1.

Nature of Psychology  Cognitive Perspective:

Psychology, as a field, originally meant "the study of the soul" and has its roots in ancient Greek philosophy, particularly This perspective looks at how we think, process information, and perceive the world. Cognitive
with figures like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. However, psychology has evolved into a scientific discipline focused on psychologists study mental processes like memory, decision-making, and problem-solving to
studying human behavior and mental processes. understand behavior.
 Feldman (1990) defined psychology as the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. This  Humanistic Perspective:
means that psychology is not just about feelings or thoughts but looks at observable behavior and also tries to Led by figures like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, this approach focuses on the positive aspects
understand mental functions like thinking and emotions. of human nature. It emphasizes free will, personal growth, and the ability of individuals to lead
 Behavior is the main subject of study, and it can be broken down into two types: meaningful, productive lives. Humanistic psychology believes that people are not just driven by
Overt behavior: Any action that can be directly seen or measured, such as walking, talking, or instincts or unconscious forces but can make choices and shape their own futures.
typing. These are behaviors you can observe without guessing what’s happening internally.  Socio-cultural Perspective:
Covert behavior: These are hidden processes like thoughts, emotions, or internal bodily functions This perspective emphasizes the impact of society and culture on behavior. It argues that to fully
(like heartbeats). Covert behaviors are not directly observable but can be studied through understand human behavior, we need to consider the social and cultural context in which the
psychological experiments and measurements. person lives. For example, traditions, norms, and group influences are important in shaping
2. Goals of Psychology individual behavior.
The purpose of psychology is to achieve several goals related to understanding and influencing behavior: 5. Methods of Psychological Research
 Describe: Psychologists aim to describe behaviors clearly. For example, they might describe what aggression  Archival Research: Using existing data such as historical records, diaries, or reports to answer research
looks like in different contexts (e.g., yelling, physical violence). questions.
 Explain: Beyond describing, psychologists aim to explain why certain behaviors occur, using theories and  Survey Method: Involves collecting data from a large group of people using tools like questionnaires and
research. interviews to study their behaviors, thoughts, or feelings.
 Predict: By understanding behavior, psychologists try to predict future behaviors. For instance, they might  Naturalistic Observation: Observing and recording behavior as it happens naturally without any interference
predict that someone under a lot of stress might show signs of anxiety. from the researcher.
 Change: Sometimes, the goal is to change behavior in a way that helps individuals function better. For  Correlation Method: Measures how two variables are related. For example, it could look at whether higher
instance, psychologists might work with a person to reduce unhealthy habits like smoking. stress levels are related to higher blood pressure. But correlation does not mean one thing causes the other.
3. Brief History of Psychology
 Case Study: An in-depth examination of a single person or group, using interviews, tests, and observations to
Psychology became a formal scientific discipline in the late 19th century. One of the pivotal moments was in 1879, when
gather detailed data.
Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. He studied human reactions to stimuli,
marking psychology’s transition to being a scientific field. This led to the development of different schools of thought:  Experimental Method: The most scientific approach, where variables are manipulated to find cause-and-
effect relationships.
 Structuralism:
6. Fields of Psychology
Founded by Edward Titchener, this school of thought focuses on breaking down mental processes
into their most basic components (e.g., sensations, feelings, and thoughts). It used introspection,  Experimental Psychology: Focuses on studying psychological processes like learning and memory.
where individuals analyze their own internal experiences.  Developmental Psychology: Studies how behavior and mental processes change over the lifespan, from
 Functionalism: infancy to old age.
In contrast to structuralism, William James argued that it’s more important to study how mental  Abnormal Psychology: Focuses on mental disorders and abnormal behavior patterns.
processes help people adapt to their environments, rather than focusing on the structure of the  Clinical Psychology: Involves diagnosing and treating psychological disorders.
mind.
