Compiled by AKUEB Unit

Gilgit-Baltistan & Chitral

 Table of Contents

CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................................................... 2

MEASUREMENT AND STANDARDS ..................................................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................................................ 19
AREA, VOLUME AND DENSITY ........................................................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................................................................ 32
SPEED AND VELOCITY.......................................................................................................................................... 32
CHAPTER FOUR........................................................................................................................................................... 42
ACCELERATION ...................................................................................................................................................... 42
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................................................................ 52
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF MOTION .................................................................................................................. 52
CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................................................................... 71
FORCE ....................................................................................................................................................................... 71
CHAPTER 7 ................................................................................................................................................................... 78
LAWS OF MOTION .................................................................................................................................................. 78
CHAPTER EIGHT ......................................................................................................................................................... 89
MOMENTUM ............................................................................................................................................................ 89
CHAPTER NINE ............................................................................................................................................................ 96
THERMAL PHYSICS ................................................................................................................................................ 96
CHAPTER TEN ........................................................................................................................................................... 111
LENSES .................................................................................................................................................................... 111
CHAPTER ELEVEN.................................................................................................................................................... 120
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROSTATICS ........................................................................................................... 120
CHAPTER TWELVE ................................................................................................................................................... 130
CIRCUITS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT ............................................................................................................... 130
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................................. 140

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 CHAPTER ONE
MEASUREMENT AND STANDARDS
1.1 Physics and its importance in our daily life
Mankind is often eager to understand natural phenomena. Since the beginning of time, man has
had a keen interest in the wonders of his environment. This explains man’s interest in
understanding how an appliance works. Most of natural phenomena can be explained using the
principles of Nature. For example,
(a) We cannot see an object behind a wall because light travels in a straight line.
(b) Grass appears green because the leaves of the grass absorb all the colors of the spectrum
except green. Green light is reflected; therefore, grass appears green.
1.1.1 What is Physics?
The word ‘Physics’ comes from the Greek word ‘Physikos’ which means knowledge of Nature.
The aim of physics is to explain the fundamental nature of the universe by using the simple
explanations.

Physics is the basic physical science that deals with the structure of matter and the interactions
between the fundamental constituents of the observable universe. In the broadest sense, physics
is concerned with all aspects of nature on both the macroscopic and submicroscopic levels. Its
scope of study encompasses not only the behaviour of objects under the action of given forces
but also the nature and origin of gravitational, electromagnetic, and nuclear force fields. Its
ultimate objective is the formulation of a few comprehensive principles that bring together and
explain all such disparate phenomena. Have you ever considered why and how things around
you work?
The laws of physics help us to answer questions like those given below.

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1.1.2 Importance of Physics in our daily life
What do physicists do? Physicists explore the universe. They try to answer basic questions about
the world. Their investigations range from the study of the vast galaxies which are millions of
kilometers away from us to that of the tiny particles which are smaller than atoms. Many of the
technological marvels we see today are the result of the application of physics. The laws and
concepts of physics can help us to understand the occurrence of natural phenomena around us.
We can apply the knowledge of physics to improve the environment and our standard of living.
The rapid progress in science during the recent years has become possible due to the discoveries
and inventions in the field of physics. The technologies are the applications of scientific
principles. Most of the technologies of our modern society throughout the world are related to
physics.
1. The knowledge obtained from the study of physics is important in other sciences,
including astronomy, biology, chemistry, and geology.
2. There is a close connection between physics and practical developments in engineering,
medicine, and technology. For example, engineers design automobiles and machines by
taking into consideration concepts and theories in physics
3. The study of physics is fast expanding, leading to advances in technology which have in
turn brought many benefits to mankind. The application of these fundamental laws and
theories have enabled engineers and scientists to put satellites into orbit, receive
information from space probes, and improve telecommunications.
4. Research in physics has also led to the use of radioactive materials in the study,
diagnosis, and treatment of certain diseases.
5. The application of physics in the creation of sophisticated medical instruments such as
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), X-ray, computerized tomography (CT) scan are
some examples of its contribution to medical technology
6. Physics helps to improve the quality of life. Theories and principles of physics explain
the operation many modern home appliances, like the television or the microwave oven.
7. Consider the means of transportation such as car and airplanes is made on principles of
mechanics.
8. Refrigerator is based on the principles of thermodynamics.
9. Electricity is used not only to get light and heat but also mechanical energy that derives
fan and electric motors etc.
10. Domestic appliances such as air-conditioners, vacuum cleaners, washing machines and
micro ovens etc. are the fruits of hard work of physicist in the field of physics.
11. Similarly the means of communication such as radio, television, telephone and computer
are the results of applications of physics.

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1.2 Physical Quantities and their units
1.2.1 Physical quantity.
Physics deals with the measurement of physical quantities. A quantity that is measurable is
called a physical quantity. Examples of physical quantities are the room temperature, the volume
of a block of wood, the speed of a car, the pressure of a gas, the weight of a person, etc.

Quantities which cannot be measured are non-physical quantities. Love of a father, fear of a
test, beauty of a mountain are non-physical in nature.
Physical quantities are categorized into base quantities and derived quantities.
Base quantities are physical quantities that cannot be defined in terms of other physical
Quantities.
1.2.2 Unit of a physical quantity
Every physical quantity is expressed as a numerical value in a particular unit of measurement.

The unit is a standardized amount of a physical quantity. There are many different units. A
particular quantity may be written in different units based on the cultural background of the
community.

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Below are some examples.
Mass: grams, kilograms, tons, pounds, ounces
Length: inches, feet, and miles, meters
Time: seconds, minutes, day, hour, and month

1.3 SI Units
1.3.1 Systems of Units
A system of units is the complete set of units, both fundamental and derived, for all kinds of
physical quantities. The common system of units which is used in mechanics are given below:
1. CGS System In this system, the unit of length is centimeter, the unit of mass is gram, and the
unit of time is second.
2. FPS System In this system, the unit of length is foot, the unit of mass is pound, and the unit of
time is second.
3. MKS System In this system, the unit of length is meter, the unit of mass is kilogram, and the
unit of time is second.
4. SI System This system contain seven fundamental units and two supplementary fundamental
units.
The 11th General Conference of Weights and Measures held in Paris in 1960 adopted the
International System of Units, universally abbreviated SI (System International d’Unités in
French) for the recommended practical system of units of measurement.
The SI defines seven base units: meter, kilogram, second, kelvin, ampere, mole, and candela.
Table below shows seven important base quantities and their corresponding SI units.

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1.4 Measurement of Length, Mass, and Time
To communicate the result of a measurement of a certain physical quantity, a unit for the
quantity must be defined. If our fundamental unit of length is defined to be 1.0 meter, for
example, and someone familiar with our system of measurement reports that a wall is 2.0 meters
high, we know that the height of the wall is twice the
Fundamental unit of length. Likewise, if our fundamental unit of mass is defined as1.0 kilogram
and we are told that a person has a mass of 75 kilograms, then that person has a mass 75 times
as great as the fundamental unit of mass.
In 1960 an international committee agreed on a standard system of units for the fundamental
quantities of science, called SI (Système International). Its units of length, mass, and time are the
meter, kilogram, and second, respectively
1.4.1 Length

In 1799 the legal standard of length in France became the meter, defined as one

ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to the North Pole. Until 1960, the

official length of the meter was the distance between two lines on a specific bar of platinum–
iridium alloy stored under controlled conditions. This standard was abandoned for several
reasons, the principal one being that measurements of the separation between the lines were not
precise enough. In 1960 the meter was defined as 1 650 763.73 wavelengths of orange-red light
emitted from a krypton - 86 lamp. In October 1983, this definition was abandoned also, and the
meter was redefined as the distance traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299
792 458 second. This latest definition establishes the speed of light at 299 792 458 meters per
second

1.4.2 Mass

The SI unit of mass, the kilogram, is defined as the mass of a specific platinum–

Iridium alloy cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres,
France

1.4.3 Time

Before 1960, the time standard was defined in terms of the average length of a solar day in the
year 1900. (A solar day is the time between successive appearances of the Sun at the highest
point it reaches in the sky each day.) The basic unit of time, the second, was defined to be (1/60)

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(1/60) (1/24) 5 1/86 400 of the average solar day. In 1967 the second was redefined to take
advantage of the high precision attainable with an atomic clock, which uses the characteristic
frequency of the light emitted from the cesium-133 atom as its “reference clock.” The second is
now defined as 9 192 631 700 times the period of oscillation of radiation from the cesium atom.

1.5 Unit Conversion And Conversion Factors

A unit conversion expresses the same property as a different unit of measurement. For instance,
time can be expressed in minutes instead of hours, while distance can be converted from miles to
kilometers, or feet, or any other measure of length. Often measurements are given in one set of
units, such as feet, but are needed in different units, such as chains. A conversion factor is a
numeric expression that enables feet to be changed to chains as an equal exchange.

A conversion factor is a number used to change one set of units to another, by multiplying or
dividing. When a conversion is necessary, the appropriate conversion factor to an equal value
must be used. For example, to convert inches to feet, the appropriate conversion value is 12
inches equal 1 foot. To convert minutes to hours, the appropriate conversion value is 60 minutes
equal 1 hour.

1.5.1 Conversion between units by conversion factors

The table shows some of the most common units and their equivalents. Make sure you know
these conversions.

Conversion Factors

Length 1 km =1,000 m 1 m = 100 cm 1 cm = 10 mm

Weight 1 ton =1,000 kg 1 kg =1,000 g 1 g =1,000 mg

Capacity (Volume) 1 l =10 d l 1 d l =100 ml 1 l =1,000 ml

Converting larger units to smaller units

To convert a larger unit to a smaller unit (eg m to cm), first check the number of smaller units
needed to make 1 larger unit. Then, multiply that number by the number of larger units.

Converting smaller units to larger units

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To convert a smaller unit to a larger unit (eg cm to m), divide it by the number of smaller units
which are needed to make 1 larger unit.

 To convert from a larger unit to a smaller one, multiply.

 To convert from a smaller unit to a larger one, divide.

Example

1 m=100 cm
So, to convert from m to cm multiply by 100, and to convert from cm to m divide by 100.
For example:
3.2 m=320 cm (3.2×100 =320)
400 cm =4 m (400÷100 =4)
Similarly,

1.5.2 Prefixes and their numerical values

To indicate the units, we use prefixes that express how many times a certain unit is larger or
smaller than a basic or derived unit of measurement.
Prefixes are used for easier recording since it is complicated to write too large or too small
numbers with a lot of zeros. Thus, when we measure some of the magnitudes such as space
distance in the universe or the size of the molecules or atoms and subatomic particles, it is easier
to use prefixes.
A prefix “deci” means that the given size is ten times smaller than the unit in which it stands.
The prefix “deca” means that the given size is ten times larger than the unit in which it stands.
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1.5.3 Unit conversions by prefixes.
We can also use the prefixes for unit conversions by multiplying the given quantity with the
value of the prefix.
e.g. Convert 15km into m.
As we know from the above table,
Kilo is equal to 103 = 1000
Therefore, 15km = (15 x 1000) m = 15000 m
Similarly, for converting 20 cm into m,
20 cm = ( 20 x 10-2) m
= ( 20 x 1/ 102)m
= (20 x 1/ 100) m
= 20/100 m
= 0.2m

1.6 Measuring Instruments:

Measuring instruments are used to measure various physical quantities such as length, mass,
time, volume, etc.”. Measuring instruments used in the past were not so reliable and accurate as

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we use today. e.g. sundial, water clock and other time measuring devices used around 1300 AD
were quite crude. On the other hand, digital clocks and watches used now a-days are highly
reliable and accurate
Physics is a science which involves measurements of various physical quantities
Choosing an appropriate instrument to measure a physical quantity depends on the size of the
measurement and the accuracy needed.
For example, to measure a length, we can choose between
(a) A measuring tape,
(b) A meter rule,
(c) A pair of vernier calipers
(d) A micrometer screw gauge.

1.6.1 Measuring Tape

 A measuring tape is used for
measuring a comparatively long
distance without the need for
accuracy.
 It is often used in sports events such as the long jump, shot-put and javelin.
 It is not accurate in its measurement and has an accuracy of1 cm (i.e. the smallest
division on the tape is 1 cm). However, it is flexible and therefore is useful for measuring
distances or lengths other than a straight line.
 It is also useful for measuring the circumference of a round object, for example the
sizes of the trees in the forest.
 Carpenters use a metal measuring tape for more accurate measurements. It has an
accuracy of 0.1 cm.
 Tailors also use a flexible plastic measuring tape which has an accuracy of 0.1 cm.

1.6.2 Meter Rule or Meter rod

 A meter rule is used to measure lengths from a few cm up to 1 m. A meter rule has an
accuracy of 0.1 cm (i.e. 1 mm).
 It is commonly used in the laboratories to measure length of an object or distance
between two points.

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  It is one meter long which is equal to 100 centimeters. Each centimeter (cm) is divided
into 10 small divisions called millimeter (mm).

One millimeter is the smallest reading that can be

taken using a meter rule and is called its least count of
meter rule”.
While measuring length or distance, eye must be kept
vertically above the reading point. The reading
becomes doubtful if the eye is pointed either left or
right to the reading point as shown.

