LSVAS401: ROAD ALIGNMENT AND SETTING OUT

COMPETENCE: Perform Road Alignment and Setting Out

By the end of the module, the trainee will be able to:

LU.1. Apply horizontal alignment.

1.1. Suitable identification of road elements according to the road cross section.
1.2. Appropriate determination of horizontal curve elements in accordance with road geometry.
1.3. Proper pegging of aligned points according to the project type.

LU.2. Apply Vertical alignment.

2.2. Proper identification of road elements according to the vertical road geometry.
2.2. Appropriate determination of vertical curve elements in accordance with road geometry.
2.3. Proper marking of vertical alignment according to type of terrain

LU.3. Conduct setting out

3.1. Precise setting out of horizontal curves according to their types.

3.2. Proper setting out of vertical curves according to their types.
3.3. Methodical setting of road layer levels according to road design

LU.1. Apply horizontal alignment.

TERMINOLOGY: 1.1. General terms:

a) Road: is a wide way leading from one place to another, especially one that vehicles can use.
b) Highway: is a public road, especially a major road connecting two or more destinations. It is a road that
serves continuing traffic and is the primary route between communities

c) Traffic: means the total volume of vehicles encountered in both directions on the road in the considered
period.
d) Carriageway: is a part of the road arranged to receive movement of vehicles. This is the part of a road
designed to withstand the weight or loading by traffic. It is also known as “pavement”. It is that part of the
road constructed for use by moving traffic, including auxiliary lanes, climbing lanes and passing places.
e) Lane: Is a part of carriageway (roadway) within a road marked out for use by a single line of vehicles in
such a way as to control and guide drivers for the purpose of reducing traffic conflicts.
f) Climbing lane: An auxiliary lane provided on an up gradient for use by slow moving vehicles and to
facilitate overtaking.
g) Passing place: It is known as “passing lane” or “overtaking lane” and is nearest the centre of the road. it is
defined as a local widening of a narrow carriageway (motorway) to enable vehicles to pass or overtake each
other.
h) Platform: This is used in road design to say the area occupied by carriageway and shoulders.
i) Shoulder: Is a lateral surface located on either sides of carriageway, reserved only for pedestrians, and in
some cases is designed as part of carriageway. Shoulders are named “Sidewalks” when are located in urban
paved or asphaltic roads.
j) Kerb: Is stone, brick or concrete device built along the carriageway edges to separate this and shoulders. On
highways, kerbs can be used to separate lanes of carriageway and hence, termed “median”.
k) Hump: A physical obstruction normally of semi-circular profile, placed transversely on the surface of the
carriageway for the purpose of reducing traffic speed.
l) Ramp: is a slope or inclined surface for joining two different levels, as at the entrance.
m) Geometric element: An individual horizontal or vertical curve, transition curve, gradient, or straight
section of road.
n) Horizontal alignment: The direction and course of the centre line of the road in plan.
o) Vertical alignment: The direction and course of the centre line of the road in profile (vertical).
p) Geometric (design) standards: Guidelines for limiting values of road alignment and cross-section design.
q) Right-of-way: The physical extent of the right of access that is granted in association with a road.
Roadbed — The graded portion of a highway prepared as a foundation for the pavement structure and
shoulders
Roadside — The area between the outside shoulder edge and the right-of-way limits. The area between
roadways of a divided highway may also be considered roadside
Right-of-Way— Real property necessary for the project, including roadway, buffer areas, access, and drainage
areas.
Structures— Bridges, culverts, catch basins, drop inlets, retaining walls, cribbing, manholes, endwalls,
buildings, sewers, service pipes, underdrains, foundation drains, and other constructed features that may be
encountered in the work.
Subgrade — The top surface of a roadbed upon which the pavement structure, shoulders, and curbs are
constructed
Subbase — The layer or layers of material placed on a subgrade to support a base
Road Classification Concepts

The primary purpose or function of a road and street network is to serve the need to travel for all modes of
transport, including walking. A road network must therefore connect origins and destinations for all potential
users i.e. make it possible for people and goods to go efficiently and safely from any one place to any other.

Classification of roads based on many factors such as materials, locations, traffic etc. are discussed

Classification or Types of Roads

The roads are classified based on many factors as follows.

 Materials
 Location & function
 Traffic volume
 Width
 Economy
 Traffic type
 Rigidity
 Topography

Types of Roads Based on Materials

  Earthen roads
 Gravel roads
 Murrum roads
 Kankar roads
 WBM roads
 Bituminous roads
 Concrete roads

Earthen Roads

Earthen roads are laid with soil. They are cheaper of all types of roads. This type of road is provided for less
traffic areas and or for countryside areas. Good drainage system should be required which reflects good
performance for longer period.

Gravel Roads

Gravel roads are also low quality roads but they are good when compared to earthen roads. Compacted mixture
of gravel and earth is used as pavement material in this case.

Murrum Roads

Murrum is a matter obtained from the disintegration of igneous rocks by weathering agencies. This is used to
make roads called as murrum roads.
WBM Roads

Water Bound Macadam (WBM) roads contain crushed stone aggregate in its base course. The aggregates are
spread on the surface and these are rolled after sprinkling water.

Bituminous Roads

Bituminous roads are very popular roads around the world. They are most used roads in the world. They are
low in cost and good for driving conditions. They are flexible and thickness of bituminous roads depends upon
the subgrade soil conditions
Concrete Roads

Cement concrete is used to construct the pavements in case of concrete roads. These are very popular and
costlier than all other types of roads. They are not flexible so, they require less maintenance.

Concrete roads are suitable for high traffic areas. Concrete roads are laid with joints and time of construction is
more.

