Application of Forces and Transfer of Energy

Forces in Nature → Many Natural disasters are forces in nature, like, tropical cyclones,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis

Interactions usually involve the transfer of energy which can cause changes in motion and/or
conditions.

Definition: A push or pull where an effect can be observed

SI Unit: Newton (N)

Types of Forces
Contact Forces:
Friction → the force that opposes motion between two surfaces in contact.
Elastic Force → the force acting on a stretched or compressed elastic object to return to its
original shape
Normal Force → the force that surfaces exert to prevent solid objects from passing through
each other, if two surfaces are not in contact, they can’t exert a normal force on each other. (It is
perpendicular to the surfaces in contact)

Tension Force → the force transmitted through a rope, string or wire when pulled by forces
acting from opposite sides. It is directed over the length of the wire and pulls energy equally on
the bodies at the end
Intermolecular Force (not tested) → the attractive and repulsive forces that arise between the
molecules of a substance

Elastic force Tension force

Only acts on elastic objects Not necessarily an elastic object, can act on
all objects that can stretch lightly

Allows elastic objects to return to it original Merely a pulling force, no pushing force and
shape after being stretched or compressed hence no compression
Non-contact Forces:
Gravitational Force → the force that attracts two objects towards each other. When a planet
exerts gravitational force on an object and pulls it towards its centre, the object is known to have
weight. Earth’s gravitational force pulls all things towards its centre.
Magnetic Force → the force exerted between a magnet and another magnetic material such as
iron or steel. Magnetic force also exists between two magnets.

Weight
- The gravitational force acting on that object
- Formula: w=mg
- Weight = mass x gravitational field strength (10N/kg / 10m/s^2 → Earth)
- Weight = mass in kg x 10N/kg
- Weight and mass are directly proportional
- The greater the mass of an object, the greater its weight

Weight vs Mass

Weight Mass

What Gravitational force exerted on Amount of matter in an object

an object

How it changes May change with location Remains constant regardless

of location

SI unit Newton (N) Kilogram (kg)

Measuring tools Spring balance Electronic balance, beam

balance

Effects of a force
1. A force applied on a stationary object can cause it to start moving
2. A force applied on a moving object can cause it to
a. Increase its speed (acceleration)
b. Decrease its speed
c. Change its direction
3. A force applied on an object can cause a change in its
a. Size and/or shape
b. Pressure on an object

Resultant force
 - Definition: The overall force after considering all forces acting on a body, also known as
the net force
- A resultant force
- Will act in the opposite direction of the larger force
- Will be the difference between the two unbalanced forces

Balanced Forces Unbalanced Forces

Resultant force (RF) 0 (but there can still be forces The difference between the
present) two forces

Speed Remains the same Changes

● Stationary object ● Stationary object
remains stationary starts moving
● Moving object ● Moving object slows
continues moving at down or moves faster
constant speed
When resultant force is 0, it means the forces acting on the sides of it are equal. If the object is
in motion, it would continue moving at a constant speed. If it is stationary, it would remain
stationary.

Turning effect (Moment)

● Formula: Force x distance moved perpendicular to the direction of the force

○ Force: N
○ Distance: m

A force applied on an object can cause a turning effect about a fixed point called the pivot.
This turning effect can help us to carry out an action with little force, such as removing the lid of
a tin can or tightening a nut.

The greater the distance of the force away from the pivot,
★ The lesser the applied force required
★ The greater the turning effect
★ The lighter the object will be

● Example questions:
○ Q: Explain how the application of force can help on to remove lid of the tin easily
○ A: There is a downward applied force by the hand about the pivot that will result
in an anti-clockwise turning effect which will remove the lid
Pressure
Formula:
Pressure(Pa) = Force(N)/Area(m^2)
The amount of force applied is measured in Newton (N), and the area of contact is measured in
square metres (m^2). The unit of pressure is newton per metre (N/m^2), also known as the
pascal (Pa)

Acceleration → Rate of change of speed (velocity)

Factors affecting pressure:
1. Force
2. Area
a. Small area of contact = high pressure = easy to exert force
b. Large area of contact = low pressure = difficult to exert force

Example questions:
1) Drinking from a straw
● When the boy sucks on a straw, some air is removed from it
● The air pressure inside the straw decreases and becomes lower than the surrounding
atmospheric pressure
● The higher atmospheric pressure pushes the liquid up the straw and into the boy’s
mouth
2) Suction Cups
● When we press a suction cup hook against a smooth surface like a wall tile, air is
pushed out from under the suction cup
● The air pressure between the suction cup and the surface decreases. It becomes lower
than the atmospheric pressure
● The higher atmospheric pressure holds the suction cup hook in place on the surface

Work Done
Definition: the energy transferred when a force moves an object over a distance in the direction
of the force.
Formula: W = F x d
SI Unit: Joules (J)
- Force: N
- Distance: m

3 Criterias:
1. A force must be exerted on the object
2. There must be motion/object that moves through a distance
3. There must be a parallel force in the direction of motion

What is energy?
- Energy is the ability to do work
 - The SI unit of energy is Joules (J) or kilojoules (kJ)
- One kilojoule is 1000 Joules

Energy types
Sound → energy produced when objects vibrate
Electrical → energy that results from the flow of charged particles
Nuclear → energy stored in the nucleus of an atom and which is released during nuclear
reactions. During nuclear fusion or fission, the energy released is used to generate electricity
Potential → chemical/gravitational/elastic potential energy that is stored ina body as a result of
its position or condition
Kinetic → energy that a body possesses due to its motion

Gravitational potential energy

- Formula: GPE = mgh
- Mass: kg
- Gravitational field: 10N/kg / 10m/s^2
- Height: m

How are energy and work related?

When work is done on an object, energy is converted from one form to another

Example:
An archer pulling his bowstring
Kinetic energy → potential energy
An archer releasing his bowstring
Potential energy → kinetic energy

Law of conservation of energy

The law of conservation of energy stated that energy can be converted from one form to another
but it cannot be created nor destroyed

Sources of energy
Non-renewable sources of energy
- Limited and will run out one day
1. Fossil fuels:
Fossil fuels are burnt → steam → turbine rotates → generator
CPE → TE → KE → EE
2. Nuclear energy
Uranium
Nuclear energy (atoms) → hot air → turbine rotates → generator
NE → TE → KE → EE
Renewable sources of energy
- Can be sustained or renewed indefinitely due to limited supplies or new growth (of
organisms)
1. Biofuels:
Biomass (e.g. wood, animal dung, sugar cane etc)
Biofuels → hot air → vehicle moves
CPE → TE → KE
2. Geothermal energy:
Escaping steam from volcanoes, geysers, and hot springs
Earth’s core → steam → turbine rotates → generator
TE → KE → KE → EE
3. Hydroelectric energy:
Rainwater stored in reservoirs behind dams
Water stored behind a dam → moving water → turbine rotates → generator
GPE → KE → KE → EE
4. Solar energy:
Sun → solar cell
LE → EE
5. Wind energy:
Windmills converting the energy of moving air (wind) into electrical energy
Wind → wind turbine moves → generator
KE → KE → EE
6. Tidal energy:
The difference in the height of water at high tide and low tide is used to generator
electricity
As the tide comes in, water flows through turbines to generate electricity
The same thing happens when the tide goes out and the water flows in the opposite
direction
Heat and Temperature
Metals are better conductors as compared to other materials because of their free electrons.

Thermal energy is always transferred from an object of higher temperature to an object with
lower temperature

Water (Solid) - Molecules are closed packed. Nearly all motion is vibrational; no translational
motion. Water is solid.
Water (Liquid) - The majority of motion is both vibrational and translational (with molecules
loosely packed and sliding past one another). Few or no free molecules. Water is a liquid.
Water (Boiling) - The majority of motion is translational movement. Molecules loosely packed.
Free molecules come and go. Water is boiling.
Water (Gas) - The majority of motion is translational movement. Many free molecules are widely
spaced out. Water is a hot steam (gas)

Even below the freezing point, the molecules still vibrate but are almost stationary. So there is
still motion until it reaches absolute zero, where all motion of the molecules would stop.

Thermal Equilibrium: When both objects (starting with one with a higher temperature than the
other) reach the same temperature
- Thermal energy will flow from the hotter of the two objects to the colder until they both
have the same temperature

● When we touch something,

○ We don’t the temperature
○ We feel the rate at which thermal energy is transferred either away or towards
you (heat gain/heat loss)

Heat
● Definition: The transfer of thermal energy from a region of higher temperature to a region
of lower temperature until thermal equilibrium is achieved between the two regions

Thermal energy
● Definition: The energy in body due to its temperature
● SI unit: Joules (J)

Temperature
● Definition: The measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules in a body (movement
of particles)
● SI unit: Kelvin (K)
● ºC scale:
○ Lowest temp (0 KE): -273.15)ºC
○ Fixed points
 ■ Ice point: 0ºC
■ Steam point: 100ºC
● Kelvin Scale (K)
○ Lowest temperature (0 KE): absolute zero
○ No negative values
● Changes in temperature is the same whether in ºC or K
● Temperature Conversion:
○ K = ºC + 273
○ ºC = K - 273
■ K is larger than ºC

Answering Formats:
Q: What do you think causes the hot and cold blocks to eventually reach the same
temperature?
A: Particles with higher kinetic energy pass the energy to the particles with lower kinetic energy.
Eventually, both blocks have the same average KE, which means the same temperature.