1.6.3 Vernier Callipers

Vernier callipers is a length measuring instruements devised by a Pierre Vernier in 1631. It can
be used to measure small lengths such as internal or external diameter or length of a cylinder etc.
is called Vernier Calipers
A Vernier Callipers consists of two jaws. One is a fixed jaw with main scale attached to it. The
other jaw is a moveable jaw with the vernier scale as shown

Upper jaws — To measure the internal diameter of an object

Lower jaws — To measure the external diameter or length of an object.
Depth gauge — To measure the depth of an object
Lock screw --- To lock the callipers
The least count of a vernier callipers is given by

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 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠 =
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
Its value is different for different types of vernier callipers as per their varying scales.

Taking a Reading on Vernier Callipers

Let us find the diameter of a solid cylinder using Vernier Callipers.
Place the solid cylinder between jaws of the Vernier Callipers. Close the jaws till they press the
opposite sides of the object gently.
Note the complete divisions of main scale past the vernier scale zero in a tabular form.
Next find the vernier scale division that is coinciding with any division on the main scale
multiply it by least count of Vernier Callipers
Now add main scale reading and vernier scale reading. This is equal to the diameter of the solid
cylinder.
Repeat the above procedure and record at least three observations with the solid cylinder
displaced or rotated each time.
Example
The external measurement (diameter) of a round section piece of steel is measured using a
vernier caliper, metric scale (cm/mm/m).

The main scale is read first and this shows that there are 13mm or 1.3cm divisions before the 0
on the vernier scale. Therefore, the MSR is 13mm or 1.3 cm.
The vernier scale is then read. The best way to do this is to count the number of divisions until
you get to the division that lines up (coincides) with the main scale. This is 21 divisions on the
vernier scale.

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This 21 is multiplied by 0.02 mm or 0.002 cm giving 0.42mm or 0.042 cm as the answer
(0.02mm or 0.002 cm is the least count of the given scale).
Then 1.3 cm and the 0.042cm are added together to give the final measurement ( Total reading)
of 13.42mm or 1.342 cm (the diameter of the piece of round section steel)

1.6.4 Physical Balance

A physical balance is used in the laboratory
to measure the mass of various objects by
comparison. It consists of a beam resting at
the Centre on a fulcrum. The beam carries
scale pans over the hooks on either side.
Unknown mass is placed on the left pan. Find
some suitable standard masses that cause the
pointer to remain at zero on raising the beam.

Method to Find Mass with a Physical Balance

Adjusting the leveling screws with the help of plumb line to level the platform of physical
balance.
Raise the beam gently by turning the arresting knob clockwise. Using balancing screws at the
ends of its beam, bring the pointer at zero position.
Turn the arresting knob to bring the beam back on its supports. Place the given object (stone) on
its left pan.
Place suitable standard masses from the weight box on the right pan. Raise the beam. Lower the
beam if its pointer is not at zero.
Repeat adding or removing suitable standard masses in the right pan till the pointer rests at zero
on raising the beam.
Note the standard masses on the right pan. Their sum is the mass of the object on the left pan.

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1.6.5 Electronic Balance (Digital balance)
Electronic balances have become standard equipment for many
high school and college chemistry departments. They allow the user
to quickly and accurately measure the mass of a substance to a level
of accuracy impossible for traditional balances to achieve. This is
especially important in experiments that require precise amounts of
each substance to achieve the desired results. The popularity of the
electronic balance is also due to its extreme ease of use for any skill
level.

Using an electronic balance

Place the electronic balance on a flat, stable surface indoors.
Press the "ON" button and wait for the balance to show zeroes on the digital screen.
Use tongs or gloves to place the empty container you will use for the substance to be measured
on the balance platform. Fingerprints and other greases from your hands add mass and must be
avoided for accurate measurements.
Press the "Tare" or "Zero" button to automatically deduct the weight of the container from future
calculations. The digital display will show zero again, indicating that the container's mass is
stored in the balance's memory.
Carefully add the substance to the container. Ideally this is done with the container still on the
platform, but it may be removed if necessary. Avoid placing the container on surfaces that may
have substances which will add mass to the container such as powders or grease.
Place the container with the substance back on the balance platform if necessary and record the
mass as indicated by the digital display.

1.6.6 Stopwatch
A stopwatch is used to measure the time interval of an event
There are two types of stopwatches:
i. Mechanical stopwatch
ii. Digital stopwatch
Mechanical Stopwatch
A mechanical stopwatch can measure a time interval up to a minimum

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0.1 second
A mechanical stopwatch has a knob that is used to wind the spring that powers the watch. It
can also be used as a start-stop and reset button. The watch starts when the knob is pressed once.
When pressed second time, it stops the watch while the third press brings the needle back to zero
position.

Digital Stopwatch
Digital stopwatches commonly used in laboratories can measure a time
interval as small as 1/100 second or 0.01 second.
The digital stopwatch starts to indicate the time lapsed as the start/stop
button is pressed. As soon as start/stop button is pressed again, it stops
and indicates the time interval recorded by it between start and stop of an
event. A reset button restores its initial zero setting.

1.7 Scientific notation

One of the fascinations for physicists is dealing with the very large (e.g. the universe) and the
very small (e.g. electrons). Many physical constants (quantities that do not change) are also very
large or very small. This presents a problem: how can writing many digits be avoided? The
answer is to use scientific notation. The speed of light has a value of 299 792 458 m s−1. This can
be rounded to three significant figures as 300 000 000 m s−1. There are a lot of zeros in this and it
would be easy to miss one out or add another. In scientific notation this number is written as 3.00
× 108 m s−1 (to three significant figures).
Let us analyze writing another large number in scientific notation. The mass of the Sun to four
significant figures is 1 989 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg (that is 1989 and twenty-
seven zeros). To convert
this into scientific notation we write it as 1.989 and then we imagine moving the decimal point
30 places to the left (remember we can write as many trailing zeros as we like to a decimal
number without changing
it). This brings our number back to the original number and so it gives the mass of the Sun as
1.989 × 1030 kg.
Similar idea is applied to very small numbers such as the charge on the electron, which has an
accepted value of approximately 0.000 000000 000 000 000 1602 coulombs. Again, we write the
coefficient as 1.602 and we must move the decimal point 19 places to the right in order to bring
0.000 000 000 000 000 000 1602 into this form. The base is always 10 and moving our decimal
point to the right means the exponent is negative. We can write this number as 1.602 × 10−19 C.

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“In scientific notation a number is expressed as some power of ten multiplied by a number
between 1 and 10

Rules for scientific notations.

1. If the given number is multiples of 10 then the decimal point has to move to the left, and
the power of 10 will be positive.
Example: 6000 = 6 × 103 is in scientific notation.
2. If the given number is smaller than 1, then the decimal point has to move to the right, so
the power of 10 will be negative.
Example: 0.006 = 6 × 0.001 = 6 × 10-3 is in scientific notation.
In the same way,

490000000 = 4.9×108 1230000000 = 1.23×109

50500000 = 5.05 x 107 0.000000097 = 9.7 x 10-8
0.0000212 = 2.12 x 10-5

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 EXERCISE
1. Explain the role of physics in the development of society.
2. Differentiate between base units and SI base units with the help of examples.
3. Perform the following conversion
a. 4000 cm into m
b. 4600000 m into km
c. 55 km into cm
d. 5500 dm into cm
e. 43600 m into μm
f. 10 km into μm

4. Briefly describe a strategy you could use to quickly estimate the conversion between
centimetres and inches.
5. Identify the smallest and the largest measurements from the following values.
2.15 × 10–2 cm
a. 2.15 × 1010 μm
b. 2.15 × 103 km
c. 2.15 × 108 nm

6. The thickness of an English dictionary is 5 mm more than the thickness of an Urdu

dictionary. If the thickness of the Urdu dictionary is 4.6 cm, find the thickness of the
English dictionary.
7. Convert the following numbers into scientific notation.
a. 28100000

b. 7890000000

c. 0.00000542

d. 0.00005667

e. 5000000 × 1011

f. 0.0000006541 × 107

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8. Calculate the total reading indicated by the following diagrams representing the
measurement in cm. ( ignore the zero error)

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 CHAPTER TWO
AREA, VOLUME AND DENSITY
2.1 Area:
The term ‘area’ originated from Latin, meaning ‘a plain piece of empty land ‘or ‘a vacant surface’.
It also means ‘a particular amount of space contained within a set of boundaries’. In other words
area is the amount of space occupied by a two-dimensional figure. The area of a shape is calculated
with the help of its length and width. Length is unidimensional (1D) and measured in units such as
metres (m), feet (ft), yards (yd), inches (in), etc. However, the area of a shape is a two-dimensional
quantity. Hence, it is measured in square units like square metres (m2) square inches or (in2), square
feet or (ft 2), square yard or (yd2), etc. Most of the objects or shapes have edges and corners. The
length and width of these edges are considered while calculating the area of a specific shape.
The SI unit of area is the square metre (m2) which is the area of a square with sides 1 m long. It is
scalar quantity.

Area is the quantity that measures the number of unit squares that cover the surface of a closed
figure. To find the area of any shape, we have to find the number of square units of space occupied
by the shape. Now, imagine your square is made up of smaller unit squares. The area of a figure is
counted as the number of unit squares required to cover the overall surface area of that particular 2-
D shape. Square cms, square feet, square inches, square meters, etc., are some of the common units
of area measurement. To find out the area of the square figures drawn below, draw unit squares of
1-centimeter sides. Thus, the shape will be measured in cm², also known as square centimetres.

Formulas for Calculating Area:

We are surrounded by so many 2-D shapes: circle, triangle, square, rectangle, parallelogram,
trapezium and composite shapes. You can draw all of these shapes on your paper. Every shape is
different and unique, so its area is also calculated differently. To find the area, first, identify the
shape.

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2.1.1 Area of a Rectangle:
The area of a rectangle is the space occupied by it. Consider the yellow rectangle in the grid. It has
occupied 6 units.
The area of rectangle depends on its sides. In the
given figure, the length of the rectangle is 3
units and the width is 2 units. The area of a
rectangle is obtained by multiplying its length and
width which is the same as counting the unit
squares. In this case, it will be 2 × 3 = 6
square units
Area of the rectangle = length × width.
2.1.2 Area of a Square:
The area of a square is the space occupied it. Look at
the coloured square shown in the grid below. It
occupies 25 squares. From the figure, we can observe
that the length of each side of the coloured square is 5
units. Therefore, the area of the square is the product of
its sides which can be represented by the formula:
So, the area of this square = 5 × 5 = 25 square units.
Area of a square = side × side
2.1.3 Area of a Circle:
A circle is a two-dimensional shape, it does not have volume. The area of a circle is the space or
region occupied by the circle in a two-dimensional plane. Alternatively, the space occupied within
the boundary/circumference of a circle is called the area of the circle.
 Area = πr2, where 'r' is the radius.
 Area = (π/4) × d2, where’d’ is the diameter.
 Area = C2/4π, where 'C' is the circumference.
Where r is the radius of the circle. Where π is a mathematical constant
whose value is approximated to 3.14 or 22/7 and r is the radius of the
circle. Pi (π) is the ratio of circumference to diameter of any circle. It
is a special mathematical constant. The distance from the center to a point on the boundary is called
the radius of a circle. It is represented by the letter 'r' or 'R'. Diameter is a line that passes through
the center and its endpoints lie on the circle represented by d' or 'D'. Diameter is two times the
radius. The circumference of the circle is equal to the length of its boundary. This means that the
perimeter of a circle is equal to its circumference (C). D = 2R and C = 2πr

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2.1.4 Area of Triangle:
Triangle is a closed shape that has three sides and three
vertices. Thus, the area of a triangle is the total space
occupied within the three sides of a triangle. Basically, it is
equal to half of the base times height. Hence, to find the area
of a tri-sided polygon, we have to know the base (b) and
height (h) of it. It is applicable to all types of triangles,
whether it is scalene, isosceles or equilateral. To be noted,
the base and height of the triangle are perpendicular to each
other. The unit of area is measured in square units (m2, cm2).
 Area of a Triangle = A = ½ × Base × Height (Perpendicular distance)
2.1.5 Area of Parallelogram:
The area of a parallelogram is the amount of space inside a parallelogram. It is measured in units
squared (cm2, m2 ,mm2 etc.)
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral (4 sided shape)
with 2 pairs of parallel sides. The parallel sides are
the same length and the opposite angles are equal.
The interior angles of the parallelogram add up to
360°.The area of a parallelogram is calculated
by multiplying the base of a parallelogram by
its perpendicular height.

Area parallelogram = base × perpendicular height

2.1.6 Area of Trapezoid:
A trapezium is a quadrilateral, which is defined as a shape with four sides and one set of parallel
sides. Thus, the area of trapezium is the region covered
within these four sides. The area of the trapezium
basically depends upon the length of parallel sides and
height of the trapezium. It is measured in square units.
Let us see the formula to find the area of any trapezium.
The area of trapezium is half the product of
its height and the sum of the parallel sides.
Area of trapezium = 1/2 x (AB+CD) x h
Area of trapezium= 1/2 x sum of parallel sides x h

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2.1.7 Areas of Composite Figures
Every plane figure cannot be classified as a simple rectangle, square, triangle, or typical shape in
real life. Some figures are made up of more than one simple 2-D shape. These shapes formed by the
combination of two or more simple shapes are called “composite figures” or “composite shapes”.
Let us join a rectangle and a semicircle.
Area of a composite figure is sum of the area of all the shapes in it. So, the area of the shape given
below area of the triangle and half the area of the circle. Area of figure II is sum of area of rectangle
and half the area of the circle.

