Announcements 1

• Homework 1 due today.

– Bring it to my office by 17h00 on the due date.
– Homework 2 due next Thursday, 21st September

• Next Evening TA Session:

– Time: 18h00 – 21h00
– Date: Tuesday 12th / Wednesday 13th September
– Venues: EN 2022

• Mid-term 1, 2, 3 and Final Examination

– On Thursdays: 5 October, 9 November, 14 December, 28 December
– Time: 17h30 – 20h30 with possible extension till 21h30
– Please talk to me if you cannot make it to any of the exams. 1
 Announcements 2
• This is a designated EMI course, i.e. it will be taught in
ENGLISH only.
– Please register yourself into Mandarin session (MEME203) if you think
you cannot handle academic instructions in English.
– To pass the course, your overall course score MUST be larger than the
passing threshold.
– NO SCORE ADJUSTMENTS at the end of the semester regardless of
your reasons that you must pass the course, including GRADUATION.
• Supplementary online videos
– https://youtu.be/zhM7UkIMw9c ; https://youtu.be/AFMERtKAork ;
https://youtu.be/69HNH-oPUcw ; https://youtu.be/QfOxaMcNWvI
– These meant to supplement lecture materials, NOT to replace them.
– Contains ONLY A PORTION of the required materials for the class.
– If you rely solely on these videos, you will very likely fail the course. 2
MEME 203A-B
Thermodynamics

Material Properties
Textbook Reading – Chapter 3

14th September 2023

Forewords / Outline
• Explain key concepts in characterizing pure substances.
• Identify if a substance is a pure substance.
• Analyze closed systems, including applying the energy balance
with property data.
• Sketch 𝑇 − 𝑣, 𝑃 − 𝑣, and phase diagrams, and locate states on
these diagrams.
• Retrieve property data from property tables.
• Apply the ideal gas model for thermodynamic analysis,
including determining when use of the model is warranted.
• Application the ideal-gas equation of state.
Pure Substance
• A pure substance is one that has a fixed chemical
composition.
• Strictly speaking, air is a mixture of gases
– We regularly treat is as a pure substance in
thermodynamics analysis.

Water
Oxygen
Vapour
Hydrogen Air
Liquid Liquid
Water Ethanol

• Which are pure substances? Not a pure substance

Pure Substance
• A pure substance can exist in more than one phase, but its
chemical composition must be the same in each phase.
• Examples:
– Drinking water with ice cubes can be regarded as a pure
substance because each phase has the same composition.
– A fuel-air mixture in the combustion chamber of an IC
engine can be viewed as a pure substance until ignition
occurs.
Phases of a Pure Substance 1
• Phase: A quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout
in both chemical composition and physical structure.
• Homogeneity in physical structure means that the matter is all
solid, or all liquid, or all vapor (gas).
• Several examples:
– The air we breathe is a gas phase consisting of a mixture of
different gases.
– Drinking water with ice cubes contains two phases of
water: liquid and solid.
– Vinegar and olive oil salad dressing contains two different
liquid phases.
Phases of a Pure Substance 2
• Solid: Typically very rigid and structured arrangement of its
atoms.
• Liquid: Tightly connected atoms but there are not arranged in
a particular structure.
• Gas: Atoms are widely separated and there are lots of voids in
the space.

Solid Liquid Gas

 Phase Change 1
• Pressure = 1 atm (101325 Pa) throughout the heating process
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Piston
(5)
Piston Piston
Water Water
Piston Piston
(Sat. Vapour) Water (Superheated Vapour)
Water Water 1 atm, 373 K (Sat. Vapour) 1 atm, 573 K
(Liquid) (Saturated Liquid) 1 atm, 373 K
1 atm, 293 K 1 atm, 373 K (Saturated Liquid)

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄

Subcooled liquid: A Saturated liquid: A Saturated liquid– Saturated vapour: At Superheated Vapour:
substance that it is liquid that is about to vapor mixture: As 1 atm pressure, the As more heat is
not about to vaporize vaporize more heat is added, temperature remains transferred, the
part of the saturated constant at 100°C temperature of the
liquid vaporizes. until the last drop of vapor starts to rise.
liquid is vaporized.
Phase Change 2
• If the entire process between state 1 and 5 is reversed by cooling the
water while maintaining the pressure at the same value, the water will go
back to state 1, retracing the same path
• The amount of heat released 𝑇
will exactly match the amount
(5)
of heat added during the
heating process.
• Evaporation
⟹ Heat absorbed from
Surrounding (i.e. endothermic) (2) (3)
• Condensation (4)
Saturated Mixture
⟹ Heat release to the
Surrounding (i.e. exothermic)
(1)

𝑉
Saturation Temperature and Pressure
• The temperature at which water starts boiling depends on the
pressure
– If the pressure is fixed, so is the boiling
temperature.
• Water boils at 373 K at 1 atm pressure.

𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡

1 atm

373 K
𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡
Latent Heat
• Latent heat: Amount of energy absorbed or released during
phase-change.
• Latent heat of fusion: Amount of energy absorbed/released
during melting/freezing.
• Latent heat of vaporization: Amount of energy
absorbed/released during
vaporization/condensation.
• The magnitudes of the latent heats depend
on the state condition upon which the
phase change occurs.
• The atmospheric pressure, and thus the
boiling point of water, decreases with
elevation.
Phase Change Process
Process Representation

• Change of properties during phase-change processes for pure

substances are best studied and understood with property
diagrams such as the 𝑇 − 𝑣, 𝑃 − 𝑣, and 𝑃 − 𝑇 diagrams.
• 𝑇 − 𝑣 diagram of constant-pressure phase-change processes
of a pure substance at various 𝑇 Critical Point
pressures.
𝑷 increases
• If we connect all the saturated
liquid points and all the saturated
vapour points, we get a curve
bounding the region where both
liquid and vapour phases co-exist.

Saturated Liquid Saturated Vapour

𝑣
Property Diagram 1
• Saturated Liquid Line
𝑇
• Saturated Vapor Line Supercritical Pressure
Critical Point
• Compressed Liquid Region 𝑃2 > 𝑃1

• Superheated Vapor Region

𝑃1
• Saturated Liquid–vapor
Mixture Region (Wet Region) 2-phase
Saturated Mixture
• Critical point: The point at
which the saturated liquid
and saturated vapor states Saturated Liquid Line Saturated Vapour Line

are identical. 𝑣
• At supercritical pressures (𝑃 > 𝑃𝑐𝑟), there is no distinct
phase-change (boiling) process.
Property Diagram 2
• Triple-point: The state where solid/liquid/vapour phases of
the substance co-exist in equilibrium.
• For water, 𝑇𝑡𝑝 = 0.01°C and 𝑃𝑡𝑝 = 0.6117 kPa

• We typically do not deal with solid in this course.

Sublimation
• Sublimation: Passing from the solid phase directly into the
vapor phase.
• At low pressures (below the triple-point value), solids
evaporate without melting first.
P-v-T Surface 1
• For pure, simple compressible systems,
pressure can be determined as a function of
temperature and specific volume: P= P(T, v)
• The graph of this relation for water is indicated
by the P-v-T surface shown.
• Single-phase regions on the surface include
solid, liquid, and vapor.
• Two-phase regions are located between
single-phase regions, where two phases exist
in equilibrium: liquid-vapor, solid-vapor,
solid-liquid.
P-v-T Surface 2
• The dome-shaped region composed of the
two-phase liquid-vapor states is called the
vapor dome.
• A state at which a phase change begins or ends
is called a saturation state. Lines bordering the
vapor dome are called the saturated liquid and
saturated vapor lines.
• The critical point is at the point where
saturated liquid and saturated vapor lines meet.
– Critical temperature (Tc) is the maximum
temperature at which liquid and vapor phases
can coexist in equilibrium.
– Critical pressure (Pc) is pressure at the critical point.
P-v-T Surface 3
• Projection of the P-v-T surface onto the pressure-specific
volume plane results in a P-v diagram.
• Projection of the P-v-T surface onto the temperature-specific
volume plane results in a T-v diagram.
𝑃 𝑇
𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡
(A) (B)

𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑣
𝑣𝑓 𝑣𝑔 𝑣
(B) 𝑣𝑓 𝑣𝑔
(A)
Piston
Piston Piston
Water Water
(Sat. Vapour) Water
(Sat. Liquid) (Sat. Liquid)
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
State Properties 1
Simple Compressible System

• Systems of commonly encountered pure substances are called

simple compressible systems. These substances include those
in appendix.
• The intensive state of a simple compressible system at
equilibrium is described by its intensive properties, including
temperature, pressure, specific volume, density, specific
internal energy, and specific enthalpy.
• Properties such as velocity and elevation are excluded
because their values depend on arbitrary datum choices, such
as zero values at the surface of the earth. For the state
principle, these properties are not relevant.
State Properties 2
Simple Compressible System

• Not all of the relevant intensive properties are independent.