Q: Two identical beakers are filled with water at 30 ºC. Beaker A contains 100 g of water while
beaker B contains 200 g of water. They are heated for 1 minute with identical flames. Comment
on the amount of thermal energy received and the rise in temperature of the water in both
beakers. Explain your answer.
A: Both beakers received the same amount of thermal energy. Beaker B will have a smaller rise
in temperature than beaker A. Beaker B has a greater mass of water thus contains more water
molecules and average amount of energy gained by the molecules will be lower. Thus average
kinetic energy of all molecules will be lower for Beaker B.

Q: What is the relationship between mass, the number of atoms, the amount of thermal energy
you add, and the rise in temperature in an object?
ANS: An object of larger mass has more number of particles, which require a greater amount of
thermal energy to have the same rise in temperature.

Q: A substance composed of particles A and another substance composed of particles B are at

the same temperature. Particle A is ten times more massive than atom B. How does the
average kinetic energy and average speed of all particles A compare to that of all particles B?
A: The average kinetic energy of particles A in the first substance is
(higher / lower / the same) as the average kinetic energy of particles in the second substance.
The average speed of particles A is (higher / lower / the same) than the average speed of
particles B.

Heavier particles have more inertia, making it harder to change their speed compared to lighter
particles.
Lighter particles, having less mass, can more easily accelerate and move faster on average.

A bottle of cold juice feels cold because the thermal energy is transferred away from our hands.
Temperature is measured in kelvin (K)
Thermal energy is measured in Joule (J)

“-” “+” and “average” are d.p. (Decimal point)

“÷” and “x” are s.f. (Significant figures)

Thermal Energy Transfer

Radiation
Definition: The process by which thermal energy is transferred through the emission and
transmission of infra-red waves without requiring a physical medium (can take place in a
vacuum)
● Infra-red radiation
○ All objects emit and absorb infra-red radiation at different rates depending on
their temperature and their surface characteristics
○ Transfers from a hotter region to a cooler region
○ The only means by which energy can reach us from the Sun (Vacuum between
the Earth and the Sun → therefore, there cannot be conduction or convection)

Factors affecting Rate of Thermal energy transfer

 1. Surface Temperature
● The greater the temperature difference between the body and its surroundings
the more heat gained or lost per second
2. Surface Area
● The greater the surface area of a body, the more heat gained or lost per second
3. Surface colour and texture
a. Good absorbers and radiators:
i. Black, dull surfaces
ii. Rough surface (more exposed surface area)
b. Poor absorbers and radiators
i. White, shiny (good reflector)
ii. Smooth surface
● Good absorbers = good radiators
● Poor absorbers = poor radiators

Conduction
Definition: The transfer of thermal energy between neighbouring particles through a medium,
without a net movement of the medium itself
● Metals have free moving electrons
● Contact is needed for conduction
● Works best with metals
● Good conductor of thermal energy in descending order:
○ Solid (Best, electrons are closely packed, allowing them to hit each other easily)
○ Liquid (Not that bad as gas, electrons are slightly further apart)
○ Gas (Worst, electrons are far apart, that's why air is a poor conductor of heat)
Process:
● During conduction, the particles in the hotter region of the medium gains thermal energy
and vibrates faster
● These particles collide with their neighbouring particles, transferring thermal energy to
them
● This causes the neighbouring particles, transferring thermal energy to them
● THis causes the neighbouring particles to vibrate faster too
● The process continues until thermal energy is transferred from particle to particle from
the hotter region to the colder region
● There is not net change in the positions of the particles

Example questions:
Q: Two identical black cups, one made of metal and the other made of plastic, contain
hot water at the same temperature. Explain, with reference to KINETIC THEORY OF
MATTER, which cup will contain water at a lower temperature after 10 minutes.
A:
○ Hot water molecules with higher kinetic energy transfer thermal energy to the
particles in the cup via conduction.
○ Particles in contact with the water vibrate even more vigorously, colliding with
neighbouring particles and transferring the thermal energy to the exterior of the
cup.
○ Metals have free electrons which will also help to transfer thermal energy faster.

Convection
Definition: The transfer of thermal energy due to the movement of heated particles of fluids
(liquids and gases)
● Works best in air — ‘rising’ (hot air rises) and water
● When our hands are placed above the flame, in the path of the convection current,
thermal energy is transferred mainly by convection
○ Convection current is caused by the change in density of the fluid
■ It cannot take place in solids as they are arranged in fixed positions and
cannot move (particles must be free to move)
Process:
● During convection, the particles nearest to the heat source will be heated, causing the
fluid to expand
● As it expands, the fluid becomes less dense and rises
● The cooler fluid would then sink to take the place of the heated fluid that has risen
● Int turn, the cooler fluid would be heated by the heat source
● The cycle repeats, setting up convection currents
Application:
1) Sea breeze
● During the day, the land heats up faster than the sea
● Thus, the air above the land is hotter than the air above the sea
● The hot air above the land is less dense and rises
● Cooler denser air over the sea sinks and moves towards the land to replace this hot air
● This results in a breeze from the sea to the land, known as sea breeze
2) Land breeze
● At night, the land cools faster than the sea
● Thus, the air above the sea is hotter than the air above the land
● The hot air above the sea is less dense and rises
● Cooler denser air over the land rises and moves towards the sea to replace this hot air
● This results in a breeze from the land to the sea, known as land breeze

States of Matter Method of Thermal Transfer

Vacuum Radiation

Gas Conduction & Convection

Liquid Conduction & Convection

Solid Conduction
Chemical Changes
● Periodic table: arranged in increasing proton number
● Period (horizontal): number of electron shells
● Group (vertical): number of valence electrons
○ They have the same chemical properties
○ Forms ions of the same charges
● Mass number (nucleon number): number of protons + neutrons
● Proton number (atomic number): number of protons
○ Determines the identity of elements

Chemical Bonding
Ionic bonds
Definition: the electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions
- Metal + non-metal

Naming convention:
● Determine the number of each ion needed to balance out the charges (net charge of
zero)
● Write the chemical formula with the correct ratio of ions, without the charges
● E.g. Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Dot and cross diagram for Ionic Bonds:

(w.s 11.3)
Covalent Bonds
Definition: The electrostatic force of attraction between the positive nuclei of each atom for two
non–metal atoms for a shared pair of elections
- Non-metal + Non-metal
● Electrons involved in sharing are from the valence electron shell
● Covalent bonds:
1. Single covalent bond:
a. 2 electrons shared between two atoms
2. Double covalent bond:
a. 4 electrons shared between two atoms
3. Triple covalent bond:
6 electrons shared between two atoms

Naming Convention:
● Prefixes are given to the number of atoms that are present in the formula (if the first
element has only one of itself, there is no need to write ‘mono’)
○ 1 → mono
○ 2 → di
○ 3 → tri
○ 4 → tetra
○ 5 → penta
○ 6 → hexa
○ 7 → hepta
○ 8 → octa
○ 9 → nona
○ 10 → deca
● E.g. Carbon monoxide (CO)
● Special compounds
○ Water → H2O
○ Ammonia → NH3
○ Methane → CH4
Dot and cross / structural diagram for Covalent Bonds:

Polyatomic Ions
● Charged species consisting of two or more atoms bonded together
● Ions take the overall net charge

Name of Ion Chemical Formulae

Hydroxide ion 𝑂𝐻
−

Nitrate ion 𝑁𝑂3

−

Carbonate ion 𝐶𝑂3

2−

Ammonium ion 𝑁𝐻4

+

Sulfate ion 𝑆𝑂4

2−
^Tested??

Important Chemical Formulae

GAS
1. Methane: 𝐶𝐻4
2. Ammonia: 𝑁𝐻3
+
3. Ammonium: 𝑁𝐻4
ACID (H+ Ions)
1. Hydrochloric acid: 𝐻𝐶ℓ
2. Sulfuric acid: 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
3. Phosphoric acid: 𝐻3𝑃𝑂4
4. Nitric acid: 𝐻𝑁𝑂3
ALKALI (OH- Ions)
1. Sodium hydroxide: 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
2. Calcium hydroxide (limewater): 𝐶𝐴(𝑂𝐻)2
 a. Calcium carbonate (limestone): 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3
b. Calcium hydroxide (slaked lime): 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
c. Calcium oxide (quick lime): 𝐶𝑎𝑂

Transition Metals
● Elements which lie between Group 2 and Group 13 of the periodic table
● Their ions are able to form ions of different charges
2+
1. Zinc (II) → 𝑍𝑛
+
2. Silver (I) → 𝐴𝑔
2+
3. Lead (II) → 𝑃𝑏
+ 2+
4. Copper (I) OR Copper (II) → 𝐶𝑢 OR 𝐶𝑢
2+ 3+
5. Irion (II) OR Iron (III) → 𝐹𝑒 OR 𝐹𝑒
3+
6. Aluminium (III) → 𝐴𝑙
Note:
● Unreactive metals
○ Copper
○ Lead
○ Gold
○ Silver
○ Platinum

Chemical Equations
● LHS (reactants) → RHS (products)
● Accompanied by state symbols
○ Solid → s
○ Liquid → 𝑙
○ Gaseous → g
○ Aqueous → aq
● Follow the Method
1. Balance all other elements (apart from O and H)
2. Balance oxygen atoms (O)
3. Balance hydrogen atoms (H)
4. Balance charges (electrons)