Types of Roads Based on Location

 National highways
 State highways
 District roads
 Rural roads or village roads

National Highways

National highways are main roads of a particular country. They connects all major cities to the capital of the
country. They run throughout the length and breadth of the country. Minimum two lane road is provided for
national highways
State Highways

State highways are second main roads which connect major parts of state with in it. State highway ultimately
connects to the national highways.

District Roads

District roads are provided with in the cities and connects markets and production places to state and national
highways. Two types of district roads are there namely,

 Major district roads

 Minor district roads

Major district roads connect headquarters of neighboring district with main parts of district while minor district
roads are laid with in the district.

Rural Roads or Village Roads

Village roads connects the nearby villages with each other. They lead to nearby town or district roads. Usually
low quality roads are provided as village roads because of low traffic.
Types of Roads Based on Traffic Volume

 Light traffic roads

 Medium traffic roads
 High traffic roads

Light Traffic Roads

The roads which are carrying 400 vehicles daily on an average is called light traffic roads.

Medium Traffic Roads

If a road carrying 400 to 1000 vehicles per day then it is said to be medium traffic road.

High Traffic Roads

If a road is carrying is more than 1000 vehicles per day then it is considered as high traffic road.

Types of Roads Based on Economy

 Low cost roads

 Medium cost roads
 High cost roads

The economy depend upon the location and function of roads and also on the traffic analysis

Types of Roads Based on Rigidity

 Flexible roads
 Rigid roads
Flexible Roads

Flexible roads consists flexible layer as pavement surface which require good maintenance otherwise it can be
disintegrated easily with heavy traffic. All types of roads except concrete roads are come under this category.

Rigid Roads

Rigid pavements are non-flexible and cement concrete roads are come under this category.

Types of Roads Based on Topography

 Plain area road

 Hilly area roads

Plain Area Road

The roads constructed on leveled surface is known as plain area roads.

Hilly Area Roads

Roads constructed in hilly regions are called as hill area roads or ghat roads. Generally these are provided
around the hill in spiral shape.
The functional classification is useful but there are many basis of classification such as region where the road
is located, material in which the surfacing3 is constructed from, and mode of road construction. A functional
classification of arterial, collector and street (sometimes named local or access) is simplistic; but clear
distinctions will not always be apparent on functional terms alone.
Street roads (Rural Roads): These are the lowest level in the road hierarchy. They are only sufficient to
provide appropriate access to the rural agricultural, population and commercial small centers served.

Collector roads (Secondary Roads): They have the function of linking traffic to/from rural areas, either direct
to adjacent urban centers or to the arterial road.
Arterial roads (Primary Roads): These are the main roads connecting national and international centers.

I.2. BASIC DOCUMENTS FOR ROAD DESIGN

Topographic map:
What is a map?
It is a diagrammatic representation of an area of land or sea showing physical features, cities, roads, etc.
It is a picture or representation of the Earth’s surface, showing how things are related to each other by
distances (coordinates); directions (North, South, East, West) and size.

A map is not a photograph of the earth’s surface because it can show many things that a picture cannot show.
A person who creates map as a profession is called a cartographer

A topographic map is the mostly used document in road design, especially to locate where the route6 may pass
for benefits of people to whom the project is designed for. A topographic map may contain a scale, distances,
directions, features and all other elements that helpful to read topographic map; it is better to describe some of
them as follow:

Map scale:
The scale is the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground. The map scale is
usually located in the legend box of a map, which explains the symbols and provides other important
information about the map. A map scale can be printed (written) in a variety of ways and it can be neither full
scale nor enlarged (increasing) scale but reducing scale because it always represents a large surface brought to
small page of sheet:

A ratio or Representative Fraction (RF): indicate how many units on the earth’s surface are equal to one unit
on the map. It can be expressed as “1/100,000” or “1:100,000”.
A word statement (Engineering scale): Gives a written description of map distance, such as “1Cm=1Km” to
indicate that “One centimeter equals to thousand centimeters”.
A graphical scale: It is simply line marked with distance on the ground which the map user can use along with
a ruler to determine scale on the map
How to measure distances on a map?
Use a ruler to measure the distance between the two places. If the line is quite curved, use a string to
determine the length and then measure the string. If the scale is a representative fraction, multiply the
measured distance of the ruler or string by the denominator, giving distance in the ruler units. Congratulation!

2.2. Contours:
A contour line is an imaginary line on the map joining the points of equal elevation (altitude).
On a map, elevations (vertical distances) can be represented by several methods such as shading, hachure,
contour lines and form lines. Out of these, the contour lines are most used because they directly indicate the
elevations

Contour interval:
This is the vertical distance between any two consecutive contours; and it is to be kept constant on a contour
map, otherwise, the general appearance of the map will be misreading.

The choice of proper contour interval depends upon the following considerations:
 The nature of the ground.
 The scale of the map.
 The purpose and extent of the survey.
 The time and expense of field and office-work

. Characteristics of contours:
The following characteristics features may be used while plotting or reading a contour map

1. Two contour lines of different elevations cannot cross each other. If they did, the point of intersection would
have two different elevations. However, contour lines of different elevations can intersect only in the case of
“Overhanging cliff” or “Cave”.
2. Contour lines of different elevations can unit to form one line, only in case of a “Vertical cliff”.

3. a) Contour lines close together indicate “Steep slope”.

 b) They indicate “Gentle slope”, if they are far apart
. c) They indicate “Uniform slope”, if they are equally spaced.
d) They indicate “Plan surface”, if they are a series of straight, parallel and equally spaced
4. a) A closed contour with one or more higher ones inside, it represents “a hill”.
b) A closed contour with one or more lower ones inside, it represents “a depression” without an outlet.