• Some are related by definitions
1
e.g. 𝜌 = or ℎ =𝑢+𝑃·𝑣
𝑣
• Others are related through expressions developed from
experimental data.
• Some intensive properties may be independent in a single
phase, but become dependent when there is more than one
phase present.
– Pressure and temperature are not independent in the two-phase
region.
– There is only one possible temperature at a given pressure over in the
two-phase region.
State Properties 3
Simple Compressible System

• For a simple compressible system, values for any two

independent intensive properties determine the values of all
other intensive properties.
– This is the state principle for simple compressible
systems.
• Among alternative sets of two independent intensive
properties, (𝑇, 𝑣) and (𝑃, 𝑣) are frequently convenient.
• Temperature and pressure are not always an independent set,
and we might need another property to fix the state.
Property Tables
• In most cases, thermodynamic properties are too complex to
be expressed by simple mathematical expressions.
– They are frequently tabulated in tables.
• Some thermodynamic properties can be measured easily, but
others cannot and are calculated by using the relations
between them and measurable properties.
• The results of these measurements and calculations are
presented in tables in a convenient format.
• For example, enthalpy is computed from its definition
kJ
ℎ =𝑢+𝑃∙𝑣 ; 𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃 ∙ 𝑉 kJ
kg
– The quantity 𝑢 + 𝑃 ∙ 𝑣 is frequently encountered when analyzing
open thermal systems.
Saturated Liquid and Gases 1
• Tables A-2 and A-3 (for water) in your textbook (9th Edition)
– Both are practically the same table
– A-2 listed the data in terms of temperature
– A-3 listed the data in terms of pressure
• 𝜉𝑓 : Saturated liquid value for 𝜉
• 𝜉𝑔 : Saturated vapour value for 𝜉
• 𝜉𝑓𝑔 : Difference between 𝜉𝑓 and 𝜉𝑔
– i.e. 𝜉𝑓𝑔 = 𝜉𝑔 − 𝜉𝑓
– ℎ𝑓𝑔 is known as the Enthalpy of
vaporization or the Latent heat of
vaporization) Specific 𝑇 Sat. Liq. Sat. Vap.
𝑣𝑓 𝑣𝑔
• Give only information in the 2-phase
region (i.e. under the vapour dome) Corresponding 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡
Saturated Liquid and Gases 2
Saturated Water – Temperature Table
Specific Volume Internal Energy
[m3/kg] [kJ/kg]
𝑇 [K] 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 [kPa] 𝑣𝑓 𝑣𝑔 𝑢𝑓 𝑢𝑓𝑔 𝑢𝑔

273.01 0.6117 0.001000 206.00 0.000 2374.9 2374.9

278 0.8725 0.001000 147.03 21.019 2360.8 2381.8

Saturated Water – Pressure Table

Specific Volume Internal Energy
[m3/kg] [kJ/kg]
𝑃 [kPa] 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 [K] 𝑣𝑓 𝑣𝑔 𝑢𝑓 𝑢𝑓𝑔 𝑢𝑔

1.0 6.97 0.001000 129.19 29.302 2355.2 2384.5

1.5 13.02 0.001001 87.964 54.686 2338.1 2392.8

Saturated Liquid 𝜉𝑓𝑔 = 𝜉𝑔 − 𝜉𝑓 Saturated Vapour

Two-Phase Mixture 1
• The relative amounts of liquid and vapor phases in a saturated
mixture are specified by the quality 𝒙.
– If both liquid and vapour co-exist, then, the substance must be at
saturation.
𝑚vapour 𝑚vapour 𝑚𝑔
𝑥= = =
𝑚total 𝑚liquid + 𝑚vapour 𝑚𝑓 + 𝑚𝑔
– 𝑥 = 0 ⟹ Saturated liquid; 𝑥 = 1 ⟹ Saturated vapour
• A two-phase system can be 𝑇 Critical Point
treated as a homogeneous 𝑃2 > 𝑃1

mixture for convenience.