Law of Conservation of Mass

● Mass is neither created nor destroyed in any chemical reaction
● Thus balancing of equations is required
○ To ensure the same number of atoms on both sides of the equation
Types of Chemical Reactions

1. Decomposition
a. Involves the breakdown of a compound into two or more simpler
compounds/elements
2. Combustion
a. Involves the burning of a substance in the presence of oxygen to form new
compound(s)
3. Precipitation
a. Involves the formation of a solid when two solutions are mixed
4. Respiration
a. The process by which the cells in living organisms get energy
b. Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water
5. Neutralisation
a. The reaction of an acid and alkali
6. Oxidation
a. A reaction in which a substance gains oxygen
7. Electrolysis
a. Using electricity for decomposition
8. Electroplating
a. Using electricity to coat a layer of another metal (e.g. gold)

Physical vs. Chemical Changes

Physical Changes Chemical Changes

No new substances are formed New substances are formed

Properties of products are the same as the Properties of products are different from that
reactants of the reactants

Reversible process Irreversible process

Compounds vs. Mixtures

Compounds Mixtures

Chemically combined Physically combined

Can only be separated through chemical Can only be separated through physical
means means

Does not retain original elements’ properties Retains original elements’ properties

Have definite melting and boiling points Do not have definite melting and boiling
points
 Fixed proportions Not in fixed proportions

Thermal energy occurs when formed No thermal energy occurs when formed

Observations of chemical changes:

1. Colour change
2. Formation of an insoluble solid (precipitate)
3. Formation of a gas
4. Transfer of light or thermal energy

Acids & Bases (Alkali)

Acids
Definition: A substance that dissociates/ionises to produce hydrogen ions (H+ ions) when
dissolved in water

Physical properties:
● Sour taste
● Can conduct electricity when dissolved in water
○ Reason: There are mobile hydrogen (H+) ions that are able to act as mobile
charge carriers so acid is able to conduct electricity
○ Turns blue litmus paper red
○ Red litmus paper remains red
● Uses:
○ Used in car batteries
○ Food preservation

Alkali
Definition: A substance that dissociates/ionises to produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in
water

Physical properties:
● Bitter taste
● Slippery
● Can conduct electricity when dissolved in water
○ Reason: There are mobile hydroxide (OH-) ions that are able to act as mobile
charge carriers so alkali is able to conduct electricity
○ Turns red litmus paper blue
○ Blue litmus paper remains blue
● Uses:
○ Window cleaning solutions
○ Toothpaste
● Bases
○ Definition: A substance that reacts with an acid to form a salt
○ Oxides and hydroxides of metals
Alkalis Bases

Soluble in water (aqueous state) Insoluble in water (solid state)

Hydroxide The rest of the metal oxides and hydroxides

● Sodium
● Potassium
● Calcium
● Ammonium
Acid Reactions
1. Acid + Reactive Metals → Salt + Hydrogen gas
a. Observations:
i. Effervescence of a colourless and odourless gas will be observed
ii. Temperature increases
iii. Metal decreases in size or completely dissolves in the acid
b. Test for gas:
i. Place a lighted splint into a test tube containing the gas
ii. If lighted splint extinguishes with a ‘pop’ sound, the gas is hydrogen gas
2. Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water (𝐻2𝑂) + Carbon dioxide gas (𝐶𝑂2)
a. Observations:
i. Effervescence of a colourless and odourless gas will be observed
b. Test the gas:
i. Bubble the gas produced through limewater (aqueous calcium hydroxide)
ii. If a white precipitate is formed, the gas produced is carbon dioxide
3. Acid + Alkali → Salt + Water (𝐻2𝑂)
a. Neutralisation
b. Observations:
i. Temperature increases
Interactions within Ecosystems
Abiotic (non-living/physical factors)
1. Light intensity
2. Temperature
3. Water availability
4. Air
5. Mineral salts and salinity of soil and water
6. pH (acidity/alkainity)

● Biotic (living) factors: Made up of all the other organisms in a habitat

Symbiosis (any of several living arrangements between members of two different

species)
1. Parasitism
a. One species (a parasite) benefits at the expense of the other species (a host)
which is harmed
b. E.g. fleas and ticks that live on dogs and cats live off their blood but the cats and
dogs do not benefit from them
2. Mutualism
a. Two species provide resources or services that enable both species to benefit
b. E.g. Oxpeckers that land on rhinos or zebras ad eat ticks and other parasites that
live on their skin
3. Commensalism
a. One species (a commensals) depends on other species (a host) without affecting
them
b. Remora attaches to sharks, benefitting by gaining protection and feeding off the
remains of the meals of the sharks without harming them

Definitions
1. Species: A group of interbreeding organisms that do not normally breed with members
of other groups
2. Population: A group of organisms of the same species (living in a particular habitat)
3. Community: Different populations of organisms living together in the same habitat
4. Habitat: Area or natural environment in which an organism or population lives (includes
only the abiotic factors of an ecosystem)
5. Ecosystem: A system formed by the interaction between different communities of
organisms interacting with one another and with their abiotic environment

Energy Flow
● 10% of energy is transferred through the food chain from one trophic level to another
● Energy is lost as
○ Thermal energy during respiration
○ Uneaten parts or dead bodies
 ○ Undigested matter egested by consumers (egestion)
○ Waste products excreted by consumers (excretion)
○ Used for movement and in maintenance (cell repair)
● Hence, each successive trophic level is able to support a smaller number of organisms,
causing the numbers to decrease up the food chain to accommodate the amount of
energy left throughout the food chain

ANSWERING TECHNIQUE:
● During feeding, only 10% of the energy in a lower trophic level is transferred to the next,
hence, there is insufficient energy left to support another trophic level.
● 90% of the energy would be lost as heat and other biological processes.
● Quaternary (after tertiary) consumers at trophic level 5 are rarely found in ecosystems
because of the insufficient energy left to support them.
● Short food chains are more efficient than long food chains as less energy is lost to the
environment.

Food Chains
Definition: A sequence of feeding relationships between organisms which shows how food and
energy are transferred from one organism to another
- The Sun is the source of energy for all Earth’s ecosystems
- Producers convert the light energy from the sun to chemical potential energy
● Producers (1) → Primary consumers (2) → Secondary consumers (3) → Tertiary
consumers (4)
○ Trophic level 1: Plants produce food using energy captured from sunlight through
photosynthesis
○ Trophic level 2: Herbivores/Omnivores
○ Trophic level 3: Carnivores/Omnivores
○ Trophic level 4: Carnivores/Omnivores
○ Unlikely to have trophic levels above 4 as explained above
● Food Web
○ Definition: Made of interlinked food chains involving organisms from the same
ecosystem

Ecological Pyramids
1. Pyramid of Numbers
a. Definition: A graphical representation of the number of individuals in a trophic
level in a food chain at any one time
 2. Pyramid of Biomass
a. Definition: A graphical representation of the dry mass of organisms at each
trophic level in a given ecosystem at any one time

Water Pollution

Causes ● Untreated sewage (water-carried

waste matter from homes or
industries)

Effects Eutrophication:
● The nitrates and phosphates in
untreated sewage or fertilisers
 enhance the growth of algae and
water plants
● This leads to the increased growth
and multiplication of algae and floating
water plants in water bodies
● Sunlight cannot reach submerged
plants so they cannot make food
during photosynthesis and die
● The dead water plants are
decomposed by aerobic bacteria and
fungi (decomposers)
● Other organisms such as aquatic
animals like fish die due to lack of
oxygen where they cannot undergo
respiration

Bioaccumulation:
● Definition: Occurs when inorganic
products such as mercury is not
excreted from but accumulate in the
bodies of the sea animals they live in
over time
○ These inorganic waste
products are
■ Non-biodegradable and
cannot be broken down
● They are stored
in the tissues of
organisms that
consume it
● Remain in the
water bodies
■ May contain poisonous
metals or toxins

Bioamplification:
● Definition: Occurs in the food chain as
the (smallest size organisms) is eaten
by the (medium size organisms) and
become concentrated in the bodies of
the (largest size organisms) which are
the final consumers
○ The last consumer in the food
chain would contain the
highest concentrations of the
inorganic substances
○ Hence, they may face harmful
effects (or more harmful
effects than the organisms in
the lower trophic levels and
 these substances are
accumulated)

Decomposers
● Definition: Organisms that consume nutrients on molecular level and break down the
complex nutrients in faeces and decaying bodies of plants and animals through
decomposition into
○ Carbon dioxide (used for photosynthesis in plants)
○ Minerals (dissolve in water in the soil and are absorbed by plants for growth)
■ E.g. bacteria and fungi
■ Carry out the recycling of nutrients such that the energy locked in dead
organisms can be released and returned to the ecosystem

Nutrient Recycling (Respiration & Photosynthesis)

1. During photosynthesis
a. Green plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and use it to make
starch (when light is present)
i. This is passed down on to animals that eat the plants
b. Green plants also give out oxygen into the atmosphere
i. This is taken in by other organisms for respiration
2. During respiration
a. Both animals and plants release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere (all the
time)
i. This carbon dioxide produced is used by plants for photosynthesis

Carbon Cycle (Tested?)

