepreneurship might have been
more appropriate. An additional constraint of this research is its exclusive reliance on self-report measures; nevertheless, including an
additional data source would have been beneficial. However, these constraints do not impact the reliability of the findings and provide
the basis for future research.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Mohammad Razi-ur-Rahim: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Furquan
Uddin: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Priya Dwivedi: Writing – original
draft, Visualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Dharen Kumar Pandey: Writing – review &
editing, Project administration, Conceptualization.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

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