𝑃1
• Temperature and pressure are
dependent properties under the Saturated
vapour dome. Mixture
𝑣
 𝑃, 𝑇
Two-Phase Mixture 2
• In general, we have,
𝑃 𝑄 𝑅
𝜉𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝜉𝑓 + 𝑥 ∙ 𝜉𝑔 − 𝜉𝑓 = 𝜉𝑓 + 𝑥 ∙ 𝜉𝑓𝑔
𝑣𝑓𝑔
and therefore, 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑥 − 𝑣𝑓
𝜉𝑚𝑖𝑥 − 𝜉𝑓 𝑚𝑓 𝑣𝑓 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝑣𝑔 𝑣
𝑥= =
𝜉𝑓𝑔 𝑚𝑓 + 𝑚𝑔
Piston
for 𝜉 = 𝑣, 𝑢, ℎ, 𝑠. 𝑃, 𝑇 Sat. Vapour,

𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥 ∙ 𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥 ∙ 𝑣𝑓𝑔 Sat. Liquid,

𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝑢𝑓 + 𝑥 ∙ 𝑢𝑔 − 𝑢𝑓 = 𝑢𝑓 + 𝑥 ∙ 𝑢𝑓𝑔
ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥 ∙ ℎ𝑔 − ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥 ∙ ℎ𝑓𝑔
𝑃 𝑄 𝑅
𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝑠𝑓 + 𝑥 ∙ 𝑠𝑔 − 𝑠𝑓 = 𝑠𝑓 + 𝑥 ∙ 𝑠𝑓𝑔

𝑣𝑓 𝑣𝑔 𝑣
𝑣𝑓 < 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑥 < 𝑣𝑔
Two-Phase Mixture 3
• The specific volume of a two-phase liquid- vapor mixture can
be determined by using the saturation tables and quality, x.
• The total volume of the mixture is the sum of the volumes of
the liquid and vapor phases: 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑙𝑖𝑞 + 𝑉𝑣𝑎𝑝
• Dividing by the total mass of the mixture, 𝒎, an average
specific volume for the mixture is:
𝑉 𝑉𝑙𝑖𝑞 𝑉𝑣𝑎𝑝
𝑣= = +
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
• With 𝑉𝑙𝑖𝑞 = 𝑚𝑙𝑖𝑞 · 𝑣𝑓 , 𝑉𝑣𝑎𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣𝑎𝑝 · 𝑣𝑔 and
𝑚𝑣𝑎𝑝
• Combining everything and rearrange, we have, =𝑥
𝑣 = 1 − 𝑥 ∙ 𝑣 + 𝑥 ∙ 𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑥 ∙ (𝑣 − 𝑣 ) 𝑚
𝑓 𝑔 𝑓 𝑔 𝑓
Two-Phase Mixture 5
• Indeed, we can have similar expressions for other properties
for any states within the vapour dome
𝜉 = (1 − 𝑥) ∙ 𝜉𝑓 + 𝜉𝑔 = 𝜉𝑓 + 𝑥 ∙ (𝜉𝑔 − 𝜉𝑓 ) = 𝜉𝑓 + 𝑥 ∙ 𝜉𝑓𝑔
where 𝜉 can be properties such as internal energy, enthalpy
or entropy.
• Since pressure and temperature are NOT independent
properties in the two-phase liquid-vapor region, they cannot
be used to fix the state in this region.
• Instead, we have to fix the state by choosing either
temperature or pressure and the quality.
Superheated Vapour (Gas)
• In the region to the right of the saturated vapor line and at
temperatures above the critical point temperature, a
substance exists as superheated vapor.
• In this region, temperature and pressure are independent
properties.
• At a specified 𝑃, superheated vapor exists at a higher ℎ than
the saturated vapor.
𝑇 Critical Point
𝑃2 > 𝑃1

𝑃1

Saturated
Mixture
𝑣
Subcooled Liquid
• In the region to the left of the saturated liquid line, a
substance exists as subcooled liquid
• The compressed liquid properties depend on temperature
much more strongly than they do on pressure.
• A compressed liquid may be approximated as a saturated
liquid at the given temperature.
𝑇 Critical Point
𝑃2 > 𝑃1