1. Carbon Sink
a. Definition: An area that stores carbon compounds for an indefinite period (store >
release)
i. E.g. plants, ocean, soil
2. Carbon source
a. Definition: A place/process/either living or non-living that releases carbon dioxide
(release > store)
i. E.g. burning fossil fuels, volcanic eruptions, decomposition, fires
respiration
Electrical Systems
Electric Current (I)
Definition: The rate of flow of electric charges in a circuit per unit time
SI Unit: Ampere (A)
Measured by: Ammeter
- Connected in series
- Has very low resistance
- Positive knob to positive end of circuit
- Negative knob to negative end of circuit
Always follow the path of least resistance

Potential Difference (Voltage/V)

Definition: The work done to drive a unit charge across an electrical component
SI Unit: Volt (V)
Measured by: Voltmeter
- Connected in parallel
- High internal resistance
- Positive knob to positive end of circuit
- Negative knob to negative end of circuit
Has to be between two points and is a measure of the amount of energy that is changed into
other forms of energy when a unit charge is passed between them
- If there is no component in between the voltmeter, no EPE (electrical potential energy) is
converted so there is no work done and hence p.d. = 0V
An electron leaving the negative terminal of battery has a higher electric potential energy than
any other point in the circuit

Electron Flow vs. Conventional Current

1. Electron flow
a. Electric current flows from the negative terminal of the battery
2. Conventional current
a. Electric current flows from the positive terminal of the battery

Resistance
Definition: The ratio of the potential difference across it to the current flowing through it
𝑉
Formula: R = 𝐼
● Resistance: Ohm (Ω)
● Potential difference across the component: V
● Electric current flowing through it: A (‘I’ → current measured in amperes)
Factors affecting resistance:
● Length (longer) → Higher
● Cross-sectional area (wider) → Lower
- Total resistance decreases in a parallel circuit
- The higher the resistance, the lower the current
Types of resistors:
● Fixed resistor
● Variable resistor (rheostat)
○ The longer the wire, the greater the resistance

Calculating in Series & Parallel

Series Parallel

Current (I) Doesn’t split Splits

● Current is equal ● Total current is the sum of
throughout the circuit current in each separate
○ 𝐼1= 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 branch
○ 𝐼 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼1+ 𝐼2 + 𝐼3

Potential difference (V) Splits Doesn’t split

● Total p.d. Is the sum of ● P.d. is equal across each
p.d. across each branch
component ○ 𝑉 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3
○ 𝑉 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2

Resistance (R) Total effective resistance is the Total effective resistance is the sum
sum of individual resistance of the reciprocal of resistance in
● 𝑅 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 each branch
1 1 1 1
● 𝑅 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

Electric Power
Definition: The rate at which the amount of electrical energy is converted to other forms of
energy in one second
SI Unit: Watt (W)
● Large unit: Kilowatt (kW)
○ 1000 Watt = 1 Kilowatt
● Larger unit: Megawatt (MW)
𝐸
Formula: P = 𝑡
● Power: kW
● Electrical energy: kWh
● Time: h
1kWh = 1000J (energy)

Example questions:
● Q: State what is meant by the power rating of 1.2kW of the water heater.
● A: The water heater converts 1.2kJ of electrical energy to thermal energy in one second.
○ J: SI unit of energy

Effects of an Electric Current

1. Heating effect
a. Electrical energy → thermal energy
b. The greater the resistance of the wire, the greater the amount of heat produced
c. APPLICATION:
i. E.g. electric kettle, toaster and iron
ii. Ech appliance has a heating element such as a nichrome wire which
heats up quickly when a current flows through
1. High resistance
2. High melting point
3. Does not oxidise or rust easily
2. Magnetic effect
a. Electromagnet - electric current flows through the coil of wire
b. APPLICATION:
i. E.g. Magnetic cranes, electric bells, electric motors
3. Chemical effect
a. Electrolysis
i. Decomposition of a compound by an electric current
ii. Helps in the extraction of metals
b. Electroplating
i. Where a metallic object is covered with a thin layer of another metal e.g.
gold

Dangers of Electricity
1. Damaged insulation
a. Due to wear and tear
b. Metal casing may become live
c. Effect:
i. Exposed live wire can cause an electric shock if someone touches it
ii. May result in a short circuit where the live and neutral wires touch each
other, causing a surge in current and a fire
2. Overheating of cables
a. Increases current drawn from the main wall socket, heating up the wired and
causing a fire
3. Damp conditions
a. Water can conduct electricity even though it is not a good conductor of electricity
b. Resistance of the skin falls drastically when it is wet, a large electric current may
flow through the body, increasing chase of electric shock
4. Electric shocks and electrocution
a. Electric shock: When a person touches live wires, current flows through his body,
giving him an electric shock
 b. Electrocution: Injured or killed by a large current passing through the body
c. Can happen if the insulation of the wires are damaged or if the earth wire of an
appliance is not properly connected
5. Electric Fires
a. From short circuits when the large current flowing through the wires cause the
wires to overheat and start a fire
b. Electrical sparks from a short circuit may occur and start a fire when they come
into contact with flammable materials
c. Connecting too many electrical appliances to the same output socket or
forgetting to switch off an appliance may cause overheating of wires and hence a
fire as well
6. Short circuit
a. A path of very low resistance between two points in a circuit
b. Occurs when a broken or bare wire in a circuit touches another wire in a circuit
c. THis results in a large current flowing through the circuit, causing the wires to
become hot
d. This can cause a fire in the wires or in the appliance

Safe Use of Electricity

1. Three pin plug
a. Prevents electric shock in cases the live wire touches the metal case by
providing a path of low resistance for charges to travel from the metal
casing to the ground
2. Earth Wire
a. Diverts electric current to the ground to discharge it
3. Double insulation (two pin plug)
a. Two layers of electrical insulation to prevent current carrying wire and
metal parts from being in contact with users
4. Switch
a. Connected to live wire
5. Fuse
a. Connected to live wire
b. When current slightly above fuse rating passes through or when a short
circuit occurs, the large current causes a short, thin wire in the fuse to
melt and cause the circuit to become an open circuit, discontinuing any
current from passing through the circuit
6. Circuit Breaker
a. Connected to live wire
b. Controls separate circuits and trips when the current is too high
7. Never overload a circuit
a. If many appliances are connected to an adaptor, use only one appliance
at a time
8. Do not use electrical appliances with old or frayed wires
a. Replace these wires
b. Never touch bare or broken wires
9. Never use electrical appliances in wet places
a. Never touch appliances, plugs or switches with wet hands
10. Do not push anything into sockets or electrical appliances
a. Call an electrician rather than try to fix things yourself
Transport System in Living Things
Plants

Diffusion
Definition: The net movements of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration down a concentration gradient
● Factors affecting diffusion:
○ Concentration gradient (thee difference in concentration between two
regions)
■ The higher the concentration the faster rate of diffusion
○ Diffusion Distance
■ The shorter the diffusion distance, the faster the rate of diffusion
○ Surface area to volume ratio
■ The greater the surface area to volume ratio, the faster the rate of
diffusion
○ Temperature
■ The higher the temperature (higher average KE), the faster the rate of
diffusion
● Movement of any substance
● Does not necessarily require a partially permeable membrane
● Do not require energy
● Passive process

Osmosis
Definition: The net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential to a
region of lower water potential through a partially permeable membrane
● Substance permeability:
○ Particles too big to pass through the membrane (cannot pass through)
■ Sucrose (sugar)
■ Starch (sugar)
■ Protein
○ Glucose (sugar) can pass through
○ Salt can pass through
● Only involves the movement of water molecules
● Must take place across a partially permeable membrane
Water Potential
High water potential means that the solution has more free water molecules compared to a
solution with low water potential.
A dilute solution has a higher water potential compared to a concentrated solution.
The term water potential can only be used when comparing between two liquid
environments.
Xylem & Phloem
1. Xylem: Transports water and mineral salts continuously upwards from the roots to stem
and then to leaves
2. Phloem: Transports mainly sugars between different parts of the plant (from leaves to all
parts of the plant)

Specialised Cells
1. Root hair cell
a. Structure: Has a long and narrow extension
b. Function: Increased the surface area to volume ratio for the root cell to absorb
water and mineral salts at a faster rate
2. Xylem tissue
a. Structure (1):
i. Dead cells with long hollow tubes
ii. No cross walls
iii. No protoplasm
1. Function (1):
a. To allow the transport of water and mineral salts upwards
quickly without resistance
 b. Structure (2):
i. Xylem vessel wall is deposited with lignin
1. Function (2):
a. To provide mechanical support to the plant
b. To prevent collapse of xylem vessels

Human
● Respiration
○ Take in oxygen for body cells to undergo cellular respiration
○ Main factor to produce energy
○ Give out carbon dioxide
○ Prevents too much build up in the body and resulting in body toxicity

Role of Circulatory System

1. Transport:
a. Transports oxygen from the lungs, and nutrients from the digestive system, to all
the tissues (and cells) of the body
b. Transports metabolic waste away from the cells — carbon dioxide to the lungs
and nitrogenous waste to the kidneys
2. Protective
a. Prevents infection by transporting white blood cells and antibodies to sites of
infection to fight the infection
b. Prevents blood loss by transporting platelets to the site of wounds to cause
clotting
Circulation
1. Pulmonary & Systemic
a. Pulmonary:
i. Movement of blood through the lungs
ii. Heart → Lungs → Heart
b. Systemic:
i. Movement of blood through the body
ii. Heart → Rest of the body → Back to heart
● In the lungs, blood collects oxygen and release carbon dioxide,
now, rich in oxygen, it is called oxygenated blood
● Blood carries oxygen to the rest of the body and after giving up its
oxygen to all the cells, it has little oxygen, this blood is called
deoxygenated blood
2. Coronary
a. Movement of blood through the tissues of the heart
b. Heart → Tissues of the heart → Back to heart
i. The right and loft coronary artery branch off from the aorta
ii. To carry oxygen and glucose to the heart (cardiac muscles)