Area of the a composite figure I= area of triangle + area of ½ circle

Area of composite figure II=area of Rectangle + area of ½ circle

2.2 Volume
How much space does a mosquito or an elephant take up? How much space do you take up?
The volume of an object is a measure of the amount of 3-dimensional space it takes up. This means
that the volume of an elephant is larger than the volume of a mosquito. Volume’ is a derived
physical quantity that shows the amount of space occupied by three-dimensional object or a closed
surface. These solids can be a cube, a cuboid, a cone, a cylinder or a sphere, they take up space.It is
measured in cubic units such as m3, cm3, in3 etc. Sometimes, volume is also termed capacity.
Volume is defined as a capacity occupied by a three-dimensional solid shape or the measure of the
content of a vessel that holds liquids, grains, or other materials that take the shape of the container..
It is always the interior volume of the vessel. Units of capacity include the liter, pint, and gallon etc.
Another unit of volume that is often used is the liter (L) millilitre (ML), decilitre (dL) etc.

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1L=1dm3 1mL=1cm3 1000L=1m3
The volume of any quantity is three-dimensional in nature, that is, the length if going in three
directions, unlike length or area, the volume contains capacity. The SI unit of volume is the cubic
metre (m3) for most purposes the cubic centimetre (cm3), decimeter3 and kilometer3 are used
based on how big or small the quantity is.
2.2.1 The volume of a cube
The volume of a cube is defined as the total number of cubic units occupied by the cube
completely. A cube is a three-dimensional solid figure, having 6
square faces twelve edges and eight vertices. Hence, the volume
of a cube is the space enclosed by its six faces. Unlike, 2 D
shapes, it has additional dimensions apart from length and width,
which is called height or thickness. Therefore, the volume of
cube is equal to product of its length, width and height. It is
measured in cubic units. Volume is nothing but the total space
occupied by an object. An object with a larger volume would
occupy more space. Since all the faces of the cube are square in the shape, hence, the length of
edges will also be equal. Therefore, the length, width and height of the cube are of equal length.
If length, width and height of cube is equal to ‘a’, then;
Volume of cube = a × a × a = a3
2.2.2 The volume of a cuboid
A cuboid is a three dimensional solid that has 6 faces (rectangular), 8 vertices and 12 edges. A
cuboid has three dimensions such as length, width and height. If all the three dimensions of a
cuboid get equal, it becomes a cube. A cuboid is also called a rectangular prism. Suppose we have
some rectangular sheets with length 'l' and width 'b'. If we stack them one on top of the other up to
height 'h', we get a cuboid of dimensions l, b, h.

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The volume of cuboid = Base area × Height
The base area for cuboid = l × b
Hence, the volume of a cuboid, V = l × b × h = lbh

2.2.3 The volume of a sphere:

The sphere is defined as the three-dimensional round solid figure that has no edges or vertices, its
every point on its surface is equidistant from its centre. The fixed distance is called the radius of the
sphere and the fixed point is called the centre of the sphere. When the circle is rotated, we will
observe the change of shape. Thus, the three-dimensional shape sphere is obtained from the rotation
of the two-dimensional object called a circle.
The volume of a sphere is the measurement of the space it can occupy. In other word the volume of
sphere is the capacity it has. Various spherical objects used in daily life are football, basketball,
Earth, Moon, etc. Archimedes’ principle helps us find the volume of a spherical object. It states that
when a solid object is engaged in a container filled with water, the volume of the solid object can be
obtained. Because the volume of water that flows from the container is equal to the volume of the
spherical object.
Solid Sphere - A solid object in the form of a
sphere is called a solid sphere. It is more like a
sphere filled up with the same material it is made
up of.
Volume of solid sphere V = (4/3) πr3
Hollow Sphere - If a solid sphere is cut and taken
out of a big solid sphere, leaving behind a thin
surface in the form of a spherical shell is called a Hollow sphere. It is more like a balloon or ball
filled with air. Volume of hollow sphere is volume of outer sphere - volume of inner sphere.
Volume of hollow sphere = V = (4/3) πR3 - (4/3) πr3 = 4/3π (R3 - r3)

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2.2.4 Volume of cylinder:
A cylinder is a three-dimensional solid shape that consists of two parallel bases linked by a curved
surface. These bases are like a circular disk in a shape. The line passing from the center or joining
the centers of two circular bases is called
the axis of the cylinder.
The volume of cylinder with base radius
‘r’, and height ‘h’ = (area of base) ×
height of the cylinder
Volume = πr2 × h
The volume of a cylinder = πr2h

2.2.5 Volume of irregularly shaped objects:

There is no exact formula to measure irregularly shaped objects, but there are some methods to do
it. Since volume is the total space occupied by an object, the volume of a small irregular piece of
stone can be found by the water displacement method.

 The volume is determined using a measuring

cylinder, a piece of stone and water.
 A measuring cylinder with markings is filled
with 60 ml of water.
 A stone is tied with a piece of thread and
immersed completely into the water.
 When the stone is immersed, the level of water
eventually increases.
 The stone occupies the space inside the
cylinder by displacing some amount of water.
This makes the water level rise.
 The volume of water displaced will
be equal to the volume of space occupied by the stone in the container. This technique is
known as the water displacement method and was found by Archimedes.
 The water level was 30 ml initially. After immersing a piece of stone, then water level rises
to 40 ml. Then,
 Volume of the water displaced = 40 ml − 30 ml = 10 ml
 1 ml = 1 cm3 so Volume of stone = 10cm3

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2.3 Density
Is lead heavier than water? Not necessarily. It depends on the volumes of lead a n d water being
compared. However, lead is denser than water: it has more kilograms packed into every cubic
metre. The density of a material is defined as mass per unit volume. Simply, it is the amount of
matter with in a certain volume. It tells how close or far away molecules are packed in a certain
volume. Density is essentially a measurement of how tightly matter is packed together. It is a
unique physical property of a particular object. The principle of density was discovered by the
Greek scientist Archimedes.
To calculate the density (usually represented by the Greek letter "ρ") of an object, take the mass (m)
and divide by the volume (v):

The SI unit of density is kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3). It is also frequently represented in
the cgs unit of grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3). We use gram per millilitre (g/mL), kilogram per
litre (kg/L), metric ton per cubic metre (t/m3), kilogram per cubic decimetre (kg/dm3) , megagram
per cubic metre (mg/m3) etc.
We have around us everyday items of different densities. The gases in the air that surrounds have
very low densities. The liquids we drink or use for other purposes are denser because their
molecules are packed in tighter. Solids are even denser and have atoms or molecules packed even
closer together.
2.3.1 What two ways will INCREASE density?
1. Keep the mass same and decrease the volume. Figure I
2. Keep the volume same and increase the mass. Figure II

I II

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2.3.2 Densities of the states (solids, liquids and gases)
The difference between the densities of solids, liquids and gases is due to the distance between the
particles in each state of matter.
Different substances have different densities. For example:
 Solid steel has a density of 7.82 g/cm³.
 Liquid water has a density of 1.00 g/cm³.
 Air (in its gaseous form) has a density of 0.0012 g/cm³.

The solid (steel) has the highest density, the gas (air) has the lowest density, and the density of
the liquid (water) is in between. The density of a substance depends both on the mass of
the particles, and how closely spaced they are.
Solids have the highest densities because the particles are very close together and tightly packed.
Gases have the lowest densities because the particles are widely spaced.
The particles in liquids are close together. Although they are randomly arranged, they are still
tightly packed, giving liquids high densities. The density of a substance as a liquid is usually only
slightly less than its density as a solid.
For example: The same mass of liquid will have slightly greater volume than the solid. As density
equals mass/volume, the liquid will have slightly lower density.
 the density of solid aluminium is 2.72 g/cm³
 the density of liquid aluminium is 2.38 g/cm³
 This means that liquid aluminium floats on top of solid aluminium.
The particles in gases move freely and are very far apart, so there is a large increase of volume. The
same mass of gas will have very much greater volume than the liquid, and so will have much lower
density.
 The density of liquid oxygen = 1.1 g/cm3

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  The density of gaseous oxygen = 0.0014 g/cm3
Did you know?
 Some liquids have a higher density than solids. For example, wood is a solid but has a lower
density than water, which is why wood generally floats on top of water.
 Water is different from most substances. It is less dense as a solid than as a liquid, because its
particles move apart slightly on freezing. This is why ice cubes and icebergs float on liquid
water.
 Liquid mercury has a very high density of 13.5 g/cm³ which is a higher density than steel or
lead.
The density of a substance depends both on the mass of the particles, and how closely spaced they
are. This means that density changes when substances change state, and when they are heated or
cooled.

As an object or substance gets hotter, its particles vibrate more. The increase in vibration means
they push each other away - the more vibration there is, the bigger the distance between the
particles. More distance between each particle means that the substance will now take up more
space or volume. When an object expands, it doesn’t gain any particles. Its mass remains the same
although its volume increases. This means the object has a lower density. In other words, the object
has the same mass in a bigger volume so density decrease.
The expanding effect happens for solids and liquids and can be reversed by cooling. The particle
vibrations get smaller so the distance between particles gets less. The substance contracts. When an
object contracts, it has the same mass in a smaller volume so density increases.

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2.3.3 Applications of Density in Real Life:
Many applications of density are there in our real-life, life a few examples are in pipe design,
shipbuilding, helium balloons, weight distribution in the aeroplane, and the fact that ice floats on
water.
 The knowledge of the densities of two substances helps you in separation techniques. For
example, the separation of oil from water. If there is a leakage of an oil tank in the ocean then
oil drops start to float on the water due to less density than the water.
 Another well-known application of density is determining whether an object will float on
water or not. The floating of ships and diving of submarines are due to their density
difference.
Float or sink?
 You can tell whether a material will float or sink by comparing its density with that of the
surrounding liquid (or gas). If it is less dense, it will float; if it is more dense, it will sink. For
example, wood is less dense than water, so it floats; steel is more dense, so it sinks.
 Density differences are not the cause of floating or sinking, just a useful guide for predicting
which will occur. Floating is made possible by an upward force produced whenever an object
is immersed in a liquid (or gas). To experience this force, try pushing an empty bottle down
into water.
Density – Fun Facts
 The most dense element is osmium.
 The least dense element (or any gas) is hydrogen.
 One of the most dense astronomical objects known to us is a
black hole.
 Gold and tungsten, both with a density of 19.3 grams per
cubic centimeter, are the densest of all easily accessible
materials. A small tungsten cube is shockingly heavy.
 The world’s least dense solid is a graphene aerogel with a
density of 0.16 mg/cm3 developed in a polymer science and
engineering lab in China.
 Mercury is a liquid metal that is denser than most solids.
 The most dense gas, tungsten hexafluoride, is still about 45
times as dense as one of the least denser liquids, isopentane.
 An item will only sink in water if it is more dense than water.
Try finding a household item more dense than water.

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 EXERCISE

1. The ratio of the area of 2 circles is 4:9. With the help of the area of circle formula find the
ratio of their radii?
2. A race track is in the form of a circular ring. The inner radius of the track is 58 yd and the
outer radius is 63 yd. find the area of the race track?
3. Find the circumference and the area of a circle whose radius is 14 cm.
4. A wire is in the shape of an equilateral triangle. Each side of the triangle measures 7 in. The
wire is bent into the shape of a circle. Find the area of the circle that is formed.
5. The length of the largest chord of a circle is 12 units. Find the area of the circle.
6. What is the area of a rectangular park whose length and breadth are 60m and 90m
respectively?
7. What is the area of a square with each side measuring 5 units?
8. Find the area of a trapezium whose length of parallel sides are 4cm and 6cm respectively and
height is 3 cm.
9. If the area of a trapezium is 728 cm2. Find the height of the trapezium such that the length of
its parallel sides are 16 cm and 7 cm, respectively?
10. The area of a trapezium is 384cm². If 3:5 is the ratio of the length of its parallel sides and the
perpendicular distance between them is 12 cm. find the length of each of the parallel sides.

11. Find the length of the edges of the cube, if its volume is equal to 125 cm3.
12. Find the volume of a cuboid of dimensions 17 mm × 0.2 cm × 12 mm in cu. Cm
13. How many bricks each 25 cm long, 10 cm wide and 7.5 cm thick will be required for a wall
20 m long, 2 m high and 0.75 m thick? If bricks sell at $900 per thousand what will it cost to
build the wall?
14. Riaz owns a cricket ball with a radius of 3 cm. What is the volume occupied by the ball in
Riaz’s bag?
15. Henry has a cylindrical water bottle with a base radius of 5 cm and a height of 10 cm. What
is the volume of water that the bottle can store?
16. Find the volume of a cube if its side length is equal to 4 cm
17. The volume of a cube is 512 cm3, Its surface area is?
18. Calculate the volume of a triangular prism, whose triangular base has height = 6 cm, length of
base = 8cm. Height of prism = 10 cm.
19. For a sphere the volume is given by V = (4/3)πr3 and the surface area is given by A = 4πr2. If
the sphere has a surface area of 256π, what is the volume?