𝑃1

Saturated
Mixture
𝑣
Reference State
• The values of 𝑢, ℎ, and 𝑠 cannot be measured directly, and are
calculated from measurable properties.
– What is computed is indeed the change in properties (𝚫𝝃), not the
values of properties at specified states.
• Typically a convenient reference state is chosen and assign a
value of zero at that state.
– Reference state for water is 0.01°C and for R-134a is -40°C in tables.
– Some properties may have negative values as a result of the reference
state chosen.
• Different tables list may set the reference state differently.
– Thus, you may find different values for the same state.
• Thermodynamics concerned with the changes in properties.
– Different reference state will have no consequence in calculations.
Ideal Gas Law 1
• Equation of state: Any equation that relates the pressure,
temperature, and specific volume of a substance.
• The simplest and best-known equation of state for substances
in the gas phase is the ideal-gas equation of state. This
equation predicts the 𝑃 − 𝑣 − 𝑇 behavior of a gas quite
accurately within some properly selected region.
• 𝑅: gas constant / 𝑀: molar mass (kg/kmol) / 𝑅𝑢 : universal gas
constant
𝑅∙𝑇
𝑃= ⟹ 𝑃∙𝑣 =𝑅∙𝑇
𝑣
𝑅𝑢 kJ
𝑅= ; 𝑅𝑢 = 8.31447
𝑀 kmol ∙ K
Ideal Gas Law 2
• 𝑚 = 𝑀 · 𝑁 (𝑚 = mass, 𝑀 = molar mass, 𝑁 = no. of moles)
• Ideal gas equation at two states for a fixed mass
𝑃1 ∙ 𝑉1 𝑃2 ∙ 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
• Various expressions (forms) of ideal gas equation
𝑉 =𝑚∙𝑣 ⟹ 𝑃∙𝑉 =𝑚∙𝑅∙𝑇
𝑚 ∙ 𝑅 = 𝑀 ∙ 𝑁 ∙ 𝑅 = 𝑁 ∙ 𝑅𝑢 ⟹ 𝑃 ∙ 𝑉 = 𝑁 ∙ 𝑅𝑢 ∙ 𝑇
𝑉 = 𝑁 ∙ 𝑣 ⟹ 𝑃 ∙ 𝑣 = 𝑅𝑢 ∙ 𝑇
• Real gases behave as an ideal gas at low densities (i.e., low
pressure, high temperature).
Ideal Gas Law 3
• P < 10 kPa, water vapor can be
treated as an ideal gas.
• At higher pressures, however,
the ideal gas assumption yields
unacceptable errors
– Especially, in the region close to the
vapour dome.
• In air-conditioning applications,
the water vapor in the air can be
treated as an ideal gas. Why?
• For power plant problems, ideal-gas
relations should not be used.
– Related pressure typically very high.
Compressibility Factor 1
• Compressibility factor, 𝑍: A factor that accounts for the
deviation of real gases from ideal-gas behavior at a given
temperature and pressure.
• The farther away 𝑍 is from unity (i.e. 1), the more the gas
deviates from ideal-gas behavior.
𝑃∙𝑣 𝑣actual
𝑍= ⟹ 𝑃∙𝑣 =𝑍∙𝑅∙𝑇; 𝑍 =
𝑅∙𝑇 𝑣ideal
• Gases behave as an ideal gas at low densities (i.e., low
pressure, high temperature).
• What is the criteria for low pressure and high temperature?
– The pressure or temperature of a gas is high or low relative to its
critical temperature or pressure.
Compressibility Factor 2
• Reduced temperature, pressure
𝑃 𝑇
𝑃𝑅 = ; 𝑇𝑅 =
𝑃𝑐𝑟 𝑇𝑐𝑟
• Pseudo-reduced specific volume
𝑣actual
𝑣𝑅 =
𝑅 ∙ 𝑇𝑐𝑟 𝑃𝑐𝑟
• One can assume ideal gas behaviour when
– 𝑃𝑅 ≪ 1
– 𝑇𝑅 > 2 unless 𝑃𝑅 ≫ 1 as well
• 𝑍 can also be determined from a
knowledge of 𝑃𝑅 and 𝑣𝑅 in Figures
A1 – A3.
Other Equations of State (EOS) 1
• Several equations have been proposed to represent the
𝑃 − 𝑣 − 𝑇 behavior of substances accurately over a larger
region with no limitations.
• Many of these equations of cubic order or higher
• Van de waals EOS
𝑎
𝑃+ 2 ∙ 𝑣−𝑏 =𝑅∙𝑇
𝑣
where
27 ∙ 𝑅2 ∙ 𝑇𝑐𝑟
2 𝑅 ∙ 𝑇𝑐𝑟
𝑎= ; 𝑏=
64 ∙ 𝑃𝑐𝑟 8 ∙ 𝑃𝑐𝑟
– This model accounts for the intermolecular attraction
forces and the volume occupied by the molecules .
– Accuracy of the van der Waals equation of state is often inadequate.
Other Equations of State (EOS) 2
• Virial Equation of State
𝑅 ∙ 𝑇 𝑎(𝑇) 𝑏(𝑇) 𝑐(𝑇) 𝑑(𝑇) 𝑒(𝑇)
𝑃= + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + ⋯⋯
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
– The coefficients 𝑎(𝑇), 𝑏(𝑇), 𝑐(𝑇), and so on, that are functions of
temperature alone are called virial coefficients.
– They can be found in property tables.
• Redlich-Kwong EOS is another Several real gas EOS
two-parameter EOS very frequently used
– Produces accurate result over a wide range of
thermal state
– An updated version Soave-Redlich-Kwong EOS
can satisfactorily applied for water vapour at
high pressure
Other Equations of State (EOS) 3
Linear Interpolation
• When a state does not fall exactly on the grid of values
provided by property tables, linear interpolation between
adjacent entries is needed.
• Example: Specific volume (𝑣) associated with superheated
water vapor at 1000 kPa and 215°C is found by linear
interpolation between adjacent entries in the table.
(0.2275 − 0.2060) (𝑣 − 0.2060) m3
Slope = = ⟹ 𝑣 = 0.21404
(240 − 200) (215 − 200) kg