● Double Circulation
○ Blood passes through the heart twice
○ It move from the pulmonary circulation (between the heart and lungs) and into the
systemic circulation (between the heart and the rest of the body)
○ Advantages:
■ Blood enters the pulmonary circulation at a low pressure, ensuring
sufficient time for blood to be fully oxygenated before returning to the
heart
■ Blood is pumped into the systemic circulation at high pressure, ensuring
oxygenated blood is quickly distributed to all the tissues in the body
 Type of Blood Vessels Function

Arteries - carry blood rich in oxygen from the

heart to the rest of the body
- carry blood rich in digested food,
which is absorbed from the small
intestine

Vein - carry blood that is poor in oxygen and

rich in carbon dioxide and waste
substances towards the heart

Capillaries - carry oxygen and digested food in the

blood to the cells in the body
- transport carbon dioxide and waste
substances away from the cells
- this exchange allows every cell to
function effectively

Heart
Structure of the heart

● Atria (left and right atrium):

○ Have relatively thinner walls to force blood into the ventricles
● Right Ventricle:
○ Has relatively thick muscular walls to move blood into the pulmonary circulation
(heart → lungs → heart)
● Left Ventricle:
○ Has thicker muscular walls than the right ventricle as it has to pump blood into
the systemic circulation (heart → rest of the body → heart)

SUMMARY

Atria (left & right Right Ventricle Left Ventricle

 atrium) [deoxygenated] [Oxygenated]

Muscular walls Thin Thick Thicker (than right)

Pressure Low High Higher (than right)

Direction of blood To the ventricles Heart → Lungs → Heart → Rest of the

Heart body → Heart

Arteries and veins are not the blood that determines what it is, it's the direction of blood.
Vein carries blood to the heart
Artery carries blood away from the heart

The left and right atrium receives blood while the left and right ventricle pumps the blood out.
The heart has two sides, separated by muscles (medium septum) so that oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood do not mix. Between the atrium and ventricle there is a valve.

● Arteries: Transports blood away from the heart

○ Aorta: Oxygenated Blood (to the rest of the body)
○ Pulmonary artery: Deoxygenated blood (to lungs)
● Veins: Transports blood into the heart
○ Vena Cava: Deoxygenated blood (from the rest of the body)
○ Pulmonary Vein: Oxygenated blood (from lungs)
● Valves: Prevents backflow of blood
○ Semilunar (SL) Valves: Pulmonary and aortic valve
○ Atrioventricular (AV) Valves: bicuspid and tricuspid valves
● Septum: Separates oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from mixing
● Chordae Tendineae (heartstrings): Holding the AV valves in place while the heart is
pumping blood
Pathway of Blood through Heart
1. Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart via the vena cava into the right atrium
2. The right atrium contracts and blood flows into the right ventricle
3. The right ventricle contracts and blood leaves the heart and enters the lungs via the
pulmonary arteries
4. Oxygenated blood from the lungs flow to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins
5. The left ventricle contracts and blood leaves the heart via the aorta and is pumped to the
rest of the body

Cardiac Cycle (Systole and Diastole)

Systole: Contract
Diastole: Relax

1. Atrial Systole (atrium → Ventricle)

a. Atrial walls contract
i. Blood pressure increases
b. Ventricular walls relax
c. AV valves open
d. SL valves close
e. Blood flows into the ventricles
2. Ventricular Systole (Ventricle → out of the heart)
a. Ventricular walls contract
i. Blood pressure increases
b. Atrial walls relax
c. AV valves close
d. SL valves open
e. Blood is pushed out into the aorta and pulmonary artery
3. Ventricular Diastole
 a. Ventricular walls relax
i. Blood pressure decreases
b. AV valves open
i. Reason: There is a passive flow of blood from the veins into the atria
c. SL valves close
d. Blood flows into the atria from the vena cava and pulmonary vein
4. The cycle repeats itself

Step Process Description

1 Atrial Systole Atrium contract (pressure

increases here) to pump
blood through the opened AV
valves to the ventricles

2 Ventricular Systole Ventricles contract (pressure

increase here) to pump blood
through the opened SL
valves to aorta and
pulmonary artery out of the
heart

3 Ventricular diastole Ventricles relax (pressure

decreases here) for blood to
flow through the opened AV
valves back into the heart to
the ventricles

4 Atrial systole (repeat) The cycle repeats itself again

Blood Vessels
1. Artery
a. Thick and elastic muscular wall (To withstand high blood pressure)
b. Small lumen
c. Large in size
d. Transports oxygenated blood away from the heart
e. High blood pressure
2. Vein
a. Thin muscular wall
b. Large lumen
c. Large in size
d. Transports deoxygenated blood to the heart
e. Low blood pressure
f. Have valves to prevent backflow of blood
3. Capillary
a. One-cell thick
 b. Small lumen
c. Small in size
d. Allows exchange of substances between blood and tissues/body cells

Artery Vein Capillary

Features of Muscular walls Thick and elastic Thin One-cell thick

blood vessel
Lumen Small Large Small

Valve (to prevent Absent Present Absent

backflow of
blood)

Size Large Large Small

Features of Direction of Away from the To the heart Substances

blood carries Blood heart diffuse between
blood and
tissues/body
cells

Oxygen content High (except Low (except Mid

pulmonary pulmonary vein)
artery)

Carbon dioxide Low (except High (except Mid

content pulmonary pulmonary vein)
artery)

Blood pressure High Low Mid

● Artery branches into numerous arterioles (smaller arteries)
● Arterioles branch into a network of capillaries
○ Food and oxygen pass from capillaries to the cells
○ Carbon dioxide and other waste substances are passed from the cells to the
capillaries
● Capillaries drain the blood into venules (smaller veins)
● Venules join to form veins

Diffusion in the Circulatory System

● In the capillaries, blood carries nutrients or digested foods such as glucose and amino
acids from the digestive system to the body cells while the red blood cells carry oxygen
○ The concentration of each of these is higher than the cytoplasm of the body cells
via diffusion
● Undergoing cellular respiration, the concentration of carbon dioxide and other waste
products such as urea in the cytoplasm of the body cells is higher than in the blood
 ○ The carbon dioxide molecules move from the body cells to blood plasma via
diffusion
Diffusion in the Respiratory System
● Exchange of gases occurs in the human lungs by diffusion
○ Blood entering the blood vessel have a higher concentration of carbon dioxide
and a lower concentration of oxygen than the lungs’ alveoli (tiny air sacs in lungs)
○ Oxygen diffuses from the lungs’ alveoli into the bloodstreams, then into the red
blood cells
○ Blood leaving the blood vessels have a higher concentration of oxygen and a
lower concentration of carbon dioxide than the lungs’ alveoli

Blood
● Acts as a transport medium carrying:
○ Soluble food substances (glucose, amino acids, fats)
○ Waste products (urea, carbon dioxide)
○ Hormones
○ Thermal Energy
○ Oxygen
Red Blood Cells
● Constitute 99% of the cells in the blood
● Produced in the bone marrow
● Destroyed at the spleen
● Limited lifespan of 120 days
● Structure and function
○ Function: Transport oxygen (only) from the lungs to all cells
○ Structure:
■ Contains haemoglobin (red pigment)
● Combines with oxygen easily (oxyhaemoglobin)
● This helps absorb oxygen quickly and transport around the body
■ Does not contain a nucleus (largest organelle in the cell)
● To contain more haemoglobin
● For transport of more oxygen
■ Biconcave shape
● Increases surface area to volume ratio of the cell
● Increases the rate of diffusion of oxygen in and out of the cell
■ Elastic
● To change shape
● Easily squeeze through blood capillaries (which can be smaller
than the diameter of a red blood cell)
Plasma
● About 90% water (pale yellow liquid)
● Substances are dissolved and transported, such as
○ Proteins (Plasma proteins, antibodies)
○ Mineral salts (chlorides, calcium, sodium)
 ○ Soluble food substances (glucose, amino acids, fats)
○ Waste products (urea, carbon dioxide)
○ Hormones
○ Ions
White Blood Cells
1. Phagocytosis
a. Definition: The process of engulfing and ingesting foreign particles e.g. bacteria
b. Type: Phagocytes
■ Appearance: Lobed nucleus
■ Function: Able to engulf, ingest and digest foreign particles
2. Antibody Formation
a. Structure:
■ Mobile
1. They are able to move
2. Change their shape
3. Squeeze through the walls of the thinnest blood capillaries
■ Colourless (they do not contain haemoglobin)
■ Irregular in shape
■ Each contains a nucleus
b. Type: Lymphocytes
■ Appearance: Large rounded nucleus
■ Function: Produce antibodies against microorganisms
1. Bind to bacteria
2. Cause their surface membrane to rupture
3. Bacterial cells clump together
4. Toxins produced by bacteria are neutralised
3. Tissue Rejection
a. Tissue or organ transplant involves replacing damaged or diseased tissue or
organ with healthy tissue or organ from the same person or a donor
b. The body may produce antibodies to destroy the transplant
c. Ways to reduce the risk of tissue rejection
■ Tissue match
■ Use of immunosuppressive drugs
Platelets
● Not true cells but fragments of cytoplasm which are membrane-bound
● Clots blood when there is an open wound/damage to blood vessels so as to:
○ Prevent excessive blood loss
○ Seal wounds to prevent foreign bodies likes bacteria and viruses from entering
wound