5. Two contour lines having the same elevations cannot unit and continue as one line. Similarly, a single
contour line cannot split into two lines. This is evident because the single line would, otherwise, indicate a
knife-edge ridge or depression which does not occur in nature. However, two different contours of the same
elevation may approach very near to each other
6. A contour line must close upon itself, though, not necessarily within the limits of the map.

7 Contour lines cross a watershed or ridgeline at right angle. They form curves of U-shape round it with the
concave side of the curve towards the higher ground.

8. Contour lines cross a valley line at right angles. They form curves of V-shape across it, with the convex side
of the curve towards the higher ground.
Uses of contours maps:

The following are some of the important uses of contour maps:

 Drawing of sections.
 Determination of intervisibility between two points.
 Tracing of contour gradients and route location.
 Measurement of drainage areas.  Calculation of reservoir capacity.

STUDY OF THEORETICAL ROUTE ON TOPOGRAPHIC MAP

II.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATION IN CHOOSING THE ROUTE LOCATION:

1.1. Introduction: A route may have three location:

 Valley location
 Cross-country location
 Ridge line location
a) In the case of valley location, the route follows the valleys and so:
 has few excessive grades (slopes).
 There is often danger of washouts and floods.
 A number of bridges may be required, to cross streams or rivers that found in this valley.
b) In the case of cross-country location, the route is located in opposition to the drainage and so:
 The route crosses the bridges very often.
 It will have steep grades.
 The construction costs along such a line may also be excessive.
c) Locations along Ridge line are:
 Relatively free from drainage problems and major drainage structures (bridges).
 Also, steep grades are encountered when the location drops into valleys or when the ridge is
regained.

General information:

The relative elevations of points may be determined from the topographic map. The notes and records may be
marked directly on map or notes may be kept separately in a narrative form.

While all notes and records are marked on the map, this shows the several routes that are practicable, the
controlling points or obligatory points such as towns, markets and production centers.

There are also important topographic features, and all other details that may possibly be helpful in the selection
of route location.

The map is supplemented by reconnaissance notes which may contain the following:

1. The character of the terrain between termini or major controlling points. The terrain may be generally
classified as level, rolling and mountainous.
 2. Possible ruling gradients.

3. Stream crossings. This tends to a careful study of flow rate, high-water elevation, flood conditions,
Character of banks, and the width of the stream. A suggested type of structure with most desirable points of
crossing should be noted on the map.

4. Information about other route crossings.

5. Obligatory points such as intermediate towns, markets or production centers. Bypass locations should be
indicated in the notes for all small towns and cities for the more important routes. Provisions should be
considered for connections of the route of these centers of population.

6. Geological characteristics of area that affect foundation for bridges, etc… The presence of rock outcrop,
swamps, varying soil types and dangerous possibility of landslides is very important.

7. Availability of building materials, labor and sites of quarries etc… nearby the proposed route.

8. Value of the land to be acquired.

s, all these points contribute in choosing the best route location as they affect economy of the route before,
during and after construction.

DIFFERENT METHODS OF TRACING ROUTE ON TOPOGRAPHIC MAP

Contour gradient tracing:

A contour plan or map is very much useful in locating the route of highway or any other communication line.

Let, on the following sketch, be required to locate a route from “A” to “B” at any acceptable gradient, say for
example 5%, having a map scale of 1 in 2000 comprise of 2m contour interval:

This length of 40m at the scale of 1 in 2000 is represented by 2cm between two successive contours.

Locating route methods:

1) With (Fig.1), take the point “A” as center of compass and with a radius representing 40m (to the same scale
as that of the contour map) draw an arc to cut the contour (102) in “a”. Similarly, with “a” as the centre, cut the
contour (104) in “b” and so on till the other remaining points such as “c” and “B” are obtained and joined by a
route (as shown on above fig.1).

In this method, the compass in combination with rule, is used to simplify the work otherwise the rule may be
used independently and only one way (route) is only proposed.

From this method, the route is made to follow the shown thick line as closely as possible.

The second method to locate a route is the use of compass, only with its preset radius. As the same way to the
previous method, take the point “A” as center of compass and with a preset radius to the same scale as that of
the contour map, an arc is to cut the contour (102) in two proposed routes.

Repeating the same process on the remaining contours with each obtained point being taken as the center to the
compass, more proposed routes occurs at the rate of 2n-1 where “n” is the number of contours. Thus, it will be
necessary to choose the best route from others in such a way that the project may be constructed and operated
with the greatest economy and utility.

 How many routes can be proposed on five consecutive contours using compass method?
 Let “n” be 5, the given number of contours. Thus, 2n-1 = 25-1 = 24 = 16 routes. Congratulation!

STUDY OF LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS-SECTIONS OF THE ROAD

LONGITUDINAL SECTIONING OF THE ROAD

Introduction:

Longitudinal section (Profile) of the road may be of two types which are the longitudinal profile of the ground
and the longitudinal profile of the project.

The longitudinal profile of the road is defined as the vertical section along its centre line.

The longitudinal sectioning is thus, the process of determining the elevations of points at short measured
intervals along a fixed line such as the centre line of highway, drainage pipe line, etc.
The fixed center line may be a single straight line or a succession of straight lines or a series of straight lines
connected by curves.

From the given contour plan (map), the section along any given direction can be drawn to know the general
shape of the ground or to use it for earthwork calculations for a given communication line in the direction of
the profile.

Longitudinal profile of the ground: From the following contour plan, let be required to draw the section along
the line “AL”.

The points in which the line “AL” intersect with various contours are projected on the “X” axis and their
corresponding heights are plotted along the “Y” axis to some scale to get the corresponding contour points
which may be joined to get the configuration of the ground surface.