 Forensic Psychology: Applies psychology in legal contexts, such as understanding criminal behavior or helping
 Behaviorism: courts assess the mental state of a defendant.
John Watson introduced behaviorism in the early 20th century. This perspective shifted the focus 7. Major Themes in Psychology
to observable and measurable behavior, excluding inner thoughts and emotions. The idea was that
 Empiricism: Psychology is based on empirical evidence, meaning it relies on observation and data, rather than
to be scientific, psychology must rely on what can be publicly observed.
intuition or opinion.
 Gestalt Psychology:
 Theoretical Diversity: Different theories contribute to our understanding of behavior. No single theory can
Developed by Max Wertheimer and colleagues, Gestalt psychology emphasized that humans
explain everything.
perceive things as whole forms rather than in isolated parts. It famously stated, “the whole is
greater than the sum of its parts,” meaning our perception is more than just assembling individual
 Socio-historical Context: Psychology is shaped by and shapes society. For example, societal changes can
influence research topics, while psychological findings can impact societal norms.
sensory inputs.
4. Current Perspectives in Psychology  Multiple Causes: Behavior is often the result of many factors interacting together, rather than one single
 Psychoanalytic Perspective:
cause.
Introduced by Sigmund Freud, this approach emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind and  Heredity and Environment: Both genetics and the environment play roles in shaping behavior.
childhood experiences in shaping behavior. Freud believed that hidden thoughts, memories, and  Subjectivity: Our understanding of the world is influenced by personal biases and subjective experiences.
desires from our past influence our current behavior, even if we are unaware of them.
Human Development: A. Prenatal Stage
Human development is about how people change over time. These changes can be categorized into two types:
1. Quantitative Change: Refers to measurable changes, like an increase in height, weight, or vocabulary. The prenatal stage lasts approximately nine months (280 days) and is divided into three key periods:
2. Qualitative Change: Involves changes in the nature or structure of an individual’s capabilities, such as moving
1. Period of the Zygote (Germinal Period)
from non-verbal communication to speaking and understanding language.
Determinants of Development  Conception to the second week.
Two essential factors influence human development: heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).  The zygote forms when a sperm fertilizes an egg, leading to cell division and the
Heredity formation of a blastocyst.
 Genetic Transmission: The process starts at conception when a sperm cell from the father fertilizes an egg cell  The blastocyst travels to the uterus and implants itself in the uterine lining.
from the mother, forming a zygote. The zygote contains genes, which are hereditary units that pass on
 The blastocyst develops into three layers:
characteristics. The zygote is composed of the cytoplasm and the nucleus. The nucleus contains the genes, the
 Ectoderm: Becomes the skin, hair, teeth, sensory organs, and nervous
basic hereditary units that transmit genetic characteristics from parents to the children.
system.
 Dominant and Recessive Genes:
 Mesoderm: Forms the muscles, skeleton, and circulatory/excretory systems.
Dominant genes express their traits whenever present (e.g., brown hair). Fully expressed in the
phenotype (phenotype – appearance).
 Endoderm: Develops into Eustachian tube, trachea, lungs, gastrointestinal
tract and the endocrine glands.
Recessive genes express traits only when paired with another recessive gene (e.g., blonde hair).
2. Period of the Embryo
Only when inherited from both parents.
 Second week to the third month of pregnancy.
 The embryo develops major organs and structures, including a rudimentary heart, brain,
and intestinal tract.
 By the eighth week, the embryo is about an inch long, with recognizable arms, legs, and
facial features.
3. Period of the Fetus
 Third month until birth.
 Significant growth and maturation occur, with movements becoming noticeable to the
mother around 16 to 18 weeks.
 The fetus develops hair and facial features that will be present at birth. Major organs
begin functioning, but the fetus cannot survive outside the womb until later stages.
Genetic Influences on the Fetus
1. Phenylketonuria (PKU): An inherited condition leading to mental retardation due to the inability to metabolize
phenylalanine. Early detection and a special diet can prevent severe outcomes.