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20. What is the amount of air that can be held by a spherical ball of diameter 14 inches?
21. Find the Radius of a Spherical Ball Whose Volume is 5000cm3.Solution:
22. A spherical shaped tank has a radius of 21 m. Now find the capacity of it in a liter to store
water in it.
23. Calculate the radius of the base of a cylindrical container of volume 440 cm3. Height of the
cylindrical container is 35 cm. (Take pi = 22/7)

24. Aluminium has a density of 2700 kg/m3.

 What is the density in g/cm3?

 What is the mass of 20 cm3 of aluminium?
 What is the volume of 27 g of aluminium?

25. How many cm3 are there in 1 m3?

26. How many cm3 are there in 1 litre?
27. A solid ball has a mass of 100 grams and a radius of 2 cm. What is the density?
28. Calculate the Mass of a Shot-putt (metallic sphere) of Radius 4.9cm. The Density of the
Metal is 7.8gcm3.
29. A solid cylinder has a radius of 2 cm and a length of 7 cm. It has a density of 3.1 g/cm3.
What is the mass of the cylinder?
30. Calculate the density of an object having a mass of 1200kg and its volume is 10m3.
31. A balloon like the one on the opposite page contains 2000 m3 of air. When the air is cold, its
density is 1.3 kg/m3. When heated, the air expands so that some is pushed out of the hole at
the bottom, and the density falls to 1.1 kg/m3. Calculate the following.

 The mass of air in the balloon when cold.

 The mass of air in the balloon when hot.
 The mass of air lost from the balloon during heating.

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 CHAPTER THREE
SPEED AND VELOCITY
3.1 Motion
When you change your location with respect to your surrounding then you are said to in the state of
motion. But when you’re in motion, the basic questions to ask are: Where are you? Where are you
going? How fast are you getting there? The answers to these questions require that you specify your
position, your displacement, and your average velocity—the terms we define in this section.
Our study of physics opens with kinematics—the study of motion without considering its causes.
Objects are in motion everywhere you look. Everything from a tennis game to a space-probe flyby of
the planet Neptune involves motion. When you are resting, your heart moves blood through your
veins. Even in inanimate objects, atoms are always moving.
How do you know something is moving? The location
of an object at any particular time is its position. More
precisely, you need to specify its position relative to a
convenient reference frame. Earth is often used as a
reference frame, and we often describe the position of
an object as it relates to stationary objects in that
reference frame. For example, a rocket launch would
be described in terms of the position of the rocket with
respect to Earth as a whole, while a professor’s
position could be described in terms of where she is in
relation to the nearby white board. In other cases, we use reference frames that are not stationary but
are in motion relative to Earth. To describe the position of a person in an airplane, for example, we
use the airplane, not Earth, as the reference frame. Thus, you can only know how fast and in
what direction an object's position is changing against a background of something else that is either
not moving or moving with a known speed and direction. The reference frame is the coordinate
system from which the positions of objects are described.
Are clouds in the figure a useful reference frame for airplane passengers? Why or why not?
Your classroom can be used as a reference frame. In the classroom, the walls are not moving. Your
motion as you walk to the door, can be measured against the stationary background of the classroom
walls. You can also tell if other things in the classroom are moving, such as your classmates entering
the classroom or a book falling off a desk. You can also tell in what direction something is moving
in the classroom. You might say, “The teacher is moving toward the door.” Your reference frame
allows you to determine not only that something is moving but also the direction of motion.
You could also serve as a reference frame for others’ movement. If you remained seated as your
classmates left the room, you would measure their movement away from your stationary location. If
you and your classmates left the room together, then your perspective of their motion would be
change. You, as the reference frame, would be moving in the same direction as your other moving

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classmates. Your description of motion can be quite different when viewed from different reference
frames.
Position is a place where someone or something is located or has been put. In physics, position is
usually a number on an axis.

3.2 Distance and Displacement

Distance and displacement are two quantities that seem to mean the same but are distinctly different
with different meanings and definitions. Distance is the measure of “how much ground an object has
covered during its motion” while displacement refers to the measure of “how far out of place is an
object.” In this article, let us understand the difference between distance and displacement.

3.2.1 What is Distance?

Distance is the total movement of an object
without any regard to direction. We can define
distance as to how much ground an object has
covered despite its starting or ending point.
Let us understand the concept of distance with
the help of the following diagram:
Explanation of distance
Distance here will be = 4m + 3m + 5m = 12 m

3.2.2 What is Displacement

Displacement is defined as the change in position of an object. It is a vector quantity and has a
direction and magnitude. It is represented as an arrow that points from the starting position to the
final position. For example- If an object moves from one position to another, then its position
changes. This change in position of an object is known as Displacement. The value of displacement
is zero for the given diagram as the initial and final position is the same A.

Displacement = Δx = xf − x0
xf = Final Position
x0 = Initial Position
Δx = Displacement

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Example.
An object moves along the grid through points A, B, C, D, E, and F as shown below. The side of
square tiles measures 0.5 km.

a) Calculate the distance covered by the moving object.

b) Find the magnitude of the displacement of the object.
Solution:
a) The distance covered by the moving object is calculated as follows:
AB + BC + CD + DE + EF
3 + 1 + 1.5 + 0.5 + 0.5 = 6.5 km
The distance covered by the moving object is 6.5 km.
b) The initial point is A and the final point is F, hence the magnitude of the displacement is equal to
the distance AF which is calculated by applying Pythagoras’s theorem to the triangle AHF as shown
in the figure below

Applying the Pythagorean formula, we get

AF2=AH2+HF2
Substituting the formula, we get
AF2=(0.5×4)2+(0.5×3)2=6.25 AF=6.25km−−−−−−√=2.5km
The magnitude of displacement is 2.5 km from A to F.

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3.2.3 Difference Between Distance and Displacement
Sl. Differentiating Distance Displacement
No. Property
1 Definition The complete length of the Displacement is the direct length
path between any two points between any two points when
is called distance. measured along the minimum path
between them.
2 Denotation d s
3 Direction To calculate distance, the To calculate displacement, the
Consideration direction is not considered. direction is taken into consideration.
4 Quantity Distance is a scalar quantity Displacement is a vector quantity as
as it only depends upon the it depends upon both magnitude and
magnitude and not the direction.
direction.
5 Route Distance gives the detailed As displacement refers to the
Information route information that is shortest path, it does not give
followed while travelling complete information on the route.
from one point to another.
6 Formula Speed × Time Velocity × Time
7 Possible Values The distance can only have Displacement can be positive,
positive values. negative, and even zero.
8 Indication Distance is not indicated with Displacement is always indicated
an arrow. with an arrow.
9 Measurement in The distance can be measured Displacement can only be measured
Non-straight along a non-straight path. along a straight path.
Path
10 Path Distance depends upon the Displacement does not depend upon
Dependence path i.e. it changes according the path and it only depends upon
to the path taken. the initial and final position of the
body.

These are the main differences between distance and displacement, that can help to distinguish these
two thoroughly. These differences between distance and displacement, given in tabular form can
also help students to retain the points in a better way.

3.2.4 Distance vs. Displacement

As we study the motion of objects, we must first be able to describe the object’s position. Before
your parent drives you to school, the car is sitting in your driveway. Your driveway is the starting
position for the car. When you reach your high school, the car has changed position. Its new position
is your school.

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Figure: Your total change in position is measured from your house to your school.
Physicists use variables to represent terms. We will use d to represent car’s position. We will use a
subscript to differentiate between the initial position, d0, and the final position, df. In addition,
vectors, which we will discuss later, will be in bold or will have an arrow above the variable. Scalars
will be italicized.
In some books, x or s is used instead of d to describe position. In d0, said d naught, the subscript 0
stands for initial. When we begin to talk about two-dimensional motion, sometimes other subscripts
will be used to describe horizontal position, dx, or vertical position, dy. So, you might see references
to d0x and dfy.
Now imagine driving from your house to a friend's house located several kilometers away. How far
would you drive? The distance an object moves is the length of the path between its initial position
and its final position. The distance you drive to your friend's house depends on your path. As shown
in Figure, distance is different from the length of a straight line between two points. The distance
you drive to your friend's house is probably longer than the straight line between the two houses.

Figure A short line separates the starting and ending points of this motion, but the distance along the
path of motion is considerably longer.

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We often want to be more precise when we talk about position. The description of an object’s
motion often includes more than just the distance it moves. For instance, if it is a five kilometer drive
to school, the distance traveled is 5 kilometers. After dropping you off at school and driving back
home, your parent will have traveled a total distance of 10 kilometers. The car and your parent will
end up in the same starting position in space. The net change in position of an object is
its displacement, or Δd.Δ d. The Greek letter delta, ΔΔ, means change in.

Figure: The total distance that your car travels is 10 km, but the total displacement is 0.
If you are describing only your drive to school, then the distance traveled and the displacement are
the same—5 kilometers. When you are describing the entire round trip, distance and displacement
are different. When you describe distance, you only include the magnitude, the size or amount, of
the distance traveled. However, when you describe the displacement, you take into account both the
magnitude of the change in position and the direction of movement.
In our previous example, the car travels a total of 10 kilometers, but it drives five of those kilometers
forward toward school and five of those kilometers back in the opposite direction. If we ascribe the
forward direction a positive (+) and the opposite direction a negative (–), then the two quantities will
cancel each other out when added together.
A quantity, such as distance, that has magnitude (i.e., how big or how much) but does not take into
account direction is called a scalar. A quantity, such as displacement, that has both magnitude and
direction is called a vector.

Example
A car moving along in a straight highway from point P to point Q to point R and to point S, then
back to point Q and finally to the point R as shown in the figure below.
a) Find the distance travelled by car.
b) Find the displacement of the car.
Solution

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Figure
Given the distances, PQ = 3 km, QR = 5 km and RS = 7 km
Also, SQ = 7 + 5 =12 km,
PR = 3 + 5 = 8 km
a) Distance travelled by the car = PQ + QR + RS + SQ + QR
= 3 + 5 + 7 + 12 + 5
= 32 km
b) Displacement of the car = the shortest distance between the final point R and the initial point P
= PR
= 8 km Right words (East)

3.3 Speed and Velocity

When describing the motion of objects in terms of distance, time, and direction, physicists use the
basic quantities of speed and velocity. Two terms, two distinct meanings. Yet, not uncommonly, we
hear these terms used interchangeably. So, what’s the difference? Why is it incorrect to use the terms
speed and velocity interchangeably?
3.3.1 Speed
Speed refers to "how fast an object is moving." Speed can be thought of as the rate at which an
object covers distance. A fast-moving object has a high speed and covers a relatively large distance
in a short amount of time. Contrast this to a slow-moving object that has a low speed; it covers a
relatively small amount of distance in the same amount of time. An object with no movement at all
has a zero speed.

There is more to motion than distance and displacement. Questions such as, “How long does a foot
race take?” and “What was the runner’s speed?” cannot be answered without an understanding of
other concepts. In this section we will look at time, speed, and velocity to expand our understanding
of motion.

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A description of how fast or slow an object moves is its speed. Speed is the rate at which an object
changes its location. Like distance, speed is a scalar because it has a magnitude but not a direction.
Because speed is a rate, it depends on the time interval of motion. You can calculate the elapsed time
or the change in time, Δt, of motion as the difference between the ending time and the beginning
time
Δt=tf−t0.
The SI unit of time is the second (s), and the SI unit of speed is meters per second (m/s), but
sometimes kilometers per hour (km/h), miles per hour (mph) or other units of speed are used.
When you describe an object's speed, you often describe the average over a time period. Average
speed, vavg, is the distance traveled divided by the time during which the motion occurs.
vav= total distance covered/ Total Time taken
You can, of course, rearrange the equation to solve for either distance or time
A car's speed would likely increase and decrease many times over a 3.2-hour trip. Its speed at a
specific instant in time, however, is its instantaneous speed. A car's speedometer describes its
instantaneous speed.

Figure: During a 30-minute round trip to the store, the total distance traveled is 6 km. The average
speed is 12 km/h. The displacement for the round trip is zero, because there was no net change in
position.

3.3.2 Velocity
The vector version of speed is velocity. Velocity describes the speed and direction of an object. As
with speed, it is useful to describe either the average velocity over a time period or the velocity at a
specific moment. Average velocity is displacement divided by the time over which the displacement
occurs.
Velocity, like speed, has SI units of meters per second (m/s), but because it is a vector, you must also
include a direction. Furthermore, the variable v for velocity is bold because it is a vector, which is in
contrast to the variable v for speed which is italicized because it is a scalar quantity.

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It is important to keep in mind that the average speed is not the same thing as the average velocity
without its direction. Like we saw with displacement and distance in the last section, changes in
direction over a time interval have a bigger effect on speed and velocity.
Suppose a passenger moved toward the back of a plane with an average velocity of –4 m/s. We
cannot tell from the average velocity whether the passenger stopped momentarily or backed up
before he got to the back of the plane. To get more details, we must consider smaller segments of the
trip over smaller time intervals such as those shown in Figure. If you consider infinitesimally small
intervals, you can define instantaneous velocity, which is the velocity at a specific instant in time.
Instantaneous velocity and average velocity are the same if the velocity is constant.