Straight route like “AL” is rarely found in route design and a serie of short tangents to form a total length of
the route is frequent. Thus, the method should be changed as described in the following three stages from the
given contour plan below, on which the route “AL” is proposed:

a) Data recording from the contour map

From the above plan, the contour interval is 10metres and the horizontal equivalent is reduced to the scale of 1
in 5000. Thus, using the rule, the first tangent on the map is measured as 20mm to represent the horizontal
distance of 100m on the terrain.

Where: CI = Contour Interval (in metres) HE = Horizontal equivalent (in metres)

Remember the principle of measuring distances on the map, as described in the first chapter that: “to measure
the distance between the two places, a ruler is used. And if the scale is a representative fraction, multiply the
measured distance of the ruler or string by the denominator, giving distance in the ruler unit”.

Using the same principle, the other tangents were found and tabulated here below:

The slope is named to be negative, the descending tangent in the direction of the route (from its origin to its
destination) or positive when the tangent is in ascending position.

b) Data reviewing:

Important (wanted) elements, useful on the road drawing, are maintained by unnecessary elements exclusion as
tabulated in the example below:
Distances on the drawing paper were obtained from converted distances on terrain with drawing horizontal
scale of 1 in 800. The horizontal scale is taken according to the available size of paper to be used

PLOTTING THE LONGITUDINAL PROFILE OF THE GROUND:

The longitudinal profile of the road is usually plotted on a specially prepared paper on which the vertical scale
is much larger than the horizontal scale.

Generally, the horizontal scale is adopted as for example 1/1000. The vertical scale is not kept the same as the
horizontal scale but is balanced so that the inequalities of the ground appear more apparent.

The vertical scale is kept about 10 times the horizontal scale. This means a vertical scale of 1/100 where the
used horizontal scale is about 1/1000. The main keys to select the scale in use are: The size of paper, the total
horizontal cumulative distance and the sum of contour intervals (The highest level minus the lowest level, plus
one or two contour intervals).

On the paper, the horizontal and vertical axes are traced to meet one another. The horizontal axis, of the length
equal to the total cumulative distances, is used to indicate horizontal distances of the route and the vertical axis
for its elevations.

Below the horizontal axis, at the bottom of a paper band of adequate length to cope with the scaled length of
the route, seven horizontal columns must be traced to identify the following information on the drawing:

 The two first columns from the bottom of the paper are reserved for the indications of the project (the
first for Tangents and Curves and the second for Declivities or gradients of project).
 The third one is intended for the numbers of profile.
 The fourth from the bottom comprises the Cumulative distances which are the total distances of each
profile (gradient change) from the origin of the route.
  The fifth column is reserved for Particular distances which are the distances between two consecutive
profiles.
 The sixth column comprises Elevations of the ground.
 The Elevations of the project are indicated in the seventh column which is limited by the horizontal
axis named “Datum” or “Comparison plan”.

A Datum to any elevation is thus chosen with lowest altitude of the ground or project. It may be below the
lowest level at the distance of single or double contour interval. The name “Datum” or an abbreviation “CP”
(to mean the comparison plan) should be indicated on the upper side of horizontal axis with its corresponding
elevation in meters.

Note that:

 The vertical scale must be considered to any vertical trace marked above the datum.
 It is an obligation to respect the same vertical scale on all vertical traces of the profile.
 It is also an obligation to respect the same horizontal scale on all horizontal traces of the profile.
 By joining the determined points to each vertical trace, a broken line may be found to represent the
elevation of the ground following the axis of the route. Thus, the elevation of the ground at any
considered point may be determined by reporting that point.
 The gradient (declivity) between two consecutive points is considered to be uniform and this is really
more theoretical than practical. Hence, it is better to consider any helpful point when designing the
route and small tangents in order to do not ignore important change of gradient between two
considered points.
 It can happen that the dimensions of the paper become insufficient to cope with the succession of
declivities of the same direction. For this fact, the profile will be brought back to normal size of paper
by a height change of the datum and/or vertical scale.
 The heights and lengths on the drawing paper are measured considering both vertical and horizontal
scales but the measurements of angles are not valid (The angles cannot be SCALED).

LONGITUDINAL PROFILE OF THE PROJECT:

The longitudinal profile of the project is also made up by the broken line whose declivities are, in general,
quietly less than those of the ground and this makes its real distinction to the longitudinal profile of the
ground. Another particularity is that the longitudinal profile of the project is the road designer semi-final
decision of where the road axis may be located in relation with the ground.

How are designed, declivities of the project longitudinal profile (simply, the main longitudinal profile of
the project)?

Longitudinal profile is a succession of more than one road tangent and the road tangent declivity may be
decreased by applying one of the following methods:

a) Raising the lower elevation.

 b) Lowering the higher elevation.

c) Combination of both two above methods.

 Zero gradients may be avoided in both directions of the road (longitudinal and transverse
direction) for drainage reasons. Longitudinal gradients should preferably be not be less than 0.3
per cent for kerbed pavements, and not less than 0.2 per cent in very flat terrain.
 Zero gradients and sag vertical curves should be highly avoided on bridges.
 Consecutive tangents of high difference in declivity should be balanced to facilitate road users
the avoidance of high change in rate of either acceleration or braking.
 Long straights should be avoided as they are monotonous and cause headlight dazzle. An
improved and safer alternative is obtained by deflecting some 5–10 degrees alternately to the left
and right.