Blood Groups
● Antigens: Special proteins the surfaces of red blood cells contain
● Antibodies: Produced by the white blood cells and contained in the human blood
plasma
 A B AB O

Antigen (red Antigen A Antigen B Antigen A and B No antigens

blood cell)

Antibody Antibody B Antibody A No antibodies Antibodies A

(plasma) and B

Receive from A and O B and O AB, A, B and O O

Donate to A and AB B and AB AB A, B, AB and O

● Agglutination
○ Clumping of red blood cells
○ Occurs when the recipient receives a blood type that has antigens that the
recipient’s own blood reacts with its antibodies
○ Can result in death

Coronary Heart Disease

● Coronary artery
○ Where: On the external structure of the heart, branch off from the aorta
○ Function: Carries blood rich in oxygen and glucose to the muscles in the walls of
the heart
● How coronary heart disease (atherosclerosis) is formed:
1. Cholesterol and fats are accumulated and deposited on inner walls of the
coronary arteries, forming plaque
2. The lumen of the coronary arteries become narrower and become blocked
(occlusion), developing a rough surface
a. This can increase the risk of a blood clot being former (thrombosis) which
can completely cut off blood supply to the heart muscles
3. Blood containing glucose and oxygen cannot be transported to the heart muscles
4. Heart muscles cannot carry out respiration to release enough energy
5. Heart muscles cannot contract, leading to angina (chest pain) and causing a
heart attack where the heart muscle cells die
a. Heart Attack:
i. Due to insufficient supply of blood to the heart muscles, they do
not receive sufficient oxygen and glucose
ii. The heart muscle dies and can no longer pump blood to various
parts of the body

SUMMARY

1. Buildup of fatty substances on inner surfaces of coronary arteries

 2. Lumen of arteries is narrowed

3. Reduced blood flow to the heart muscles

4. Heart muscle cells receive reduced oxygen and glucose supply

5. May lead to a heart attack

● How to treat coronary heart disease:

○ Coronary bypass surgery:
■ A vein from the patient’s leg has been grafted between the aorta and the
coronary artery beyond/below the blockage
■ This allows blood flow to the heart muscles
● Factors causing coronary heart disease:
○ Smoking
○ Stress
○ High fat/cholesterol diet
○ Sedentary lifestyle/lack of regular exercise
● Methods to prevent coronary heart disease:
○ Avoid smoking
○ Proper stress management
○ Proper diet
○ Regular physical exercise
Human Digestive System
Why do we need food?
1. Provides us with energy to do work
2. Maintains a healthy body
3. For growth of new cells and tissues
4. Repairs damaged tissues

Why food needs to be digested

● Carbohydrates, fats and proteins are insoluble and too big to pass through the cell
membranes and be absorbed into the bloodstream
● Hence, these molecules need to be broken down (or hydrolysed) into simpler, more
soluble and more diffusible molecules before they can be absorbed into the bloodstream
and transported into the body cells
● On the other hand, glucose and amino acids are small, soluble molecules which can
pass through the selectively permeable cell surface membrane to enter cells

Terms & Definitions:

1. Ingestion: The intake of food (mouth)
2. Digestion: The physical as well as chemical breakdown of large insoluble food
molecules into smaller soluble food molecules (begins in the mouth, continues in the
stomach and ends in the small intestine
3. Absorption: The entry of soluble food molecules into the blood and then cells (small
and large intestines)
4. Egestion: The removal of undigested food from the body (through the anus)

Types of Nutrients
1. Carbohydrates
a. Function: Provides our body with energy
b. E.g. starch and sugars
2. Fats
a. Function:
i. Provide our body with energy (twice that of carbohydrates)
ii. Keep our body warm
b. E.g. butter, cooking oils, oily fish, meat, peanuts
3. Proteins
a. Function:
i. Used for growth and repair of damaged tissues
ii. Provide energy when there are insufficient carbohydrates and fats
b. E.g. fish, meat, egg white, cheese, beans and nuts
4. Vitamins and minerals
a. Function:
i. Proper functioning of cells
ii. For reactions in cells to take place
 b. E.g. vegetables, fruits, meat
5. Dietary fibre
a. Function: Helps bulk up faeces for easy defecation
b. E.g. cellulose from plant materials (vegetables and fruits) and any food
substance that cannot be digested

Parts of the Digestive System

1. Alimentary canal
a. Mouth
b. Oesophagus
c. Stomach
d. Small intestine
e. Large intestine
f. Rectum
g. Anus
2. Associated organs
a. Salivary gland
b. Pharynx
c. Liver
d. Gallbladder
e. Pancreas

Types of Digestion Process

Type What Function

Physical/Mechanical ● Mechanical/physical To increase the surface area

breakdown of large for enzymes to work on
pieces of food into
smaller pieces
● No new products are
formed

Chemical ● Process whereby To allow food substances to

large and complex enter the bloodstream
substances are through the intestinal wall
broken down into
smaller and simpler
substances by the
action of enzymes
● New products are
formed

Digestion (Organ)

Mouth (only starch/carbohydrates)

pH 7 (neutral)

Function Site where physical/mechanical and chemical

digestion of food is initiated

Physical/mechanical digestion ● Teeth

○ What: Break down food into
smaller pieces
○ Function: For easy
swallowing down the pharynx
and oesophagus
● Salivary Glands
○ What: Secretes saliva (mucus
and water)
○ Function: Moisten food to
lubricate food for easy swallow

Chemical digestion ● Salivary glands

○ Contains salivary amylase
○ Starch/Carbohydrates →
Maltose

Oesophagus
pH -

Function ● Transfers food from the pharynx into

the stomach via peristalsis
○ A series of wave -like muscle
contractions and relaxation
○ Helps to squeeze food along
the alimentary canal

Physical/mechanical digestion Peristalsis (as seen above) → “A series of

wave-like muscle contractions that move food
through the digestive tract”

Chemical digestion NIL (but some saliva from the mouth is also
swallowed down)

Stomach (only protein)

pH 2 (highly acidic)

Function ● Secretes gastric juice

 ○ Containing protease to digest
proteins to amino acids
○ Containing hydrochloric acid
which kills bacteria

Physical/mechanical digestion ● Muscular Walls

○ Churn and mix food with
gastric juice to form chyme
(vomit)
■ Made up of
hydrochloric acid,
pepsin, mucus and
water

Chemical digestion ● Protease

○ Protein → Amino acids

Adaptations ● Muscular wall

● Mucus
○ Prevents the stomach from
digesting itself by providing a
lining that bathes the interior of
the stomach
○ Acts as a barrier against
protease and hydrochloric acid
● Hydrochloric acid
○ Strongly acidic environment to
kill bacteria/microorganisms
○ Causes low pH in the stomach
Stomach can temporarily store chyme for 2 to
6 hours before emptying into the small
intestine

Pancreas
pH 7-8 (slightly alkaline)

Function ● Secretes enzyme-containing

pancreatic juice to digest food

Physical/mechanical digestion NIL

Chemical digestion ● Pancreatic glands

○ Starch → Maltose
■ Pancreatic amylase
○ Protein → Polypeptides
■ Pancreatic protease
○ Fats → Fatty acids + Glycerol
■ Pancreatic lipase
 Adaptations ● Responsible for the alkaline
conditions

Liver & Gallbladder

pH -

Function ● Liver
○ Produces bile
● Gallbladder
○ Stores bile
○ Releases bile into small
intestine via bile ducts when
required

Physical/mechanical digestion ● Bile

○ Emulsifies fats into tiny fat
droplets
■ Purpose: To increase
the surface area to
volume ratio for
digestion by lipase to
speed up digestion

Chemical digestion NIL

Adaptations ● Bile emulsifies fats into tiny fat

droplets
● Neutralise the acidic chyme
● Responsible for the alkaline
conditions in the small intestine

Small Intestine (fats, maltose, polypeptides)

pH 8-9 (slightly alkaline)
● Due to bile in intestinal juice and
pancreatic juice

Function ● Secretes enzyme-containing intestinal

juice to digest food in the small
intestine
● Absorption:
○ Glucose and amino acids are
absorbed into the blood
capillary of the villi
○ Fatty acids and glycerol are
absorbed into the lacteal of the
villi via diffusion
Physical/mechanical digestion NIL

Chemical digestion ●
Intestinal epithelial cells
○ Maltose → Glucose
■ Intestinal maltase
○ Proteins → Amino Acids
■ Intestinal protease
○ Fats → Fatty acids + glycerol
■ Intestinal lipase
End products of complete digestion of
food:
1. Glucose molecules
a. Cells use glucose during
respiration to provide energy
2. Amino acids
a. Combine to form proteins
i. Used for growth of new
cells and repair of
damaged tissues
3. Glycerol and fatty acids
a. Combine to form parts which
are stored in the body
i. Used to provide energy
ii. Used to keep our
bodies warm

Adaptations ● Very long (~6m)