2. Sickle-Cell Anemia: A disorder caused by abnormal shape of the victim’s red blood cells, prevalent in African
American. Children with this disorder may have poor appetites, swollen stomach, and yellowish eyes; they
frequently die during childhood.
3. Tay-Sachs Disease: A fatal disorder affecting lipid metabolism, most common in individuals of Eastern
European Jewish descent, usually resulting in death by age 3.
Other Genetic Abnormalities (Mutation-Based)
1. Down Syndrome: Caused by an extra chromosome (47 total), characterized by distinct physical features
(round face and slanted eyes) and varying degrees of intellectual disability. Also called mongolism.
2. Turner Syndrome: Occurs when a female has only one X chromosome (45 total), leading to underdeveloped
ovaries and possible cognitive impairments.
3. Klinefelter Syndrome: Occurs in males with an extra X chromosome (47 total), leading to underdeveloped
 Chromosomes: Humans have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. The last pair determines sex: XX for testes, female-like breast and mental retardation.
females and XY for males. 4. XYY Syndrome: A condition in males with an extra Y chromosome (47 total), often resulting in tall stature and
Environment increased aggression.
 Influence of Environment: While genetics provide potential, the environment shapes how these potentials Prenatal Environmental Influences
develop. 1. Mother’s Nutrition: Poor nutrition can lead to low birth weight and developmental issues.
 Factors: Includes food, sounds, social interactions, and experiences. For instance, children raised in isolation 2. Mother’s Illness: Infections like rubella can cause severe birth defects (prenatal death, blindness, deafness,
may struggle with social relationships. and heart abnormalities). Other maternal conditions (e.g., diabetes, AIDS) can impact fetal health.
Stages of Development 3. Drugs: Substances like thalidomide (causing limb deformities), alcohol causes mental retardation, low birth
weight, small head and limb deformities. Nicotine causes premature birth, low birth weight and length.
Human development is typically divided into two main stages: prenatal (before birth) and postnatal (after birth). Here, 4. Mother’s Age: Younger mothers (under 18) and older mothers (over 35) have a higher risk of complications
we’ll focus on the prenatal stage, which can be further divided into three periods: and conditions like Down syndrome.
B. Postnatal Development  Physical health and peak physical condition are typically at their best during this stage.
1. Infancy 8. Middle Adulthood
 Birth to 2 weeks.  40 to 60 years.
 Major adjustment for the infant, as they are physically separated from the mother.  This period is often considered the peak of career and social status, with many
 Infants are entirely dependent on caregivers for survival, requiring constant care and individuals achieving their goals and establishing authority.
nurturing.  Experiences related to aging may begin, including physical changes and potential health
 This stage is marked by significant reflexive behaviors, such as rooting and sucking, issues.
which are essential for feeding.  Reflecting on life achievements and planning for retirement often occur during this
2. Babyhood stage.
 2 weeks to 2 years. 9. Late Adulthood
 Rapid growth and development; infants gain motor skills and begin to move  60 years onward.
independently (crawling, standing, walking).  Marked by physical and cognitive decline, including decreased mobility and memory.
 Development of communication skills begins, with the emergence of babbling and first  Reproductive capacity ceases for both genders.
words.  Individuals may face significant life changes, such as retirement and loss of loved ones,
 Sense of self-awareness starts to develop, leading to initial explorations of the leading to a need for adaptation to a new lifestyle.
environment. Theories of Development
3. Early Childhood 1. Psychosocial Theory (Erik Erikson)
 2 to 6 years.  Erikson’s psychosocial theory posits that individuals encounter a series of eight psychosocial crises throughout
 Known as the “questioning stage” as children become curious and ask numerous their life. Each stage presents a conflict that must be resolved to develop a healthy personality and acquire
questions about their surroundings. basic virtues.
 Children may exhibit temper tantrums and emotional outbursts as they navigate their  Stages:
emerging independence and social interactions.