Remember the longitudinal profile principles; some of them are:

 Small negative tangent followed by immediate long positive tangent should be avoided.
 Two consecutive curves of the same vertical directions (Sag or Crest) should be avoided and balanced
to form only one curve.
 Short straights between curves in the same direction give a ‘broken-back’ appearance, and should not
be used.
 Visibility distance on crest points should be sufficient enough.
 Radius of curvature in sag curves should be large enough.
The following points may also be important in longitudinal profile plotting:
  Elevations of the project are indicated to each tangent above the line indicating the direction of each
tangent gradient (negative or positive).
 In the lower column of the longitudinal profile, the tangents and curves (as seen in horizontal
projection) should be drawn. This indication makes the possibility to know immediately how tangents
and curves tangle up.
 The longitudinal profile of the road gives the first idea to the earthworks operation. How this?

 When the line of the project is below the line of the ground, the cut will be needed and the surface
between the two lines is represented by oblique hatchings.
 In the opposite case, where the line of the project is above, the fill will be needed and the surface
between the two lines is represented by vertical hatchings.
The following is the example of longitudinal profile from the given above plan (in III.1.2.a). It combines both
ground and project longitudinal profiles:

Fictive point (FP) determination:

The Fictive Point also named “Fictitious Profile” and abbreviated as “FP”, is the point where the line of the
ground cuts the line of project. It is a profile on which the cuts and fills are zero.

In earthwork calculation, it will be necessary to know where the fictive point is located; so, from the following
sketch, the fictive point can be calculated as follow:

In the two similar triangles “ABP” and “CDP” or “A’B’P’” and “C’P’D’”, we have:
As the fictive point “FP” influences much in earthwork, it will be thus appropriate to consider the longitudinal
profile before construction, not one of the finished roads. When the distance “X” or “Y” is known, there is
compensation between cut and fill: the “X” side can compensate the “Y” side.

In the case of surplus, the deposit is created and a soil loan may be needed in opposite case.

Note that the distance “X” or “Y” is not inclined distance “BP” or “PC” respectively but the “X” is the
horizontal distance between the points “B” and “P”. Also, the distance “Y” is the horizontal distance between
the points “C” and “P”. This consideration excludes any limitation of fictive point determination method
related to the shape from which the fictive point is created.
CROSS-SECTION OF THE ROAD:

2.1. Introduction: The cross-section of the road also named “Transverse Profile” of the road is defined as the
vertical section of the road at right angle to its centre line. It is a transversal section of the road following a
vertical plan perpendicular to the real axis of the road.

Cross-sections are run at right angle to the longitudinal profile and on either sides of it for the purpose of
lateral outline of the ground surface. They provide the data for estimating quantities of earthwork and other
purposes. The cross-sections are numbered consecutively from the commencement of the centre line.

When plotting the transverse section of the road, the draughtsman may be turned towards the origin of the
road. The same manner as the longitudinal plotting is almost adopted except that in cross-section plotting both
the vertical and horizontal scales are kept equal or the vertical being twice the horizontal scale. Also, four
columns are sufficient to include elevations of the project, elevations of the ground, project cumulative
distances and project gradients (inclinations).

The centre line may be fixed first, when plotting the transverse section of the road, and other parts of the road
are oriented outwards from the center line. Detail study may be carried out before design any part of transverse
profile and many factors took into consideration.

Parts of transverse profile may be grouped from the following list and each part is further described. These are:
Carriageways, Shoulders, Ditches, Slopes either cut or fill, Benches, Crossfall (Camber), etc.

The example of cross-section of the road is given before (in I.1.2) but the following may also be another
example of cross-section of the two lanes roadway:

SIDE SLOPES:
The slopes of embankments (fill) and cuttings must be adapted to the soil properties, topography and
importance of the road

BENCHES:

The bench is a small construction in soil alone that placed on the top of embankment (or fill slope) when this
reaches a height of 1.5m to ensure the safety of road users. The term “Bench” alone, is large and its meaning
depends on where it is used. In the difficult places such as on bridges and mountainous regions, it can be
replaced by an iron guard-rail or dry stone wall to have the advantage of taking less width in these places.

The following are examples of two forms of bench constructed in soil material and their sizes proportion in any
linear unit

SIDE DITCHES:

Ditch is a channel provided to remove the run-off from the road pavement, shoulders, and side slopes (either in
cut or fill

The depth of the ditch should be sufficient to remove the water without risk of saturating the subgrade. Ditches
may be lined to control erosion. Unlined ditches should preferably have side slopes not steeper than4 to 1
horizontal to vertical and they should never be used on important roads. The ditch is a hydraulic structure that
cannot perform alone without association with other structures such as: gutters, turnouts, chutes, and
intercepting ditches; to provide open road-side drainage.

GUTTER: is the channel at the edges of the pavement or the shoulder formed by a kerb or shallow depression.
Gutters are paved with concrete, brick, stone blocks, or some other structural material. Spacing between outlets
on kerbed road sections depends on run-off, longitudinal gradient and water depth along the kerb.

TURNOUT OR MITRE DRAIN: It is a short, open, and skew (oblique or not straight) ditches used to
remove water from the side ditches or gutters.

Use of turnouts reduces the necessary size of the side ditches, minimizes the velocity of water and thereby the
risk of erosion. The interval between turnouts depends on run-off, velocity of water and slope of the terrain. To
prevent the flow through turnouts from generating soil erosion at the outlet, the discharge end of the turnout
should be fanned out.
 CHUTES: A chute is an open, lined channel or closed pipe, used to convey water from gutter or side ditch
down fill slope, and from intercepting ditch down cut slope.