Figure: The diagram shows a more detailed record of an airplane passenger heading toward the back
of the plane, showing smaller segments of his trip.
Earlier, you have read that distance traveled can be different than the magnitude of displacement. In
the same way, speed can be different than the magnitude of velocity. For example, you drive to a
store and return home in half an hour. If your car’s odometer shows the total distance traveled was 6
km, then your average speed was 12 km/h. Your average velocity, however, was zero because your
displacement for the round trip is zero.

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 EXERCISE
1. How does the direction of motion affect the difference between distance and displacement?
2. What is the relationship between the magnitude of displacement and the length of the path
taken?
3. How does the shape of a path affect the difference between distance and displacement?
4. What is the difference between instantaneous velocity and average velocity, and how do
they relate to distance and displacement?
5. Can an object have a non-zero displacement but zero distance traveled?
6. What is the difference between speed and velocity? Mention any three differences between
speed and velocity.
7. Can an object have a constant speed but changing velocity? If yes, give an example.
8. How does friction affect an object's speed and velocity? Justify your answer by taking an
example.
9. How do you measure the speed and velocity of an object?
10. What does the statement tells “The Average velocity of a body is equal to the instantaneous
velocity”? Elaborate the statement by taking an example.
11. A pitcher throws a baseball from the pitcher’s mound to home plate in 0.46 s. The distance
is 18.4 m. What was the average speed of the baseball?
12. Cassie walked to her friend’s house with an average speed of 1.40 m/s. The distance
between the houses is 205 m. How long did the trip take her?
13. A car travels 60 km at a speed of 40 km/h, and then travels another 60 km at a speed of 80
km/h. What is the car's average speed for the entire journey?
Answer: The car's average speed for the entire journey is 53.33 km/h.
14. Problem 2: A bullet is fired from a gun with a velocity of 800 m/s. If it takes 0.05 seconds
to reach the target, what is the distance between the gun and the target?
Answer: The distance between the gun and the target is 40 meters.
15. Problem 3: A cyclist covers a distance of 200 meters in 10 seconds. What is the speed of
the cyclist in km/h?
Answer: The speed of the cyclist is 72 km/h.
16. Problem 4: A train travels a distance of 500 km at a speed of 100 km/h. What is the time
taken by the train to cover this distance?
Answer: The time taken by the train to cover the distance of 500 km is 5 hours.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
ACCELERATION
4.1 An accelerating body.
In the last chapter, we defined velocity which refers to change in displacement with respect to time.
It is possible to quantify changes in velocity as a function of time similarly to the way in which we
quantify changes in displacement as a function of time. When the velocity of a particle changes
with time, the particle is said to be accelerating. For example, the magnitude of the velocity of a
car increases when you step on the accelerator and decreases when you apply the brakes.

4.1.1 Change in velocity

If either the speed or the direction changes (or if both change), then the velocity
changes. A car on a curved track, for example, may have a constant speed, but,
because its direction is changing, its velocity is not constant.

We can change the velocity of something by changing its speed, by changing its direction, or by
changing both its speed and its direction.

Thus, it can be inferred that how quickly and in what direction velocity changes is acceleration.

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Mathematically 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙

Activity
A. Start a ball rolling on the floor or on a table. Once it’s rolling, cause the ball to change speed
but not direction.
B. Start a ball rolling on the floor or on a table. Once it’s rolling, cause the ball to change
direction but not speed.
C. Start a ball rolling on the floor or on a table. Once it’s rolling, cause the ball to change both
speed and direction. Do this with one action.

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Task
1. List two ways you changed the speed of the ball without changing its direction.
2. List two ways you changed the direction the ball was moving without changing its speed
3. List two ways you changed both the speed and the direction of the ball.

In the activity you did, you were challenged with changing the motion of an object—changing its
speed without changing its direction, changing its direction without changing its speed, and changing
both its speed and direction. Now you might (hopefully!) remember that when you specify both the
speed of an object and the direction it’s moving, you are talking about the velocity of the object. So,
if you change the speed, the direction, or both, you are changing the velocity of the object. There’s a
special name for a change in speed and/or direction. It’s called acceleration.
When an object goes faster, it is accelerating. When an object goes slower, it is accelerating. When
an object changes direction, as with a car rounding a corner, it is accelerating.
Now this definition of acceleration is a scientific one, and it’s different from the everyday use of the
word. Most often we think of acceleration as speeding up. After all, isn’t that pedal on a car called an
accelerator? When a car slows down, we sometimes call that a deceleration, but that’s a word that
scientists don’t use. When a car slows down, it’s changing its velocity, so it’s accelerating. So if you
want to label car parts as a scientist would, you would call the gas pedal an accelerator because it

tends to change the velocity of the car, you would call the brake pedal an accelerator because it tends
to change the velocity of the car, and you would call the steering wheel an accelerator because it
tends to change the velocity of the car (a change in direction).

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4.2 Types of accelerations
4.2.1 Uniform acceleration
If a body changes its velocity equally in equal intervals of time, the body is said to be moving with
uniform acceleration. The following table depicts the uniform acceleration of a body.

Velocity (m/s) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (Sec) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

The velocity may decrease in the same way.

4.2.2 Non-uniform (variable) acceleration

If a body changes its velocity unequally in equal intervals of time, the body is said to be moving with
non-uniform acceleration. The following table depicts the non-uniform acceleration of a body.

Velocity (m/s) 10 22 40 55 78 91 110

Time (Sec) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

The velocity may decrease in the same way.

4.2.3 Instantaneous acceleration
The acceleration of a body at a particular instant is known as instantaneous acceleration. It can the
calculated by using the calculus techniques.
If the instantaneous acceleration of a body is same at different points during its motion, the body is
said to be moving with uniform acceleration. Similarly, if the instantaneous acceleration of a body is
different at different points during its motion, the body is said to be moving with non-uniform
acceleration.

4.2.4 Average acceleration

Unlike instantaneous acceleration, average acceleration refers to total change in velocity during its
motion. If total change in velocity is ∆𝑣 during time ∆𝑡, then average acceleration can be expressed
as

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 ∆𝑣
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
∆𝑡
Or simply,
∆𝑣
𝑎=
∆𝑡
4.3 Graphical description of acceleration
Acceleration can be expressed graphically by taking time along x-axis and velocity along y-axis and
then plotting the resulting variations using a line. If the line is straight (Increasing slop or decreasing
slop), it would represent uniform acceleration. If the line is a curve, it would represent non-uniform
acceleration. In case of uniform acceleration, the value of acceleration is determined by the value of
slop. Higher the slop, higher will be the acceleration, and lower the slop, lower will be the
acceleration produced. Consider the following cases.

Acceleration represented by line A is greater than that of B as slop of A is greater than B.

In the same way a decreasing slop will represent the negative acceleration or deceleration or
retardation as indicated by the following graph.

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If the slop is zero, the acceleration will be zero as shown below.

Hence by calculating the slop, we can easily fine the acceleration produced.

The following graph is used to represent non-uniform acceleration.

4.4 Equations of motion for uniformly accelerated bodies.

There are basically three equations which are used to describe the motion of uniformly accelerated
bodies. Under a given situation, these equations enables us to calculate the value of an unknown
variable related to motion like distance, time, initial velocity, etc. These equations are not applicable
for non-uniform accelerated motion.
The three equations are as under.

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 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡 … … … … … … … … … … . (1)
1
𝑆 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 … … … … … … … … … . (2)
2
2𝑎𝑆 = 𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑣𝑖2 … … … … … … … … . . … (3)

In these three equations, 𝒗𝒊 represents initial velocity, 𝒗𝒇 represents final velocity, a represents
uniform acceleration, t shows time taken and S represents distance or displacement covered. It must
be remembered that each equation relates basically four variables with regards to motion. Consider
the following solved examples.
Example 01
The velocity of a vehicle changes from 20 m/s to 50 m/s in 30 seconds. Calculate the average
acceleration produced.
Solution:
Here 𝑣𝑖 = 20 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣𝑓 = 50 𝑚/𝑠

𝑡 = 30 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Using the 1st equation of motion
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡

Putting the values

50 = 20 + a(30)
50 – 20 = 30 a
30 = 30 a
a =1 m/s2
Hence the acceleration produced is 1 m/s2
Example 02
If initial velocity of a particle is 2 m/s and it travels 10 m in 1 s. What will be its acceleration?
Solution:
Here 𝑣𝑖 = 2 𝑚/𝑠
𝑡 = 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐
S = 10 m
Using the 2nd equation of motion
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 1
𝑆 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
Putting the values
10 = 2 (1) + ½ (a)(1)2
10 = 2 + ½ a
a = 16 m/s2
Example 03
A car travelling at 72 km/h is uniformly brought to rest over a distance of 20m. Find the average
retardation.
Solution:
𝑘𝑚
Here 𝑣𝑖 = 72 = 20 𝑚/𝑠
ℎ

𝑣𝑓 = 0

S = 20 m
Using the third equation of motion
2𝑎𝑆 = 𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑣𝑖2

Putting the values

2 (a) (20) = 0 – (20)2
40 a = - 400
a = -10 m/s2

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 EXERCISE

1. State whether or not each of the following is accelerating. Explain your answers.

a. A dog chasing its tail.

b. An airplane moving at a constant speed of 500 miles per hour in a
a. straight line.
c. A race car rounding a corner at a constant speed of 200 miles per hour.
d. You’re on a skateboard, moving very fast but at a constant speed.
e. Lara claims that if an object is accelerating, it must be moving. She also claims that if an
object is not accelerating, it must be at rest. Do you agree with Lara? If not, what would
you say to her to convince her she’s wrong?
f. A race car as it moves around an oval track.
g. A thrown rock after it leaves the thrower’s hand and before it hits the ground.
h. A toy top that is spinning, but staying in one place on the floor.
i. A book sitting on a table.
j. A bird flying uniformly in the air.
2. Two cars are rounding curves. Both cars are traveling at a constant speed of 40 kilometers
per hour. Car A is rounding a very sharp curve and car B is rounding a gradual curve. Which
of the following are true regarding the motion of the cars?

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a) Car A and car B have the same acceleration because they have the same speed.
b) Car A and car B have the same acceleration because they have the same velocity.
c) Cars A and B both have zero acceleration because their speeds are not changing.
d) Car A is accelerating more than car B because it is changing direction at a faster rate.

3. Does motion always takes place in the direction of acceleration? Explain.

4. A bus starts from rest and achieves a velocity of 20 m/s in 10 sec while moving westward
from starting point O. Calculate its average acceleration (Ans. 2m/s2 west of point O ).
5. A car travelling eastwards at 108 km/h suddenly comes to rest in 5 sec. Find its average
acceleration. (Ans. – 6m/s2 Eastwards)
6. The graph below shows how the velocity of a certain moving body varies with time t.

a) Calculate the acceleration during the first 10 seconds shown on the graph
(Ans. 3.5 m/s2) .

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 b) During the period t = 30 sec to t = 45 sec the body decelerates uniformly to rest.
Complete the graph and obtain the velocity of the body when t = 37.5 sec
( Ans. 22 m/s).
c) For how long the body is moving with zero acceleration? (Ans. 20 sec)
7. A train 150 m long, moves with a uniform velocity of 72 km/h. It passes over a bridge of 600
m long. Calculate the time taken for it to cross the bridge (Ans. 37.5 sec).
8. A body starting form rest acquires a velocity of 8 m/s in 5 sec. Calculate
a. the acceleration produced ( Ans.1.6 m/s2)
b. the distance travelled in 5 sec (Ans. 20 m)
c. the distance travelled in during the fifth second (Ans. 7.2 m).
9. A car starts from rest and moves with a uniform acceleration of 0.2 m/s2 for 2 minutes. Then
it maintains a uniform velocity for 5 minutes, after which the brakes are applied so as to
produce a uniform retardation of 1.5 m/s2. Calculate
a. the maximum velocity reached (Ans. 24 m/s)
b. the total distance travelled by the car ( Ans. 8832 m).