 This stage is also called “preschool age”, it precedes the time that the child is supposed
to attend formal aschooling.
4. Late Childhood
 6 years to puberty (around 11-12 years).
 Often referred to as the “gang age,” as children begin to socialize more with peers.
 Formal schooling typically begins, with children expected to learn basic academic
subjects.
 Children develop a sense of competence and may feel the need to prove their
knowledge to others, often believing they "know everything." (smart age)
5. Puberty
 Overlaps late childhood and adolescence (approximately 10-14 years for girls, 12-16 years for
boys).
 Marked by significant physical changes driven by hormonal activity.
 The activation of the gonads (ovaries in females, testes in males) leads to the
production of sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone), resulting in physical
maturation.
 This stage is critical for the development of secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., breast
development, body hair).
6. Adolescence
 Begins after puberty and lasts until around 18 years.
 Often a time of emotional instability and identity crisis, as individuals navigate self-
discovery.
 Characterized by curiosity about relationships and sexuality, often accompanied by
aggressive behavior and awkwardness. 2. Cognitive Development Theory (Jean Piaget)
 Towards the end of adolescence, individuals begin to stabilize emotionally and take on  Piaget’s theory focuses on how children construct their understanding of the world through stages of
greater social and legal responsibilities (e.g., driving, working). cognitive development. He proposed that children actively participate in their learning and understanding.
7. Early Adulthood
 18 to approximately 40 years.
 Individuals undergo adjustments related to work, marriage, and parenthood.
 Development of intimacy and establishment of deeper relationships become prominent.
  Stages: 4. Moral Development Theory (Lawrence Kohlberg)
 Kohlberg extended Piaget’s work on moral reasoning, proposing a theory of moral development that occurs in
three levels, each containing two stages.
 Levels:

3. Psychosexual Development (Sigmund Freud)

 Freud’s theory posits that early childhood experiences shape personality development through a series of
psychosexual stages. Each stage focuses on a different area of the body that becomes the focus of a child’s
pleasure.
 Stages:
Neurological and Physiological Bases of Behavior Divisions of the Nervous System
Understanding Behavior through the Human Body I. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
 Behavior is closely linked to the proper functioning of the human body. Abnormal behaviors may arise if the  Comprises nerves located outside the brain and spinal cord, responsible for conducting impulses to and from
body does not operate correctly. the CNS.
The Nervous System  Main Divisions:
 The nervous system is an electro-chemical network that transmits messages throughout the body, facilitating 1. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Regulates the activities of glands, internal organs, and smooth
communication and regulating behavior. (involuntary) muscles. Important in emotional behavior, with two subdivisions:
 Composed of specialized cells called neurons (nerve cells), which serve as the primary communication units.  Sympathetic Nervous System: Activates during emotional and stressful situations.
Neuron Structure and Functions Functions include:
Neurons are the cells of the nervous system. They act as conducting units of the nervous  Increases heart rate
system. Their primary function is to transmit messages to and from the nervous system. A  Elevates blood pressure
neuron has three general functions:  Increases respiration rate
 Dendrites: Tree-like branches that receive chemical messages from other neurons.  Triggers adrenaline rush
 Cell Body: Contains the cytoplasm and nucleus; acts as the integrating center for the neuron.  Parasympathetic Nervous System: Dominates during relaxed states. Functions include:
 Axon: An elongated fiber that transmits messages away from the cell body. It is insulated by a fatty layer called  Slows heart rate
the myelin sheath.  Normalizes blood pressure and respiration
 Terminal Buttons: Located at the end of the axon, they convert electrochemical signals into chemical Facilitates digestion
messages (neurotransmitters) for transmission to other neurons. 2. Somatic Nervous System: Composed of nerves that organize voluntary movements. It includes:
Neurotransmitters and Their Roles  Sensory Nerves: Carry information from sense receptors to the CNS.