Intercepting ditch or Cut-off ditch: It can be named “Overhead-ditch and it is a ditch that located on the
natural ground near the top edge of a cut slope to intercept the run-off from a hillside before it reaches the road

THE CROSSFALL OR CAMBER:

Two-lane roads should be provided with a camber consisting of a straight line crossfall from the centre line to
the carriageway edges, while straight crossfall from edge to edge of the carriageway can be used for single-
lane roads and for each carriageway of divided roads.

The road surface must be constructed with a sufficient camber or crossfall to shed rainwater quickly

Generally, a crossfall of 3% on paved roads and 4 to 6% on unpaved roads are recommended. The crossfall of
unpaved roads will reduce over time due to action of traffic and weather, and rutting may develop. To avoid
the ruts developing into pot-holes, a crossfall of 5or 6% should be reestablished.

The following are examples of 3% crossfall of two-lane road pavements

The crossfall can be reduced to a minimum of 2% for cement concrete road pavements and to 2.5% for
asphaltic concrete pavements. Normally, it may be 3% for the tarred-macadam road pavements. All unpaved
road surfaces should have a crossfall of not less than 4% and not higher than 6%.

ROAD WIDTH:

Road width should be minimized to reduce the costs of construction and maintenance, while being sufficient to
carry the traffic loading efficiently and safely. The following factors need to be taken into account when
selecting the width of a road.

 Classification of the road, a road is normally classified according to its function in the road network;
the higher the class of road, the higher the level of service expected and the wider the road will need to
be.
  Traffic, heavy traffic volumes on a road means that passing of oncoming vehicles and overtaking of
slower vehicles are more frequent, and therefore the paths of vehicles will be further from the centre
line of the road, so the traffic lanes should be wider.
 Vehicle dimensions, normal steering deviations and tracking errors, particularly of heavy vehicles,
reduce clearances between passing vehicles; wider traffic lanes are needed when the proportion of
trucks is high.
 Vehicle speed, as speeds increase, drivers have less control of the lateral position of vehicles, reducing
clearances, and so wider traffic lanes are needed
a) Carriageway widening:

For access roads with low volumes of traffic (AADT <20), single-lane operation is adequate as there will be
only a small probability of vehicles meeting. The few passing manoeuvres can be undertaken at much reduced
speeds using either passing places or shoulders.

For higher traffic flows (20–100 vehicles per day), single track roads cause considerable inconvenience to
traffic and are only recommended for short roads, or in hilly or mountainous terrain. In these cases, there are
high costs of construction especially, inside cuts.

Very mountainous countries like ours, recommends single-lane pavements of 3 –3.5 m width for traffic
volumes up to 200 vehicles per day, and with shoulder widths of 0.5 – 2m.

On roads with medium volumes of traffic (100–1,000 vehicles per day), the numbers of passing manoeuvres
will increase and pavement widening will become operationally and economically. Hence, running surface
widths of 5 and 6m are recommended. For arterial roads with higher flows (>1,000 vehicles per day), a 6.5 m
wide running surface will allow heavy vehicles to pass safely without the need to slow down.

The carriageway widths reduction may be accepted on the bridges, when widening or replacement of an
existing narrow bridge may not be economically feasible. Thus, rumble strip or speed hump is required to warn
motorists of the discontinuity in the road width.

Carriageway widths should be increased on curves to allow for the swept paths of longer vehicles, and the
necessary tolerances in lateral displacement as vehicles follow a curve.

The amount of widening recommended by AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials) for two-lane roads are shown below, according to functional classification of the
roads and the terrain on which they are located:
ROAD GEOMETRIC ALIGNMENTS

Horizontal alignment

Introduction: The term “Horizontal alignment” means the direction and course of the centre line in plan or top
view. It consists of a series of intersecting tangents and circular curves, with or without transition curves.

 The horizontal alignment should always be chosen carefully to provide good drainage and to minimize
earthworks.
 The horizontal alignment design should also be aimed at achieving a uniform vehicles operating speed.
Speeds on roadway Speeds on road may be divided into three types from which the design speed becomes
more efficient:

a) Free speed: The speed at which a vehicle travels on uncongested, flat, straight, smooth and wide sections of
road in the particular environment under consideration.

b) Hands-off speed: The speed at which, for a particular combination of horizontal curvature and super
elevation, a vehicle will follow the curve without any necessity to steer to the left or the right.
c) Design Speed: The 85th percentile speed of vehicles on any particular section of road. It is not speed of
vehicle in any place where the road would not present a special difficult.

Design speed is chosen in relation to: road function, volume of traffic and terrain.

From SATCC (Southern Africa Transport and Communication Commission) Standardization, the design speed
is tabulated below in relation to the road function, traffic volume and terrain

The design speed may also be chosen with only road function and type of terrain, as tabulated below, from
AASHO (American Association of State and Highway Officials):

Length of tangents: Long straights should be avoided as they are monotonous and cause headlight dazzle, and
the following guidelines may be applied:

 Straights should have lengths (in metres) less than 20 times design speed where the design speed
should be expressed in kilometers per hour.
 Straights between circular curves turning in the same direction should have lengths (in meters) greater
than 6 times design speed where the design speed should be expressed in kilometers per hour.
 Straights between the end and the beginning of reverse circular curves, with no transition curve, should
have lengths greater than two-thirds of the minimum of the total super elevation run-off (to be further
discussed).
SIGHT DISTANCES ON TANGENTS:
Ideally, geometric design should ensure that, at all times, any object on the road pavement is visible to the
driver within normal eyesight distance and this, contributes to safe and efficient operation of the road.

There are four different sight distances, which are of interest in geometric design:

 Stopping sight distance

 Meeting sight distance
 Passing sight distance
 Intersection sight distance
a) Stopping sight distance: Stopping sight distance (D) comprises two elements which are:

D1 = the distance moved during the total reaction time (in meters), and

D2= the braking distance which is the distance traversed while braking (in meters).