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 CHAPTER FIVE
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF MOTION
5.1 Variables and their types
Science is the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world
through observation, experimentation, and the testing of theories against the evidence obtained.
Experiment plays many roles in science. One of its important roles is to test theories and to provide
the basis for scientific knowledge. Scientists use experiments to search for cause and effect
relationship. In other words, scientists design an experiment so that they can observe or measure if
changes to one thing cause something else to vary in a repeatable way. The quantities that are
changing in an experiment and that can be measured and can assume different values are called
variables. We can also define variables as quantities between which graph is plotted are called
variables. Height, age, income, grades obtained at school and type of housing are all examples of
variables. In Physics velocity, displacement, distance, force, time are some examples of variables.
An experiment usually has three types of variables namely dependent variable, independent variable,
and controlled variable. Here we will discuss about the first two only.
In any experiment, the value of one quantity must be systematically changed in order to measure its
effect on another quantity. The quantity that the experimenter chooses to change is called
independent variable. The independent variable is the one condition that you may change in an
experiment. On the other hand, a dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in a
scientific experiment or the variable that you measure or observe. It can also be define as the
variable which depends/changes when the independent variable is changed. The dependent variable
gets its name because it is the factor that is dependent on the state of the independent variables
5.1.1 Examples of dependent and independent variables
 If you are measuring how the amount of sunlight affects the growth of a type of plant, the
independent variable is the amount of sunlight. You can control how much sunlight each
plant gets. The growth is the dependent variable. It is the effect of the amount of sunlight.
 You are analyzing the motion of a car and you want to investigate how the car’s distance
from start varies with time. Time is the independent variable and distance is the dependent
variable

Often, the independent variable and dependent variable values will be plotted on a graph so that the
relationship between the two can be deduced and predictions can be made and tested.
5.2 Cartesian coordinates
The Cartesian coordinates (also called rectangular coordinates) of a point are a pair of numbers (in
two-dimensions) or a triplet of numbers (in three-dimensions) that specified signed distances from
the coordinate axis. They are used to describe the position of an object in space. A coordinate system
is a mathematical tool that we construct in order to describe the position of a real object. Co-ordinate

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system is used to locate the position of a point in a plane using two perpendicular lines. Points are
represented in the form of coordinates (x, y) in two-dimension with respect to x- and y- axes .To
understand the need of coordinate system, let us consider an example, suppose Alia is a girl in your
class and she sits on the 3rd column and 5th row. Then, this position can be represented as (3, 5).
Two axes – vertical axis and perpendicular axis are reference lines of a rectangular system from
which distances are measured. Take two number lines XX’ and YY’. Place XX’ in horizontal and
write the numbers on it as we write in the number line. Similarly, place YY’ in vertical and proceed
writing numbers on it as we write in a number line. Combine both the lines in such a way that the
two lines cross each other at their zeroes or origins. The horizontal line XX’ is called the x-axis and
the vertical line YY’ is called the y-axis. The point where XX’ and YY’ cross is called the origin,
and is denoted by O. Since the positive numbers lie on the directions OX and OY, OX and OY are
called the positive directions of the x-axis and the y-axis respectively. Similarly, OX’ and OY’ are
called the negative directions of the x- and y-axes respectively.
5.2.1 Important Terms
Quadrants:
The axes x and y divides the plane into four parts and these four parts are called quadrants (one-
fourth part). Thus, we have four quadrants numbered I, II, III and IV anticlockwise from OX.
Cartesian plane:
A plane consists of axes and quadrants. Thus, we call the plane the Cartesian plane, or the
Coordinate Plane, or the x-y plane. The axes are called the coordinate axes.
Number line:
A line with a chosen Cartesian system is called a number line. Every real number has a unique
location on the line. Every point on the number line can be interpreted as a number.
Abscissa and Ordinate
The x-coordinate of a point is its perpendicular distance from the y-axis measured along the x-axis
and it is known as Abscissa. The y-coordinate of a point is its perpendicular distance from the x-axis
measured along the y-axis and it is known as Ordinate.
In writing the coordinates of a point in the coordinate plane, the x-coordinate comes first and then
the y-coordinate. We place the coordinates in brackets as (x, y). The coordinates describe a point in
the plane uniquely. It implies (3, 1) ≠ (1, 3) or in general (x, y) ≠ (y, x).

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Figure: Cartesian plane showing quadrants

Example 1
Consider an example point (3, 2).
Here abscissa (x) = 3 and ordinate (y) = 2.
(- 4.5, 5) -4.5 is abscissa and 5 is ordinate

Figure: Cartesian coordinate system showing points.

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Example 2
Locate below points on the Cartesian coordinate system.
(i) (2, 3)
(ii) (-3, 1)
(iii) (-1.5, -2.5)
(iv) (0,0)
Solution:

Figure: Cartesian coordinate system showing different points.

5.3 The concept of average to draw a free hand-Line.

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Graph is a pictorial way of presenting information about the relation between two quantities or, a
graph, like a picture, is worth a thousand words. Graphs not only contain numerical information;
they also reveal relationships between physical quantities. There are so many uses of graphs in our
daily life such as to show year-wise growth/decline of export, month-wise rainfall, a patient’s
temperature record of runs per over scored by a team and so on. In practice, graph analysis often
refers to the more basic identification, visualization and analysis of the relationships between
entities. Moreover, graphs provide a convenient method to present basic information about a variety
of events. For example, in the telecast of a one-day cricket match, vertical bar graphs show the run
rate of a team in each over. As you have studied in mathematics, a straight line graph helps in
solving a linear equation having two variables.

To describe the motion of an object, we can use line graphs. In this case, line graphs show
dependence of one physical quantity, such as distance or velocity, on another quantity, such as time.
Graphs make it easy to identify trends in data that you have collected and can be analyzed in order to
perform a calculation or a measurement, related to addressing the aim of an experiment. In free hand
line method, we draw the given times series data on graph paper, then we draw a free hand trend line
through the plotted graph according to the trend of the graph. Then we read trend values from this
free-hand trend line. It represents the change in a quantity with respect to another quantity.

For example, the price of different flavors of chocolates varies, which we can represent with the help
of this graph. This variation is usually plotted in a two-dimensional XY plane. If the relation
including any two measures can be expressed utilizing a straight line in a graph, then such graphs are
called linear graphs. Thus, the line graph is also called a linear graph. A line graph or line chart or
line plot is a graph that utilizes points and lines to represent change over time. It is a chart that shows
a line joining several points or a line that shows the relation between the points. The graph represents
quantitative data between two changing variables with a line or curve that joins a series of successive
data points. Linear graphs compare these two variables in a vertical axis and a horizontal axis.

5.3.1 How to sketch a Graph?

 Take the time periods along x-axis by taking appropriate scaling / plot the points for
independent variables on x-axis.
 Plot the points for observed values of the Y variable as the dependent variable against the
given time periods

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  Join these plotted points by line segments
 Draw a free hand smooth curve (or a straight line)
If we have created data tables, then we draw linear graphs using the data tables. These graphs are
plotted as a series of points, which are later joined with straight lines to provide a simple way to
review data collected over time. It offers an excellent visual format of the outcome data collected
over time. To plot a linear/line graph follow the below steps:
 Use the data from the data-table to choose a suitable scale.
 Draw and label the scale on the vertical (y-axis) and horizontal (x-axis) axes.
 List each item and place the points on the graph.
 Join the points with line segments
Example 3
Consider a car moving along the x axis as in Figure 5.4. When we begin collecting position data, the
car is 30 m to the right of a road sign, which we will use to identify the reference position x= 0. We
start our clock and once every 10 s note the car’s position relative to the sign at x = 0. When we stop
recording information after our fourth data point. A graphical representation of this information is
presented in Figure 5.5.

Figure: A car moves along a straight line taken to be the x axis

Position of the Car at Various Times

Distance(m) 0 30 60 90 120

Time(s) 0 10 20 30 40

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 Figure: graph showing motion of a car

5.4 Analyzing graphs (find out useful information from the graph).
The world today is becoming more and more information-oriented. Every part of our lives utilizes
data in one form or another. The tabular representation of data is an ideal way of presenting them
systematically. When these numerical figures are represented graphically in the form of a bar graph
or a line graph, they become more noticeable and easily understandable, leaving a long-lasting effect
on the mind of the observer
5.4.1 Analyzing a Graph
Consider the following steps to read a graph:
 Look at the title.
 See the labeling of axes.
 Check out the emerging patterns to understand the trend.
 See the data values to get exact figures.

Example 4
The graph shown below represents the sale of bicycles by a bicycle company from the month of
January till June. Here, the x-axis represents the time interval and the y-axis represents the number
of bicycles sold each month. The dark point on the graph denotes a data point. A data point on a line
graph represents the quantity or a number that matches a particular time in the x-axis.

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Figure: graph showing the number of bicycles sold in the months
In the example shown, the number of bicycles sold in the month of January is 50. Similarly, in the
month of February 30 bicycles were sold. We can interpret this data for each month using the data
point. The line segment connecting these individual data points gives a picture of whether the sale of
bicycles is in an increasing or decreasing trend.
Example 5
The graph shown below represents the daily sale of dogs every day of the week

Figure: graph showing the daily sale of dogs every day of the week

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  The line graph has an increasing slope, which means that the sale of dogs has increased
starting from Monday. We can clearly see that there were 40 more dogs sold on Thursday
than on Monday. (50 were sold on Thursday and 10 were sold on Monday, so the difference
is 50 - 10 = 40)
 One other important observation is that the sale remains the same on Tuesday and
Wednesday.

5.5 Application of graph for describing speed, velocity and acceleration

(instantaneous value etc.)
To describe the motion of an object, we can use line graphs. In this case, line graphs show
dependence of one physical quantity, such as distance or velocity, on another quantity, such as time.
It is useful to represent the motion of objects using graphs. The terms distance and displacement are
used interchangeably when the motion is in a straight line. Similarly if the motion is in a straight line
then speed and velocity are also used interchangeably.

5.5.1 Distance–Time Graphs

The change in the position of an object with time can be represented on the distance-time graph
adopting a convenient scale of choice. In this graph, time is taken along the x–axis and distance is
taken along the y-axis. The gradient (slope) of the graph is equal to speed .Distance-time graphs can
be employed under various conditions where objects move with uniform speed, non-uniform speed,
remain at rest etc
Object at rest

Figure: Distance-time graph when the object is at rest

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In the graph shown in figure 5.8, the distance moved by the object with time is zero. That is, the
object is at rest. Thus a horizontal line parallel to time axis on a distance-time graph shows that
speed of the object is zero

Object moving with constant speed

Figure: Distance time graph showing constant speed.

The speed of an object is said to be constant if it covers equal distances in equal intervals of time.
The distance-time graph as shown in figure 5.9 is a straight line. Its slope gives the speed of the
object. Consider two points A and B on the graph
Speed of the object = slope of line AB
= Distance EF / Time CD
= 20m / 10s
= 2ms-1
The speed found from the graph is 2ms-1
Object moving with variable speed

Figure: Distance- time graph showing variable speed.

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When an object does not cover equal distances in equal intervals of time then its speed is not
constant. In this case the distance-time graph is not a straight line as shown in figure 5.10. The slope
of the curve at any point can be found from the slope of the tangent at that point.
Example 6
Figure 5.11 shows the distance-time graph of a moving car. From the graph, find
(a) The distance car has traveled.
(b) The speed during the first five seconds.
(c) Average speed of the car.
(d) Speed during the last 5 seconds.

Figure: Distance-time graph of a car in example 6.

Solution
(a) Total distance travelled = 40m
(b) Distance travelled during first 5s is 35 m
So, Speed = 35m/5s = 7ms-1
(c) Speed Average = Total distance /Total time = 40m/ 10s = 4ms-1
(d) Distance moved during the last 5s = 5 m
So, Speed = 5m/5s = 1ms-1

5.5.2 Velocity-time graphs

The variation in velocity with time for an object moving in a straight line can be represented by a
velocity-time graph. In this graph, time is represented along the x-axis and speed is taken along y-
axis. The gradient of a velocity–time graph tells us whether the object’s velocity has been changing

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at a high rate or a low rate, or not at all. We can deduce the value of the acceleration from the
gradient (slope) of the graph:
Acceleration = gradient of velocity/time graph.

Object moving with constant speed

Figure: speed-time graph showing constant speed.

When the speed of an object is constant (4 ms-1) with time, then the speed-time graph will be a
horizontal line parallel to time-axis along x-axis as shown in figure 5.12. In other words, a straight
line parallel to o time axis represents constant speed of the object. The velocity is constant.
Therefore acceleration a = 0.
Object moving with uniformly changing speed (uniform acceleration)
Let the speed of an object be changing uniformly. In such a case speed is changing at constant rate.
Thus its speed-time graph would be a straight line such as shown in figure 5.13. A straight line
means that the object is moving with uniform acceleration.

Figure: Graph of an object moving with uniform acceleration.

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Moreover, the greater the slope, the greater the acceleration. Fig 5.14 shows slope of different speed-
time graphs.

Figure: Graph showing different slopes

A negative slope shows deceleration (a is negative). The graph in figure 5.15 shows that the speed of
the object is decreasing with time

Figure: Graph of an object moving with uniform deceleration.

Object moving with variable speed
The slope is changing; the acceleration is changing. The graph in figure 5.16 shows that the speed of
the object is non-uniform with time.

Figure: Graph of an object moving with variable speed.

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5.6 Deducing displacement
We can also find the displacement of a moving object from its velocity–time graph. This is given by
the area under the graph:
Displacement = area under velocity–time graph
When an object moves with a constant velocity. The displacement is simply velocity×time, which is
the area of the shaded rectangle (Fig 5.17)

Figure: The area under the velocity–time graph is equal to the displacement of the object
For changing velocity, again the area under the graph gives displacement (Figure 5.18). The area of
each square of the graph represents a distance travelled:
In this case, 1ms−1×1 s, or 1m.

Figure: The area under the velocity–time graph is equal to the displacement of the object.

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So, for this simple case in which the area is a triangle, we have:
Displacement = 1/ 2 ×base × height = 1/ 2 ×5.0×10 = 25m
Example 7
A car moves in a straight line. The speed-time graph of its motion is shown in figure 5.19.