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that influence various aspects of behavior. Key neurotransmitters include:  Motor Nerves: Send signals from the CNS to muscles, instructing them to contract or
1. Acetylcholine (Ach) relax (e.g., movements of arms, legs, trunk).
 The first neurotransmitter to be discovered. II. Central Nervous System (CNS)
 Stimulates muscles and is involved in REM (dream) sleep.
 Comprises the brain, brainstem, and spinal cord. It serves as the integrating center for all behaviors and bodily
 It can cause muscular paralysis or convulsions if excessive and memory
functions.
 impairment if deficient.
 Deficiency linked to Alzheimer’s disease, causing memory loss and personality changes.  Components:
2. Dopamine 1. Spinal Cord:
 Inhibitory neurotransmitter associated with reward mechanisms.  Acts as a pathway for messages to and from the brain.
 Excess leads to schizophrenia, excessive amounts of dopamine in the frontal  Serves as the site for some reflex actions.
 lobes; too little dopamine in the motor areas of the brain are responsible for Parkinson’s disease. 2. Brainstem: Connects the brain to the spinal cord and consists of:
3. Serotonin  Pons: A relay center for motor impulses, continuous with the spinal cord.
 Inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in mood and emotion regulation.  Medulla Oblongata: Located at the brain's hind part; involved in vital functions like
 Deficiency linked to depression, problems with anger control, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and respiration, heartbeat, and blood circulation.
suicide.
 Reticular Activating System: Regulates sleep, waking, and alertness.
4. Endorphins
3. Brain:
 Similar to opioids; involved in pain reduction and pleasure.
 Regulates responses to pain and can aid in hibernation in some animals.
 The most complex structure in the body, never resting even during sleep.
5. Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid (GABA)  Composed of three concentric layers:
 Primarily inhibitory, moderates various behaviors.  Central Core:
 GABA acts like a brake to the excitatory neurotransmitters that lead to anxiety.  Cerebellum: Coordinates motor control (posture and balance).
 Valium enhances the effects of GABA  Thalamus: Relay center for information from the lower brain to
 Deficiency leads to loss of muscle coordination, anxiety disorders and potential for epilepsy. various brain centers.
6. Norepinephrine  Hypothalamus: Regulates sexual behavior, body temperature,
 Prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses; increases heart rate and blood pressure. sleep, eating, drinking, emotional responses, and endocrine
 Important for forming memories. activities.
 Deficiency linked to depression; excess may result in manic states.  Limbic System:
7. Glutamate
 Includes the hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and other
 Glutamate is an excitatory relative of GABA.
structures.
 Excitatory neurotransmitter crucial for memory.
 Excess can be toxic to neurons, contributing to conditions like ALS (Lou Gehrig's disease) and other
 Primarily responsible for emotional life and memory formation.
neurological disorders.  Hippocampus: Crucial for memory formation; damage leads to
inability to form new memories.
  Amygdala: Involved in emotional responses (aggression, sexual 4. Parathyroid Glands:
behavior). Stimulation can provoke aggression; removal can lead  Four glands located on the posterior surface of the thyroid.
to reduced aggression.  Secretes parathormone, which regulates calcium levels in the blood.
 Cerebrum:  Malfunctions can result in muscular spasms (tetany).
5. Thymus:
 Covered by the cerebral cortex, which controls higher intelligence
 Located over the heart and in the neck, responsible for the maturation of T-lymphocytes (T-cells)
functions (discrimination, learning, thinking).
involved in immune response.
 Divided into left and right hemispheres linked by the corpus
6. Adrenal Glands:
callosum:
 Positioned atop each kidney; composed of adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex.
 Left Hemisphere: Controls right side of the body;  Medulla secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline for stress response.
involved in numerical, linguistic, and logical  Cortex secretes hormones called cortin controlling metabolism of carbohydrates and functioning of
processing. the reproductive organs.