The total reaction time (D1) comprises the perception time and braking reaction time; where the perception
time is the duration from the instant the object is sighted to the moment the brakes are applied.

The total reaction time depends on the following factors:

 Physical and mental characteristics of the driver.

 Atmospheric visibility.
 Types and condition of the road.
 Distance to the hazard, plus its size, colour and shape
Driver reaction time (t) is generally from 2 to 4 seconds for normal driving at rural conditions and value of two
seconds may be used to calculate the minimum stopping sight distance. Thus,

Where: “V” is the initial vehicle speed (in km/h); and “t” the reaction time in seconds. The braking distance
(D2) is dependent on the following elements that guide in its calculation:

 Vehicle condition and characteristics.

 The coefficient of friction between tyres and road surface.
 The gradient of the road.
 The initial vehicle speed
Where:D2is the braking distance in metres; “V” the initial vehicle speed in km/h; “f” the coefficient of
longitudinal friction in per cent; and “g” the tangent gradient in per cent (positive if uphill and negative if
downhill).

The determination of longitudinal friction involves estimation of many factors listed above and there is a near
relationship between tangents gradient “g” and these factors, finally, with longitudinal friction “f”. This
support a frequent combination of both gradient and friction (where these are not indicated), to form a
coefficient “a” for braking distance calculation. Hence, the minimum stopping sight distance is calculated
simply from

A minimum stopping sight distances were given by AASHO in relation with a variable coefficient “a” as
tabulated below, where the tangent (grade) is supposed to be level

A coefficient “a” will be highly decreased or increased on positive tangents and negative slopes, respectively,
to a scale of 2% for 0.01gradient and 10% for 0.04gradient.

b) Meeting sight distance: Meeting sight distance is the distance required to enable the drivers of two vehicles
travelling in opposite directions to bring their vehicles to a safe stop after seeing each other.

Meeting sight distance is normally calculated as twice the minimum stopping sight distance

It is desirable that meeting sight distance is achieved throughout the length of single lane roads. It should also
be provided on roads less than five meters wide, since it is necessary to reduce speed to pass safely on such
narrow roads.

c) Passing sight distance or Overtaking sight distance: This is the distance required for overtaking action at
the design speed, without causing a hazard to the vehicle in opposing direction.

Factors affecting passing (overtaking) sight distance are:

  The judgment of overtaking drivers
 The speed and size of overtaken vehicles
 The acceleration capabilities of overtaking vehicles
 The speed of oncoming vehicles

Heavy commercial vehicles require longer time than cars to complete the overtaking manoeuvre but, on the
other hand, commercial vehicle drivers can see further ahead because of their higher eye height when driving.
Hence, they are able to judge sooner and better whether or not a gap is suitable for overtaking

The minimum passing sight distances are given below by AASHTO

The passing sight distances recommended for use by the SATCC countries are based on a speed difference of
20 km/h between the passing vehicle and the overtaken vehicle. The reduced passing sight distance is based on
the assumption that the overtaking vehicle may safely abandon the manoeuvre if an approaching vehicle comes
into view.

d) Intersection sight distance:

Intersection sight distance is the distance along the main road at which an approaching vehicle must be seen to
permit a vehicle on an intersecting road to cross or merge safely with the traffic on the main road. The
intersection sight distance depends on the design speed, the width of road being crossed and the characteristics
of the vehicle crossing or merging on to the main road.

𝐒 = 𝟐∗𝐕, For passenger cars

Generally, the minimum intersection sight distance can be taken as:

𝐒 = 𝟑∗𝐕, For trucks

Where “S” is the sight distance along main road (in metres), and “V” being the design speed (in km/h).
Horizontal circular curves:

Curves are generally used on highways where it is necessary to change the direction of motion. Horizontal
curve/curvature is a curve or succession of curves, normally circular, in plan.

A curve may be Circular, Parabolic or Spiral and is always connect two straight directions (tangents).

Circular curves are divided into three types from which the simple circular curve is only to be discussed. The
remaining types are Compound and Reversing circular curves.

 Simple circular curve:

A simple curve consist of a single arc connecting two straights or tangents. simple curve is normally
represented by the length of its radius or by the degree of curve

 Compound circular:
 A compound curve consist of two arcs of different radii curving in the same direction and lying on the
same side of their common tangent , their centers being on the same side of the curve.

 Reverse circular:
A reverse curve is composed of two arcs of equal or different radii bending or curving in opposite direction
with common tangent at their junction, their centers being in opposite sides of the curve.

THE SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE:

a) DEFINITIONS AND NOTATIONS:
1. Length of tangent or Tangent Distance (T): Is the distance between the Point of the Curve (T1) or the
Point of Tangency (T2) and the Vertex (Point of Intersection).
2. Back tangent: Also called “First tangent” is the tangent (AT1) previous to the curve.
3. Forward tangent: Also called “Second tangent” is the tangent (T2B) following the curve.
4. Vertex (V) or Point of intersection (PI): If the back and forward tangents are produced, they will meet in a
point called Vertex or Point of Intersection.
5. Point of curvature (T1): Is the beginning of the curve, where the alignment changes from a tangent to a
curve.
6. Point of tangency (T2): It is the end of the curve, where the alignment changes from a curve to a tangent.
7. Intersection angle (α): or External deflection angle between two tangents. Is the angle between “AV”
produced and “VB”.
8. Deflection angle: Deflection angle to any point on the curve is the angle at T1, between the back tangent
and the chord from T1 to point on the curve.
9. External or Apex distance (E): It is the distance from the mid-point of the curve to the vertex (V).
10. Length of the curve: It is the total length of the curve from T1 to T2.
11. Long chord: It is the chord joining T1 and T2.
12. Midi-chord: It is a half the long chord.
13. Normal chord: It is a chord between two successive regular stations on a curve.
14. Sub-chord: Any chord shorter than normal curve.
15. Mid-ordinate It is the ordinate from the mid-point of the long chord to the mid-point of the curve
16. Right hand curve: It is the curve that deflects to the right of the direction of road user.
17. Left hand curve: It is the curve that deflects to the left of the direction of road user

EXERCISES 1. Two horizontal tangents meet at central angle of 172 grades. Calculate all necessary data to
connect two tangents with the 500m radius of curvature.