P = 1 MPa
T [°C] v [m3/kg]
200 0.2060
215 v=?
240 0.2275
240
Linear Interpolation 2
• A two-step procedure might be needed
• Suppose we want the specific volume at 𝑃 = 1.1 MPa and
𝑇 = 220°C
– Table only has 𝑃 = 1 MPa and 1.2 MPa and 𝑇 = 200°C and 250°C.
– First, we interpolate for specific volume at 220°C at both
𝑃 = 1 MPa and 1.2 MPa using the same procedure in the previous
page, i.e. find 𝑣1 and 𝑣2.
– Then, we shall use 𝑃 = 1 and 1.2 MPa and 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 to find 𝑣3.
𝑃 = 1 MPa 𝑃 = 1.1 MPa 𝑃 = 1.2 MPa
𝑇 [°C] 𝑣 [m3/kg] 𝑇 [°C] 𝑣 [m3/kg] 𝑇 [°C] 𝑣 [m3/kg]
200 0.20602 200 0.16326
220 v = v1 220 v = v3 220 v = v2
250 0.23275 250 0.16394
Internal Energy and Enthalpy 1
Ideal Gases

• Specific internal energy for ideal gas depends only on

temperature.
• Therefore, the specific heat for constant volume, 𝐶𝑣 , is also a
function of temperature only. That is,
𝑑𝑢
𝐶𝑣 𝑇 = ⋯ ⋯ for ideal gas only
𝑑𝑇
• Integrate between states 1 and 2, we get
𝑇2
𝑢 𝑇2 − 𝑢 𝑇1 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑇1
• Similarly for enthalpy, except 𝐶𝑣 is replaced by 𝐶𝑝
𝑇2
ℎ 𝑇2 − ℎ 𝑇1 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑇1
Internal Energy and Enthalpy 2
Ideal Gases

• In cases where the specific heats are constants, we then have

the following simplified equations.
∆𝑢 = 𝑢 𝑇2 − 𝑢 𝑇1 = 𝐶𝑣 ∙ 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
∆ℎ = ℎ 𝑇2 − ℎ 𝑇1 = 𝐶𝑝 ∙ 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
• These expressions are inappropriate if there is a large
variation in temperature, say 𝑇2 ≫ 𝑇1
– 𝐶𝑝 and 𝐶𝑣 are weak functions of temperature
• For several common gases, evaluation of changes in specific
internal energy and enthalpy is facilitated by use of the ideal
gas tables A-22 and A-23.
– Note that the properties are typically in terms of molar units.
Internal Energy and Enthalpy 3
Ideal Gases

• The ratio of specific heat capacity is given by,

𝐶𝑝
𝑘=
𝐶𝑣
– 𝑘 is almost constant for a given gas
– Often, it is designated as 𝛾, especially in heat transfer
– For diatomic ideal gases, it is about 1.4
– For monoatomic ideal gases, it is about 1.66
• For idea gas, we have,
𝑘∙𝑅 𝑅
𝐶𝑝 = and 𝐶𝑣 =
𝑘−1 𝑘−1