 Right Hemisphere: Controls left side of the body; 7. Pancreas (Isles of Langerhans):
involved in artistic activities and spatial understanding.  Located posterior to the stomach, secretes insulin (lowers blood sugar) and glucagon (raises blood
 Divided into four lobes: sugar).
1. Frontal Lobe: Contains motor and speech areas (Broca’s area for speech production). Damage results in  Malfunctions can lead to diabetes mellitus (excess sugar) or hypoglycemia (low sugar).
Broca’s aphasia. 8. Sex Glands (Gonads):
2. Parietal Lobe: Involved in skin sensations (touch, temperature, pain).  Male: testes produce testosterone (responsible for male sexual characteristics).
3. emporal Lobe: Contains auditory areas, centers for taste and smell, and Wernicke’s area (for understanding  Female: ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone (regulating female sexual characteristics and
speech). Damage results in Wernicke’s aphasia (difficulty understanding speech). pregnancy).
4. Occipital Lobe: The visual center of the brain.  Malfunctions can result in sexual dysfunction, sterility, or abnormal sexual development.
Studying the Brain’s Structure and Functions Sensation and Perception
Modern technology allows scientists to study the brain using various brain scanning techniques, which include: Meaning of Sensation
1. Electroencephalogram (EEG):  Sensation is the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus
 Records electrical signals transmitted within the brain. energies from our environment.
 Electrodes are placed on the scalp to detect brain activity.
2. Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) Scan:
 The sensory system includes various receptors located in the body, commonly referred to as sense organs.
These organs act as gateways, allowing us to experience the world around us. The primary sense organs
 Combines thousands of X-ray images taken from different angles to create a detailed image of the
include:
brain.
 Eyes (vision)
3. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Scan:
 Ears (hearing)
 Uses powerful magnetic fields to generate detailed, computer-generated images of brain
 Nose (smell)
structures.
 Tongue (taste)
4. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan:
 Skin (touch)
 Shows biochemical activity within the brain at a specific moment.
 Involves injecting glucose to produce colored images reflecting brain activity.  Additional receptors are present in muscles, joints, and tendons, contributing to our perception of movement
The Endocrine System and position.
The endocrine system works alongside the nervous system to coordinate and control behavior. It comprises ductless The Sensory Systems
glands that release hormones into the bloodstream, influencing various bodily functions. A. The Visual Sense (Sense of Sight)
Major Glands of the Endocrine System  Stimulus: Light, an electromagnetic energy measured in wavelengths (400-700 nm for visible light).
1. Pituitary Gland (hypophysis):
 Known as the master gland, secretes hormones that influence the activities of
 the other endocrine glands in the body, located at the base of the skull.
 Controlled by the hypothalamus and influences other endocrine glands.
 Malfunctions can lead to disorders such as dwarfism, gigantism, acromegaly, and diabetes
insipidus.
2. Pineal Gland:
 Also called pineal body, epiphysis cerebri, or epiphysis
 Tiny structure at the base of the brain, shaped like a pine cone.
 Produces melatonin, which regulates sleep/wake cycles and seasonal functions.
3. Thyroid Gland:
 Butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the throat.
 Secretes thyroxin, regulating metabolism.
 Malfunctions can lead to hyperthyroidism (overactivity) make the individual easily tired and
irritable or hypothyroidism (underactivity) Myxedema.
  Parts of the Eye: Perception
 Cornea: Transparent membrane that lets light in.  Perception is the brain’s process of interpreting sensory information to give it meaning (Santrock, 1988). It
 Aqueous Humor: Fluid that light passes through. occurs after sensation; that is, the body first detects stimuli before the brain interprets them.