○ Function: Increases the time
for more complete absorption
of food
● Numerous folds consisting of villi
in the inner walls
○ Function: Increases the
surface area to volume ratio
for faster absorption of food
substances
● Supplied with many blood
capillaries
○ Function: Helps to transport
away absorbed nutrients
quickly, maintaining a steep
concentration gradient for
continued absorption to occur
● Villi epithelium is very thin, only
one layer thick
○ Function: Allows for easier
absorption by diffusion of food
molecules across the thin villi
epithelium into the
bloodstream
Large Intestine (+ Rectum & Anus)
pH -

Function ● Large intestine

○ Site of absorption of water and
dissolved ions from undigested
food
■ Only a little bit of
absorption as the small
intestine absorbs the
majority
● Rectum
○ Temporary storage of faeces
● Anus
○ Faeces is expelled from the
body through egestion

Physical/mechanical digestion NIL

Chemical digestion NIL

Adaptations ● Peristalsis
○ To move chyme slowly to
enable it to remain in the large
intestine for a longer period of
time
■ So that more water and
dissolved ions can be
absorbed
● Secretes mucus
○ To lubricate solidifying faecal
matter

● Diarrhoea: Inadequate reabsorption of water due to infections or diseases

○ Increase in bowel movements
● Constipation: Absorption of too much water
○ Faeces are too hard and difficult to egest

Enzymes
● Definition: Complex proteins that speed up the rate of chemical reactions
○ Digestive enzymes in particular speed up the process of digestion by breaking up
large food molecules into smaller food molecules
○ Highly specific where each enzyme can only work on one type of food substance
Chemical Digestion Summary (nutrient)

Starch/carbohydrates Protein Fats

Mouth Starch → Maltose

● pH 7 ● Salivary gland
(neutral)

Stomach Protein → amino

● pH 2 (acidic) acids
● Protease

Small intestine Maltose → Glucose Proteins → Amino Fats → Fatty acids +

● pH 8 ● Intestinal acids Glycerol
(alkaline) maltase ● Intestinal ● Intestinal lipase
protease

Pancreas Starch → Maltose Protein → Amino Fats → Fatty acids +

● Pancreatic acids Glycerol
amylase ● Pancreatic ● Pancreatic lipase
protease

Physical Digestion Summary (nutrient)

Organ Feature

Mouth ● Teeth (chewing)

 ○ What: Break down food into
smaller pieces
○ Function: To increase surface
area to volume ratio of food for
after digestion
● Tongue
○ What: Roll food into bolus
(ball-shape)
○ Function: For easy
swallowing down the pharynx
and oesophagus
● Salivary Glands
○ What: Secretes saliva (mucus
and water)
○ Function: Moisten food to
lubricate food for easy
swallowing

Stomach ● Muscular walls (churning)

○ Churn and mix food with
gastric juice to form chyme
(vomit)
■ Made up of
hydrochloric acid,
pepsin, mucus and
water

Liver (& gallbladder) ● Bile (emulsification)

○ Emulsifies fats into tiny fat
droplets
■ Purpose: To increase
the surface area to
volume ratio for
digestion by lipase to
speed up digestion

Oesophagus ● Peristalsis (not actually ‘Physical

Digestion’)
Stomach ○ Moves food
■ Oesophagus: larynx to
Small Intestine stomach
■ Small intestine: along
Large Intestine the alimentary canal
○ Stomach
■ Breaks up food further
into smaller pieces
■ Helps food mix with
gastric juice
○ Large Intestine
■ Move chyme slowly so
 it can stay longer
■ More water and
dissolved ions can then
be absorbed
Human Reproductive System
Sexual vs. Asexual
Sexual Asexual

● Requires two parents (male and Production of new organisms from a single
female) parent
● Involves gametes (sex cells)

Occurs in multicellular organisms Occurs in unicellular organisms (usually)

● New organisms are not identical to the New cells are identical to the parent
parents
● Inherits characteristics from both
parents
Gametes
Sperm (Male) Ovum (Female)

Size Smallest cell in the human Largest cell in the human

body body

Quantity Produced in large numbers Only 1 ovum is released each

(Millions) month
● Indefinite ● Definite (menopause)

Life Span 3 days (usually sperm lives 3 days

longer)

Mobility Able to move on its own Unable to move on its own

Male Reproductive System

Organ Function

Testis (plural: testes) ● There are two testis (at least there
should be)
○ Produces male sex cells called
sperms
○ Produces the male sex
hormone, testosterone
■ Development and
maintenance of typical
masculine physical
characteristics

Sex glands ● Produces fluids in which the sperms

swim in
○ The mixture of sperms and
fluid is called semen
● Contains nutrients and enzymes
which nourish the sperms and provide
energy for sperm to swim actively

Penis ● Deposits semen into the vagina

● Erectile organ
● Erection happens when the spongy
tissue in the penis is filled with blood

Scrotum ● Bag of skin which holds the testes

outside the body
 ○ To help maintain a lower
temperature for optimum
development of sperms

Sperm duct ● Carries sperm from the testes to the

penis

Urethra ● A tube which carries sperms and urine

at different times out of the body

Female Reproductive System

Organ Function

Ovary ● There are two ovaries

○ Produces ova (egg cell)
○ Produces female sex hormone
called oestrogen and
progesterone
■ Oestrogen: Ovulation
■ Progesterone:
Pregnancy

Oviduct ● A tube which carries egg cells

released from the ovary to the uterus
● Site of fertilisation

Uterus ● Where an embryo is implanted and

foetus is developed
● Smooth innermost lining
(endometrium) is shed during
menstruation
● Smooth muscle tissue in the walls of
the uterus contracts to push the foetus
out during birth

Cervix ● The narrow opening of the uterus

● Childbirth:
○ Opens to allow delivery of
foetus
● Menstruation:
○ Opens to allow menstrual
blood to flow out into the
vagina
● Pregnancy: Closes

Vagina ● A tube which links the uterus to the

outside of the body
● Where semen and hence sperms are
deposited
 ● The passage through which a baby is
born
● Slightly acidic as its innermost layer
secretes acids to deter growth of
harmful microorganisms

Stages in Reproduction
1. Fertilisation
a. Definition: The process where the nucleus of the sperm (male gamete) fuses
with the nucleus of the ovum (female gamete) to form a zygote (fertilised egg
cell)
i. Nucleus of the cell contains the genetic information (DNA) in
chromosomes
1. Sperm Cell: 23 Chromosomes
2. Egg Cell (ovum): 23 Chromosomes
3. Every other human cell: 46 Chromosomes (23 PAIRS)
ii. The process of passing down the genetic material from one generation to
the next during sexual reproduction is called heredity
1. Thus, a child receives half its genetic information from the mother
(through the ovum) and half from the father (through the sperm)
2. A new individual formed through sexual reproduction receives a
unique combination of genetic information, resulting in variation
b. Process:
i. Sperms deposited in the vagina during sexual intercourse travel up the
uterus through the oviducts to the ovum
ii. If an ovum is present in the oviduct, fertilisation may take place
iii. The fertilised ovum(zygote) divides repeatedly to for the embryo
iv. The embryo moves into the uterus and is implanted on the uterine lining
v. The woman is now pregnant. Congrats
c. Development of a fertilised ovum:
i. Sperm + Ovum
ii. Zygote (one fertilised cell)
iii. Blastocyst ( a rapidly dividing ball of cells)
iv. Embryo (ball of cells)
v. Foetus
vi. Baby (outside of mother’s body)
2. Twins:

Identical Fraternal (non-identical)

Genetically same as each other Genetically different from each other

One sperm fertilise one ovum which then Two sperm cells fertilise two separate eggs
 splits into two

Same gender Same or opposite genders

Puberty
● Definition:
○ The period when an adolescent becomes sexually mature and capable of
reproducing
○ The stage of rapid human growth and development in which a person becomes
physically mature
● Occurs between ages of 11-16 years
● Begins when sex hormones (e.g. oestrogen in ovaries and testosterone in testis) are
produced

Male Female

● Height increases rapidly

● Body odour may develop
● Pubic and underarm hair starts to grow

● Penis, testes and scrotum grow larger ● Hips grow wider, broader and rounder
● Production of sperm starts ● Breasts grows larger and begin to
● Voice box enlarges and voice develop
deepens ● Uterus grows larger
● Facial hair starts to grow ● Menstruation and ovulation starts
● Muscle strength increases
Sex hormones cause these changes to the body and body functions during puberty

Menstrual Cycle
● 28 days in total (may differ due to stress, health conditions etc)
○ Day 1-5 Menstruation
■ Definition: The discharge of the uterus tissues through the vagina when
an ovum remains unfertilised
● The dead ovum and the uterine lining is shed
● Discharged out of the vagina
○ Day 6-10: Repair and growth of the uterine lining
■ The uterine lining thickens
■ It is richly supplied with blood vessels
● To provide nutrients and oxygen to support the development of an
embryo
○ Day 11-17: Fertile Period
■ Day 14: Ovulation
 ● Definition: A mature ovum is released into the oviducts (only 1
ovary release 1 ovum, alternating)
● Sexual intercourse around this period is likely to result in
pregnancy
○ Day 18-28: Cycle Repeats
■ Fertilisation: Continued thickening of the uterine lining and maintains in
thickness ✓
■ Fertilisation: The thickened uterine lining and the unfertilised ovum break
down and are discharged through the vagina (menstruation) ⛌