Figure: Speed time graph of a car during 30 seconds

From the graph, find

(a) Its acceleration during the first 10 seconds.
(b) Its deceleration during the last 2 seconds.
(c) Total distance travelled.
(d) Average speed of the car during its journey.
SOLUTION
(a) Acceleration during the first 10 seconds
Acceleration = ∆v/t
= 16 ms-1 -0 ms-1 / 10 s
= 1.6 ms-2
(b) Acceleration during the last 2 seconds
Acceleration = ∆v/t
= 0 ms-1 - 16ms-1 / 2 s
= - 8 ms-2
(c) Total distance travelled = area under the graph (trapezium OABC)

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 = 1 / 2 ( sum of parallel sides) × height
= 1 / 2 (18s + 30 s) × 16ms-1
= 384m
(d) Average speed = total distance covered / total time taken
= 384m/ 30s
= 12.8 ms-1

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 EXERCISE
. 1. Locate below points on the Cartesian coordinate system. Also, mention the quadrant points
belong to.
(i) (2, 3) (ii) (-3, 1) (iii) (-1.5, -2.5) (iv) (0,0)
2. A bookshop made a line graph of the number of books it sold each week during a certain period.
Based on the information provided in the below line graph, find how many fewer books were sold in
week 8 than in week 7.

3. The speed-time graph shows a 50-second car journey, find which section of the graph has the
greatest acceleration.

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4. The distance–time graph for a girl on a cycle ride is shown in below graph.

a. How far did she travel?

b. How long did she take?
c. What was her average speed in km/h?
d. How many stops did she make?
e. How long did she stop for altogether?
f. What was her average speed excluding stops?
g. How can you tell from the shape of the graph when she travelled fastest? Over which stage did
this happen?
5. The approximate velocity–time graph for a car on a 5-hour journey is shown in below graph.
(There is a very quick driver change midway to prevent driving fatigue!)

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a. State in which of regions OA, AB, BC, CD, DE the car is
(i) accelerating, (ii) decelerating, (iii) travelling with uniform velocity.
b. Calculate the value of the acceleration, deceleration or constant velocity in each region.
c. What is the distance travelled over each region?
d. What is the total distance travelled?
e. Calculate the average velocity for the whole journey.

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 CHAPTER SIX
FORCE
6.1 What is force?
In physics, force is a concept used to describe the influence of one object on another, which can
cause a change in motion or deformation. Force is the push or pull that causes a change in the motion
of an object. It can also change the size and shape of an object. Force is something that we
experience in our daily lives whenever we push or pull on an object. When we push or pull on an
object, we are exerting a force on it.
For example, when you push a shopping cart at the grocery store, you are exerting a force on the
cart. The force you exert is what causes the cart to move forward. Similarly, when you pull a door to
open it, you are exerting a force on the door. The force you exert is what causes the door to move
towards you and open.
In both of these examples, the force is created by the interaction between two objects - your body
and the object you are pushing or pulling. This interaction is what allows you to apply a force and
cause a change in motion of the object.
So, in simple terms, force is the push or pull that we apply to objects in our everyday lives. It is what
allows us to move and interact with the world around us.

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6.1.1 Unit of force
Force is measured in units of Newtons (N), which is defined as the amount of force required to
accelerate a mass of one kilogram at a rate of one meter per second squared (1 N = 1 kg m/s2).

6.2 Force is a vector quantity

Force is a vector quantity, which means it has both magnitude and direction. This means that in
order to fully describe a force, you need to specify both how strong it is (magnitude) and in what
direction it is acting. Here are a few examples of how force can be described as a vector quantity in
our daily lives:
1. A person pushing a lawnmower: Imagine you
are pushing a lawnmower across your yard. The
force you exert on the lawnmower has both
magnitude (how hard you are pushing) and
direction (the direction in which you are
pushing). If you push the lawnmower with
more force, it will move faster. If you push it in
a different direction, it will move in a different
direction as well.
2. A car accelerating: When a car accelerates, it is experiencing a force in the direction of its
motion. This force has both magnitude (how much force the engine is producing) and
direction (the direction in which the car is moving). If you increase the force produced by the
engine, the car will accelerate faster. If you change the direction of the force (for example, by
turning the steering wheel), the car will change direction.
3. A person pulling a rope: Imagine you are playing a game of tug-of-war with a group of
friends. The force you exert on the rope has both magnitude (how hard you are pulling) and
direction (the direction in which you are pulling). If you pull harder, the rope will move
towards you faster. If you pull in a different direction, the rope will move in a different
direction as well.
In all of these examples, force is a vector quantity because it has both magnitude and direction.
Understanding the direction of the force is just as important as understanding how strong it is,
because it determines how the object will move in response to the force

6.3 Force and acceleration

Force and acceleration are closely related concepts in physics. According to Newton, the
acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force applied to it. More the force, more the

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acceleration and less the force less the acceleration produced in a body. The acceleration produced
will always be in the direction of force.
Here are some examples of simple activities that illustrate the relationship between force and
acceleration:
1. Pushing a book across a table: When you apply a force to a book resting on a table, it will
accelerate in the direction of the force. The magnitude of the acceleration will depend on the
amount of force you apply.
2. Throwing a ball: When you throw a ball, you apply a force to it in a specific direction. The
ball will accelerate in that direction until it is acted upon by another force (such as air
resistance or gravity).
3. Riding a bike: When you pedal a bike, you apply a force to the pedals that causes the bike to
accelerate forward. The magnitude of the acceleration will depend on the force you apply
through its engine.
4. Hitting a nail with a hammer: When you hit a nail with a hammer, the force of the hammer
transfers to the nail and causes it to accelerate into the wood. The magnitude of the
acceleration will depend on the force of the hammer.
In each of these examples, the force applied causes an acceleration in the direction of the force. The
magnitude of the acceleration depends upon the amount of force applied.
6.4 Direction of force
According to Newton's second law of motion, the direction of acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to the direction of the net force acting on it. If the net force acting on an object is in the
same direction as its velocity, the object will accelerate in that direction. If the net force is in the
opposite direction as its velocity, the object will decelerate or slow down. If the net force is
perpendicular to the velocity, the object will accelerate in the direction of the net force, which may
cause it to turn.
In the case of uniform motion in a circle, the direction of the net force acting on the object is
perpendicular to the velocity, pointing towards the center of the circle. Therefore, the direction of
acceleration is also perpendicular to the velocity, towards the center of the circle. This is known as
centripetal acceleration.
In the case of a body retarding or decelerating on a straight line, the direction of the net force is
opposite to the direction of its velocity. Therefore, the direction of acceleration is also opposite to the
direction of the velocity, which causes the body to slow down.
In the case of a body turning a corner, the net force acting on the body is perpendicular to the
velocity, pointing towards the center of the turn. Therefore, the direction of acceleration is also
perpendicular to the velocity, towards the center of the turn. This causes the body to change direction
and velocity, resulting in a change in its path.

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In daily life, we can observe these different cases in various situations. For example, a car turning a
corner experiences centripetal acceleration towards the center of the turn. A cyclist decelerating on a
straight line experiences a force opposite to the direction of motion. A roller coaster accelerating
along a circular track experiences centripetal acceleration, while a rocket accelerating in a straight
line experiences a force in the direction of motion.

6.5 Types of forces

Forces are classified into two types based on their mode of action, contact and non-contact forces.
Contact forces are those forces that require physical contact between two objects for their action,
while non-contact forces act on objects without any physical contact.

Here are some examples of forces classified based on their mode of action.

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6.5.1 Contact forces:
 Frictional force: The force that opposes motion or the tendency of motion between two
surfaces in contact is called frictional force. It can be either static or kinetic friction.
 Tension force: This force arises when an object is being stretched or pulled by a force applied
at its ends. For example, the tension force in a rope or cable.
 Air resistance force: This force is also known as drag force, which opposes the motion of an
object through the air. It acts in the opposite direction to the object's motion.
6.5.2 Non-contact forces:
 Gravity force: It is the force of attraction between any two objects with mass. It is a universal
force that acts on all objects in the universe.
 Magnetic force: This force arises between two magnetic poles or a magnetic field and a
magnetic object.
 Electrostatic force: It is the force that exists between two charged particles or objects due to
their electric charge
6.6 What is the net force or resultant force?
Net force or resultant force is the overall force acting on an object, taking into account the magnitude
and direction of all the individual forces acting on it. An unbalanced force is a net force that causes
an object to accelerate in a particular direction.
Here are some examples of the addition of forces as vectors in daily life:

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 1. Pushing a shopping cart: When you push a shopping
cart, you are applying a force in one direction. If the
ground is flat and the cart is not moving, the force of
friction is equal and opposite, resulting in a net force of
zero. However, if the ground is sloped, the force of
gravity will also come into play, resulting in an
unbalanced force that causes the cart to accelerate in the
direction of the slope.

2. Throwing a ball: When you throw a ball, you are applying a force in one direction. The air
resistance acting on the ball is opposite to the direction of motion, which reduces the net
force. However, if you throw the ball at an angle, the force of gravity will also come into
play, resulting in an unbalanced force that causes the ball to follow a curved path.
3. Riding a bike: When you ride a bike, you are applying a
force in the direction of motion. The force of friction and
air resistance are acting in the opposite direction, which
reduces the net force. However, if you are going uphill,
the force of gravity will also come into play, resulting in
an unbalanced force that requires more effort to keep
moving forward.

4. Opening a door: When you open a door, you are applying a force in one direction. If the door
is not locked, the force of friction is minimal, resulting in a net force that opens the door.
However, if the door is locked, the force required to overcome the friction and open the door
may require more effort.
In all of these examples, the net force or resultant force or unbalanced force is determined by
adding the individual forces acting on the object as vectors. If the net force is zero, the object
remains stationary or moves with constant velocity. If the net force is non-zero, the object
accelerates in the direction of the net force.

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 EXERCISE
1. Can an object move without being subjected to any force? Explain.
2. How does the direction of a force affect an object's acceleration? Explain with an example.
3. How does the magnitude of a force affect an object's acceleration? Explain with an example.
4. Can two forces acting on an object be in opposite directions and still produce a net force?.
5. How can the direction of acceleration of an object be determined?
6. What is the main difference between contact and non-contact forces?
7. Can non-contact forces cause motion in an object?
8. How do contact and non-contact forces affect the behavior of objects in motion?
9. A 10 kg mass is pushed to the right with a force of 20 N, while a 5 kg mass is pushed to the
left with a force of 15 N. What is the net force acting on the system?
10. A 20 N force is applied to a 4 kg block to move it to the right, while a 15 N force is applied
to the left to resist the motion of the block. What is the net force acting on the block, and
what is the acceleration of the block?
11. What will be net force if the weigh and the lift are equal in magnitude in the given diagram?

12. Calculate the resultant force in the given diagram with regards to magnitude and direction.

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 CHAPTER 7
LAWS OF MOTION
The laws of motion, formulated by Sir Isaac Newton in the 17th century, are a fundamental concept
in physics. These laws describe the behavior of objects in motion and have been used to explain a
wide range of physical phenomena, from the motion of planets in the solar system to the behavior of
subatomic particles. Newton's laws of motion provide a foundation for the study of mechanics, the
branch of physics that deals with the motion of objects and the forces that cause that motion.
Understanding these laws is essential to many fields of science and engineering, including
aerospace, robotics, and materials science
7.1.1 Frame of Reference
Suppose an object is placed on the table, it can be said that the object is at rest. If a person is
standing on the moon he will find that earth is changing its position continuously and so are the table
and the object. Thus, to locate the position of anything one needs to define a frame of reference. For
instance, if we take the earth as a reference, then the object is at rest but if the moon is taken as
reference, the object is in motion. A frame of reference can be inertial or non-inertial depending on
whether it is at rest or constantly moving.
7.1.2 Motion and rest as a relative quantities.
Rest and motion are relative concepts because they depend on the frame of reference from which
they are observed.

For example, imagine you are sitting in a train that is

moving at a constant speed. From your point of view,
you are at rest, but from the point of view of someone
standing on the platform, you are moving. Similarly, if
you are standing still and someone drives by in a car,
from your point of view, you are at rest, but from the
point of view of the person in the car, you are moving.
This is because there is no absolute frame of reference
in the universe that can be used to determine whether an
object is at rest or in motion. Instead, the motion of an
object can only be described relative to some other
object or point of reference.
The concept of relative motion is important in physics because it is used to describe the behavior of
objects in motion, including the laws of motion and the principles of relativity. By understanding the
relativity of rest and motion, scientists and engineers can make accurate predictions about the
behavior of objects in motion and design effective technologies based on these principles.