 Pupil: Opening in the iris that regulates light entry; dilates in dim light and constricts in bright light. II. Shape Perception
 Lens: Adjusts focus based on object distance; curvature is modified by the ciliary muscles. Gestalt psychology emphasizes how we organize patterns and group shapes in our perceptual world. The key principles
 Vitreous Humor: Fluid that fills the eye behind the lens. are:
 Retina: Contains photoreceptors (rods and cones). 1. Principle of Proximity: Objects that are near each other tend to be perceived as a unit.
 Rods: Function in low light; responsible for night vision. 2. Principle of Similarity: Objects that are similar to each other tend to be grouped together.
 Cones: Responsible for color vision and function in bright light. 3. Principle of Good Continuation: We tend to perceive smooth, continuous lines rather than discontinuous
 Fovea: Area in the retina where vision is sharpest. fragments.
 Blind Spot: Point where the optic nerve leaves the eye. 4. Principle of Closure: A figure with a gap will be perceived as a closed, intact figure, completing the missing
B. The Auditory Sense (Sense of Hearing) parts.
III. Visual Illusions
 Stimulus: Sound, created by atmospheric pressure changes that cause air molecules to vibrate.
 Visual Illusions are stimuli that consistently produce errors in perception, leading to judgments that do not
 Parts of the Ear:
accurately reflect the physical reality of the stimulus.
 Outer Ear: Includes the pinna, auditory canal, and eardrum (tympanic membrane).
 Middle Ear: Contains three bones (ossicles: hammer, anvil, stirrup) that transmit sound vibrations.  An example of a visual illusion is the Muller-Lyer illusion, where lines of equal length appear different due to
 Inner Ear: Includes the oval window, cochlea, and organ of Corti. the orientation of arrows at their ends.
IV. Extra-Sensory Perception (ESP)
 Cochlea: Fluid-filled structure where sound waves are transformed into nerve impulses
ESP refers to perception occurring through non-normal sensory processes—essentially perception without sensation. The
by hair cells in the organ of Corti, which are stimulated by vibrations of the basilar
forms of ESP include:
membrane.
1. Telepathy: The transfer of thoughts between two individuals.
 The auditory nerve carries these impulses to the temporal lobe of the brain.
2. Precognition: The ability to perceive events before they occur, involving knowledge of future information that
C. Olfactory Sense (Sense of Smell)
cannot be deduced from current information or the laws of physics.
 Stimulus: Airborne chemicals that enter the nasal passages and activate the olfactory bulbs located in the 3. Clairvoyance: The ability to gain information about an object, person, location, or event through means other
olfactory epithelium. than the known human senses.
 Key Points: 4. Psychokinesis (Telekinesis): The ability to move objects without physical contact.
 Henning proposed six basic odors: fragrant, fruity, spicy, putrid, resinous, and burned. 5. Astral Projection: A type of out-of-body experience (OBE) where the astral body separates from the physical
 Anosmia: A disorder characterized by a loss of smell, which can result from drug reactions or body, allowing it to travel anywhere in the universe. This can involve experiences of hovering above one’s
illnesses. body or perceiving surroundings from a distance during a near-death experience.
D. Gustatory Sense (Sense of Taste)
 Stimulus: Soluble substances that dissolve in saliva and activate the taste buds.
 Parts of the Tongue:
 Approximately 10,000 taste buds are found in the papillae (bumps on the tongue).
 Respond to four primary tastes:
 Sweet: Concentrated at the tip of the tongue.
 Sour: Found along the edges.
 Bitter: Concentrated at the back.
 Salty: Found along the sides.
 Flavor: A combination of taste, smell, texture, and sometimes pain.
E. Somesthetic Sense (Skin Senses)
 The skin is the largest sensory organ, consisting of three layers:
 Epidermis: The outer layer.
 Dermis: The intermediate layer.
 Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue: The innermost layer.
 Skin receptors detect touch, temperature (warmth and cold), and pain.
F. Kinesthetic Sense
 Provides information about movement, posture, and orientation.
 Receptors are located in muscles, joints, and tendons, helping us maintain balance and control our
movements.