Contraception & Birth Control

1. Temporary
a. Natural Means:
i. Abstinence: Not having sexual intercourse at all
ii. Rhythm method: Refraining from sexual intercourse during the fertile
period and ovulation
b. Artificial Means:
i. Birth control pills: Contain chemicals that mimic female hormones that
prevent ovulation
ii. Diaphragm (female): A rubber or plastic barrier that is fitted by a doctor
over the cervix which prevents sperms from entering the uterus
iii. Condom (male): A thin rubber tube that is put on the erect penis before
intercourse which prevents sperms from being deposited in the vagina
before sexual intercourse
iv. Ultra-uterine device (IUD): A plastic or metal coil or loop inserted by a
doctor or trained person which prevents the fertilised ovum from being
implanted in the uterine wall (copper → kills sperms and prevents them
from reaching the egg)
2. Permanent (sterilisation)
a. Vasectomy (Male)
i. Both sperm ducts are cut and tied
ii. Sperm cannot be released through penis
iii. Sperm can still be produced
b. Tubal Ligation (Female)
i. Both oviducts are cut and tied
ii. Egg cells will not be able to reach the uterus
iii. Sperm cannot reach the egg

STIS
● Definition: Infections which are spread through sexual contact with an infected person
to another
Syphilis Gonorrhoea Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS)
Causative Agent Bacteria Bacteria Virus
● Human
Immunodeficiency
Virus (HIV)

Modes of ● Contact with body ● Contact with bodily ● Contact with bodily
Transmission fluids fluids fluids
● Contact with ● From mother to child ● Contact with
infected blood during pregnancy or infected blood
● From mother to childbirth ● From mother to child
child during during pregnancy,
pregnancy or childbirth or
childbirth breastfeeding

Symptoms ● Blindness ● Men: ● HIV

● Inability to move ○ Experience ○ Attacks the
some parts of burning pain immune
body while system
● Untreated: Health urinating ○ Causes the
failure, insanity or ● Female: person to
even death ○ Pelvic pain lose
○ Pus immunity and
discharge protection
from vagina against
○ Pain during common
sexual infections
intercourse ● AIDS:
● Unable to bear ○ Final stage of
children if the HIV
disease spreads ○ The immune
● Some babies: system is
○ Becomes severely
blind when damaged
the bacteria ○ Suffer from
enters their severe
eyes during weight loss,
childbirth lung
infections
and brain
infection

Treatment Antibiotics Antibiotics NIL

● Prevention Methods:
○ Abstinence from sexual activity
○ Avoid having multiple sex partners
○ Avoid sharing personal instruments that are likely to break the skin and become
contaminated with blood (e.g. injection needles, razors, towels etc)
○ Use condoms during sexual intercourse
All Definitions

Concept Definition

Force (N) A push or pull where an effect can be

observed

Resultant Force The overall force after considering all forces

acting on a body, also known as the net force

Pressure (Pa) The force acting perpendicularly per unit area

Work Done (J) The energy transferred when a force moves

an object over a distance in the direction of
the force.

Energy (J) The capacity/ability for work done

Law of Conservation of Energy:

In a closed system, energy can be converted from one form to another, but it cannot be
created or destroyed

Heat The transfer of thermal energy from a region

of higher temperature to a region of lower
temperature until thermal equilibrium is
achieved between the two regions

Thermal Energy (J) The energy in body due to its temperature

Temperature (K) The measure of the average kinetic energy of

molecules in a body (movement of particles)

Radiation The process by which thermal energy is

transferred through the emission and
transmission of infra-red waves without
requiring a physical medium (can take place
in a vacuum)

Conduction The transfer of thermal energy between

neighbouring particles through a medium

Convection The transfer of thermal energy due to the

movement of heated particles of fluids (liquids
and gases)
Ionic Bonds The electrostatic force of attraction between
oppositely charged ions

Covalent Bonds The electrostatic force of attraction between

the positive nuclei of each atom for two
nonmetal atoms for a shared pair of electrons

Law of Conservation of Mass:

● Mass is neither created nor destroyed in any chemical reaction

Acids A substance that dissociates/ionises to

produce hydrogen ions (H+ ions) when
dissolved in water

Alkali A substance that dissociates/ionises to

produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in
water

Species A group of organisms that do not normally

breed with members of other groups

Population A group of organisms of the same species

(living in a particular habitat)

Community Different populations of organisms living

together in the same habitat

Habitat Area or natural environment in which an

organism or population lives (includes only
the abiotic factors of an ecosystem)

Ecosystem A system formed by the interaction between

different communities of organisms
interacting with one another with their abiotic
environment

Food Chains A sequence of feeding relationships between

organisms which shows how food and energy
are transferred from one organism to another

Food Web Made of interlinked food chains involving

organisms from the same ecosystem

Pyramid of Numbers A graphical representation of the number of

individuals in a trophic level in a food chain at
any one time

Pyramid of Biomass A graphical representation of the dry mass of

organisms at each trophic level in a given
ecosystem at any one time
Bioaccumulation Occurs when inorganic products such as
mercury is not excreted from but accumulate
in the bodies of the sea animals they live in
over time

Bioamplification Occurs in the food chain as the (smallest size

organisms) is eaten by the (medium size
organisms) and become concentrated in the
bodies of the (biggest size organisms) which
are the final consumers

Decomposers Organisms that consume nutrients on

molecular level and break down the complex
nutrients in faeces and decaying bodies of
plants and animals through decomposition

Carbon Sink An area that stores carbon compounds for an

indefinite period

Carbon Source A place/process/either living or non-living that

releases carbon dioxide

Electrical Current (A) The rate of flow of electric charges in a circuit

per unit time

Potential Difference (Voltage/V) The work done to drive a unit charge across
an electrical component

Resistance (Ω) The ratio of the potential difference across it

to the current flowing through it

Electric Power (W) The rate at which the amount of electrical

energy is converted to other forms of energy
in one second

Diffusion The net movements of particles from a region

of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration down a concentration gradient

Osmosis The net movement of water molecules from a

region of higher water potential to a region of
lower water potential through a partially
permeable membrane

● Arteries: Transport blood away from the heart

○ Aorta: Oxygenated blood (to rest of the body)
○ Pulmonary artery: Deoxygenated blood (to lungs)
● Veins: Transport blood into the heart
○ Vena Cava: Deoxygenated blood (from the rest of the body)
○ Pulmonary vein: Oxygenated blood (from lungs)
● Valves: Prevents backflow of blood
 ○ Semilunar (SL) valves: Pulmonary and aortic valves
○ Atrioventricular (AV) valves: Bicuspid(left) and tricuspid(right) valves

Ingestion The intake of food (mouth)

Digestion The physical as well as chemical breakdown

of large insoluble food molecules into smaller
soluble food molecules (begins in the mouth,
continues in the stomach and ends in the
small intestine

Absorption The entry of soluble food molecules into the

blood and then cells (small and large
intestines)

Egestion The removal of undigested food from the

body (through the anus)

Enzymes Complex proteins that speed up the rate of

chemical reactions

Fertilisation The process where the nucleus of the sperm

(male gamete) duses with the nucleus of the
ovum (female gamete) to form a zygote
(fertilised egg cell)

Puberty The period when an adolescent becomes

sexually mature and capable of reproducing

Menstruation The discharge of the uterus tissues through

the vagina when an ovum remains
unfertilised

Sexually Transmitted Illnesses (STIs) Infections which are spread through sexual
contact with an infected person
All Formulas

Concept Formula

Turning effect/Moment Force x distance moved perpendicular to the

direction of the force
● Force: N
● Distance: m

Pressure (Pa) Pressure =

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
● Force: N
2
● Area: 𝑚

Work Done (J) W=Fxd

● Force: N
● Distance: m

Gravitational Potential Energy GPE = mgh

● Mass: kg
2
● Gravitational field: 10N/kg / 10m/𝑠

Temperature Conversion:
● K = ºC + 273
● ºC = K - 273
○ K is larger than ºC

Special Compounds:
● Water → H2O
● Ammonia → NH3
● Ammonium → NH4+
● Methane → CH4

Acid (H+ ions):

1. Hydrochloric acid: 𝐻𝐶ℓ
2. Sulfuric acid: 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
3. Phosphoric acid: 𝐻3𝑃𝑂4
4. Nitric acid: 𝐻𝑁𝑂3

Alkali (OH- ions):

1. Sodium hydroxide: 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
2. Calcium hydroxide (limewater): 𝐶𝐴(𝑂𝐻)2
3. Calcium carbonate (limestone): 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3
4. Calcium hydroxide (slaked lime): 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
5. Calcium oxide (quick lime): 𝐶𝑎𝑂
Ion:
● Nitrate -> NO3-
● Sulfate -> SO42-
● Phosphate -> PO43-
● Hydroxide -> OH-
● Carbonate -> CO32-
● Zinc (II) -> Zn2+
● Silver (I) -> Ag+
● Lead (II) -> Pb^2+
● Copper (I) OR Copper (II) -> Cu^+ OR Cu^2+
● Iron (II) OR Iron (IIII) -> Fe^2+ OR Fe^3+
● Aluminium (III) -> Al^3+
○ “IDE” - ion form (charged form) of the atoms

Unreactive Metals:
● Copper
● Lead
● Gold
● Silver
● Platinum

Acid Reactions:
● Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas
● Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide gas
● Acid + Alkali/Base → Salt + Water

Resistance (Ω) R = V/I

● Resistance: Ω
● Potential difference across the
component: V
● Electric current flowing through it: A

Electrical Power (W) P = E/t

● Power: kWh
● Electrical energy: kWh
● Time: h