2. The two straight portions of the road meet at an external deflection angle of 127o30’. Calculate the external
distance (E) and mid ordinate (M) necessary to set out the circular curve of 15 chains in order to join these
portions without passing through the vertex

. MINIMUM RADIUS OF CURVATURE:

When vehicles negotiate a circular curve, a sideways frictional force is developed between the tyres and road
surface. This inertial force must be balanced by centripetal forces derived from the applied superelevation. The
relationship between the radius, speed and frictional forces required to keep the vehicle in its path are given by

Where:“R” is the radius of curve (m); “V” the design speed (km/h); “e” the super elevation or cant of road (per
cent); and “f” is the coefficient of side(radial) friction force in per cent, developed between the tyres and road
pavement. The maximum or minimum design speed can be derived from this relation according to whether the
minimum or maximum radius of curvature is known: Hence

Curve widening:
 Widening of the carriageway on curves will be essential to allow for the swept paths of larger vehicle as it
follows a curved path. Widths should be increased on horizontal curves also to allow drivers to manoeuvre
when approaching other vehicles.

Carriageway widening is also necessary to present a consistent level of driving task to the road users, to enable
them to remain centered in lane and reduce the likelihood of either colliding with an oncoming vehicle or
driving onto the shoulder.

The required amount of widening is dependent on the characteristics of the vehicles, the radius and length of
the curve, and lateral clearances. Widening should be applied on the inside of a curve and be gradually
introduced over the length of the transition.

On the narrower two lane roads, particularly if there are high flows of trucks, it may be desirable to widen the
roads on crest vertical curves. Widening of 0.5 meter should be considered.

Generally, the curve widening varies as tabulated here below:

The widening should be applied on:

 The inside of a curve

 The outside of a curve
 Both inside and outside of a curve with axial line respect

From the following figure, the widening is applied on the inside of a curve:
 Super
elevation: (The Cant)

When a road pavement is sloped upwards the outside of a curve, it is said to be banked or super-elevated. Thus,
super-elevation or cant is the distance by which the outer end of the road is raised above the inner one. When a
vehicle moves on a curve, the sudden impact of centrifugal force coupled with the inertia of the vehicle would
cause the vehicle to sway outwards, and if this exceeds a certain value, the vehicle may overturn.

In order to resist this force, it is usual to super-elevate the roadway cross section.

On unpaved roads, the maximum super elevation will therefore be the elimination of adverse cross fall. On
paved roads with unsealed shoulders, the shoulders should drain away from the paved area to avoid loose
material being washed across the road. There are two major forces acting on a vehicle turning on the curve: the
weight of the vehicle and the centrifugal force

Both the forces pass through the center of gravitation of the vehicle as shown below on the figure:

SUPER ELEVATION RUN-OFF:

 “The super elevation run-off” length is defined as the transition length from a normal cross-section on a
tangent to the fully super-elevated cross-section, and is directly proportional to the total super-elevation
according to the following relationship:

L = Super elevation run-off (in meter)

W = Carriageway width (in meter)

S = Longitudinal gradient (per cent)

a = Super elevation of the curve (per cent)

b = Normal cross fall on the straights (per cent

LU.2. APPLY VERTICAL ALIGNMENT.

INTRODUCTION

A vertical curve is a curve or succession of curves, normally parabolic, in profile. It is used to join two
intersecting grade lines of roadway to smooth out the change in vertical motion.

Maximum tangent gradient and lengths:

Gradients should be chosen such that construction cost and operating costs of the heavy vehicles ascending
them is minimized. For access roads with low levels of traffic (less than about 20 vehicles per day), it is
appropriate to use the maximum gradient that a vehicle can climb safely.

For simplicity of calculation work, the simple parabola is normally used to provide a constant rate of change of
curvature and hence, the visibility along its length.

It has the following form:

Where: Y = Vertical distance from the grade line to the curve (m). X = Horizontal distance from
start of vertical curve (m). R = Radius of circular curve that is approximated by the parabola (m).

The vertical alignment of the road has a strong influence upon: construction cost, the operation cost and on the
number of accidents.
The two major elements of vertical alignment are the gradient which is related to the vehicle performance and
level of service, and the vertical curve which is governed by sight distance and comfort criteria.

2.2.2. TANGENT GRADIENT

The gradient (grade) or grade is said to be upgrade or (positive slope) when elevations along the direction of
motion increase; and downgrade or (negative slope) when they decrease.

TYPES OF VERTICAL CURVES

a) Sag curve: It is also named “Concave” and it can be presented by

i. A downgrade followed by an upgrade (- and +)

ii. An upgrade followed by another upgrade (+ and +)

iii. A downgrade followed by another downgrade (- and -)

b) Crest curve: It is also named “Summit” or “Convex” and it can be formed by:

i. An upgrade followed by a downgrade (+ and -)

ii. An upgrade followed by another upgrade (+ and +)

iii. A downgrade followed by another downgrade (- and -)