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7.1.3 Newton’s First Law
The first law of motion, also known as the law of inertia, is a fundamental principle in physics that
describes the behavior of objects in motion or at rest. It states that an object at rest will remain at
rest, and an object in motion will continue in motion with a constant velocity, unless acted upon by
an external force. In other words, objects have a natural tendency to resist changes in their state of
motion, whether that be to start moving, stop moving, or change direction. The first law of motion is
an essential concept in physics and is the basis for much of our understanding of motion and the
behavior of physical systems.
7.1.4 Aristotle on Motion
The idea that a force causes motion goes back to the fourth century B.C, when the Greeks were
developing some of the ideas of science. Aristotle, the foremost Greek scientist, studied motion and
divided it into two types: Natural motion and violent motion.
Natural motion on Earth was thought to be either straight up or straight down, such as a boulder
falling toward the ground or a putt of smoke rising in the air. Objects would seek their natural resting
places: boulders on the ground and smoke high in the air like the clouds. It was "natural" for heavy
things to fall and for very light things to rise. Aristotle proclaimed circular motion was natural for
the heavens, for he saw both circular motion and the heavens as without beginning or end. Thus, the
planets and stars moved in perfect circles around Earth. Since these motions were considered natural,
they were not thought to be caused by forces.
Violent motion, on the other hand, was imposed motion. It was the result or forces that pushed or
pulled. A cart moved because it was pulled by a horse; a tug-of-war was won by pulling on a rope; a
ship was pushed by the force of the wind. The important thing about defining violent motion was
that it had an external cause. Violent motion was imparted to objects. Objects in their natural resting
places could not move by themselves; they had to be pushed or pulled. It was commonly thought for
nearly 2000 years that if an object was moving 'against its nature, then a force of some kind was
responsible. Such motion was possible only because of an outside Force. there was no force there
would be no motion (except in the vertical direction). So, the proper state of objects was one of rest
unless they were being pushed or pulled or was moving toward their natural resting place. Since
most thinkers before the sixteenth century considered it obvious that Earth must be in its natural
resting place and assumed that a force large enough to move it was unthinkable, it was clear that
Earth did not move.
7.1.5 Copernicus and the Moving Earth
It was in this intellectual climate that the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) formulated
his theory of the moving Earth. Copernicus reasoned that the simplest way to interpret astronomical
observations was to assume that Earth (and other planets) moves around the sun. This idea was
extremely controversial at the time.
7.1.6 Galileo on Motion

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Galileo, the foremost scientist of late-Renaissance Italy, was outspoken in his support of Copernicus.
As a result, he suffered a trial and house arrest. One of Galileo's great contributions to physics was
demolishing the notion that a force is necessary to keep an object moving.
A force is any push or pull. Friction is the name given to the force that acts between materials that
touch as they move past each other. Friction is caused by the irregularities in the surfaces objects that
are touching. Even very smooth surfaces have microscopic irregularities that obstruct motion. If
friction were absent, a moving object would need no force whatever to remain in motion.
Galileo argued that only when friction is present-as it usually is- is a force needed to keep an object
moving. He tested his idea by rolling balls along plane surfaces tilted at different angles. He noted
that a ball rolling down such an inclined plane picks up speed, as shown in below figure.

The ball is rolling partly in the

direction of the pull of Earth's
gravity. He also noted that a ball
rolling up an incline plane-in a
direction opposed by gravity
slows down, as shown in the
center in Figure . What about a
ball rolling on a level surface, as shown on the right in Figure ? While rolling level, the ball does not
roll with or against gravity. Galileo found that a ball rolling on a smooth horizontal plane has almost
constant velocity.
He stated that if friction
were entirely absent, a ball
moving horizontally would
move forever. No push or
pull would be required to
keep it moving once it is
set in motion. Galileo’s
conclusion was supported by another line of reasoning. He described two inclined planes facing each
other, as in figure .
A ball released to roll down one plane would roll up the other to reach nearly the same height. The
smoother the planes were, the more nearly equal would be the initial and final heights. He noted that
the ball tended to attain the same height, even when the second plane was longer and inclined at a
smaller angle than the first plane. In rolling to the same height, the ball had to roll farther. Additional
reductions or the angle of the upward plane gave the same results. Always, the ball went farther and
tended to reach the same height.
What if the angle of incline of the second plane were reduced to Zero so that the plane was perfectly
horizontal? How far would the ball roll? He realized that only friction would keep it from rolling
forever. It was not the nature of the ball to come to rest as Aristotle had claimed. In the absence of

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friction, the moving ball would naturally keep moving Galileo stated that this tendency of a moving
body to keep moving is natural and that every material object resist change to its state of motion. We
call this property of a body to resist change inertia.
Galileo was concerned with how things move rather than why they move. He showed that
experiment, not logic, is the best test of knowledge. Galileo’s findings about motion and his concept
of inertia discredited Aristotle’s theory of motion. The way was open for Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
to synthesize a new vision of the universe.
7.1.7 Newton's Law of Inertia
On Christmas day in the year Galileo died, Isaac Newton was born. By age 24, he had developed his
famous laws of motion. They replaced the Aristotelian idea that dominated the thinking of the best
minds for most of the previous 2000 years.
Newton's first law, usually called the law of inertia, is a restatement of Galileo’s idea.
Every object continues in a state of rest, or of motion in a straight line at constant speed, unless
it is compelled to change that state by forces exerted upon it.
Simply put, things tend to keep on doing what they're already
doing. Dishes on a tabletop, for example, are in a state of
rest. They tend to remain at rest, as is evidenced if you snap a
tablecloth from beneath them as shown in figure . Try this at
first with some unbreakable dishes. If you do it properly, you
will find the brief and small forces of friction are n
significant enough to appreciably move the dishes (close
inspection will show that brief friction between the dishes
and the 1ast-moving tablecloth starts the dishes moving, but
immediately after the table- cloth is removed friction between the dishes and table stops them)
Objects in a state of rest tend to remain at rest. Only a force will change that state.
Now consider an object in motion. If you slide a hockey puck
along the surface of a city street, the puck quite soon comes to
rest. If you slide it along ice, it slides for a longer distance.
This is because the friction force is very small. If you slide it
along an air table where friction is practically absent, it slides
with no apparent loss in speed. We see that in the absence of
forces, a moving object tends to move in a straight line
indefinitely. Toss an object from a space station located in the
vacuum of outer space, and the object will move forever. It
will move by virtue of its own inertia.
We see that the law of inertia provides a completely different way of viewing motion. Whereas the
ancients thought continual forces were needed to maintain motion, we now know that objects
continue to move by themselves.

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 Forces are needed to overcome any friction that may be present and to set objects in motion initially
Once the object is moving in a force-free environment, it will move in a straight line indefinitely.

Inertia

You ever wondered why it is so difficult to push a larger object, compared to a smaller object? It is
much more difficult to push a car along a road, than to push a book along a table. Inertia explains the
reasoning behind this.
Inertia is the resistance of a body to change its state of rest or motion. It means that if a body is
stationary, it would resist to change its state of rest if it is pushed, or a force is applied on it. It would
try to remain stationary, and this resistance is known as Inertia.
The same applies to moving objects. It is the tendency of a moving object to keep moving. A bicycle
should keep moving infinitely if pedalled only once according to inertia. But we know this does
not happen. Why is it so?
The bicycle stops moving due to the external forces acting on it .If there were no external forces like
air resistance, friction etc on it while you were cycling to school, all you would have needed was to
pedal your bicycle once, and you could have travelled all the way to your school!
Inertia depends on the mass of an object. The more the mass of an object, the more resistance it will
provide to change its state of rest or motion. That pretty much explains why objects with more mass
are difficult to push or stop, compared to smaller objects
7.1.8 Types of Inertia
Following are the three types of inertia:

Inertia of Rest Inertia of Direction Inertia of Motion

When the resistance is offered When the resistance is offered by When the resistance is offered
by the body to continue in the the body to continue the motion by the body to continue to be in
state of rest unless an external in the same direction unless an the uniform motion unless an
force acts on it. external force acts on it. external force acts on it.

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7.2 Newton’s Second Law
Kick a football and it moves. Its path through the air is not a
straight line- curves downward due to gravity. Catch the ball and
it stops. Most of the motion we see undergoes change. Most
things start up, slow down, or curve as they move. The previous
section covered objects at rest or moving at constant velocity.
There was no net force acting on these objects.
Acceleration describes how quickly changes motion. Specifically, it is the change in velocity per
certain time interval. In shorthand notation,
change in velocity
Acceleration =
time interval
7.2.1 Force Causes Acceleration
Consider an object at rest, such as a hockey puck on ice. Apply a force and it starts to move. Since
the puck was not moving before, it has accelerated-it has changed its motion. When the hockey stick
is no longer pushing it the puck moves at constant velocity. Apply another force by striking the puck
again, and again the motion changes. The puck accelerates--force causes acceleration.
Most often when force we apply is not only force acting on an object. Other forces may act as well;
that the combination of forces acting on an object is the net force.
Acceleration depends on the net force. To increase the acceleration or an object, you must increase
the net force acting on it. This makes good sense. Double the force on an object and its acceleration
doubles. If you triple the force, its acceleration triples, and so on. We say an object's acceleration is
directly proportional to the net force acting on it. We write acceleration - net force. The symbol α
stands for "is directly proportional to."
7.2.2 Mass Resists Acceleration
Push on an empty shopping cart. Then push equally hard on a heavily loaded shopping cart. The
loaded shopping cart will accelerate much less than the empty cart. This shows that acceleration
depends on the mass being pushed. The same force applied to twice as much mass results in only
half the acceleration. For three times the mass, one-third the acceleration results. In other words, for
a given force, the acceleration produced is inversely proportional to the mass. We write acceleration
mass
By inversely we mean that the two values change in opposite directions. Mathematically we see that
as the denominator increases, the whole quantity decreases. The quantity 1/100 is less than the
quantity 1/10, for example,
Newton was the first to realize that the acceleration produced when we move something depends not
only on how hard we push or pull, but also on the object’s mass. He came up with one of the most
important rules of nature ever proposed, his second law of motion.
Newton's second law states

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The acceleration produced by a net force on an object is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the net force, is in the same direction as the net force, and is inversely
proportional to the mass of the object.
Or, in equation form
By using consistent units, such as Newton (N) for force, kilogram (kg) for mass, and meters per
second squared (m/s/s) for acceleration, we get the exact equation
𝐍𝐞𝐭 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
𝐀𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝛂
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬
In briefest form, where a is acceleration, F is net force, and m is mass,

𝐅
𝐚=
𝐦

The acceleration is equal to the net force divided by the mass. From this relationship we see that
doubling the net force acting on an object doubles its acceleration. Suppose instead that the mass is
doubled. Then acceleration will be halved. If both the net force and the mass are doubled, the
acceleration will be unchanged.
7.3 Newton’s Third Law
7.3.1 Forces and Interactions
In the simplest sense, a force is a push or a pull. Looking
closer, however, Newton realized that a force is not a thing in
itself but part of a mutual action, an interaction, between one
thing and another. For example, consider the interaction
between a hammer and a nail. A hammer exerts a force on the
nail and drives it into a board. But this force is only half the
story, for there must also be a force exerted on the
hammer to halt it in the process. What exerts this force? The interaction that drives the nail is the
The nail does! Newton reasoned that while the hammer same as the one that halts hammer
exerts a force on the nail, the nail exerts a force on the
hammer. So, in the interaction between the hammer and the nail, there is pair of forces, one acting on
the nail and the other acting on the hammer. Such observations led Newton to his third law: the law
of action and reaction.

Newton's third law states: Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object. The second object
exerts an equal and opposite force on the first object. One force is called the action force. The other
force is called the reaction force. It doesn't matter which force we call action and which we call

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reaction. The important thing is that they are
partners in a single interaction and that neither
force exists without the other. They are equal in
strength and opposite in direction. Newton's third
law is often stated: "To every action there is
always an equal opposing reaction." In every
interaction, the forces always occur in pairs. For
example, you interact with the floor when you
walk on it. You push against the floor, and the When you push on a wall, the wall pushes on
floor simultaneously pushes against you. Likewise, you
the tires of a car interact with the road to produce the car's motion.
The tires push against the road, and the road simultaneously pushes back on the tires.
When swimming, you interact with the water. You push the water backward, and the water pushes
you forward. There is a pair of forces acting in each interaction. Notice that the interactions in these
examples depend on friction. For example, a person trying to walk on ice, where friction is minimal
may not be able to exert an action force against the ice. Without the action force there cannot be a
reaction force, and thus there is no resulting forward motion.
7.3.2 Identifying Action and Reaction
Sometimes the identity of the pair of action and reaction forces in an interaction is not immediately
obvious. For example, what are the action and reaction forces in the case of a falling boulder? You
might say that Earth's gravitational force on the boulder is the action force, but can you identify the
reaction force? Is it the weight of the boulder? No weight is simply another name for the force of
gravity. Is it caused by the ground where the boulder lands? No, the ground does not act on the
boulder until the boulder hits it.
It turns out that there is a simple recipe for treating action and reaction forces. First identify the
interaction. Let's say one object; A. interacts with another object, B. The action and reaction forces
can then be stated in the form
Action: Object A exerts a force on object B.
Reaction: Object B exerts a force on object A
This is easy to remember. Just identify interacting objects A and B. and if the action is A on B, the
reaction is simply B on A. So, in the case of the falling boulder, the interaction during the fall is the
gravitational attraction between the boulder and Earth. If we call the action Earth exerting a force on
the boulder, then the reaction is the boulder simultaneously exerting a force on Earth.
7.3.3 Action and Reaction on Different Masses
Interestingly enough, in the interaction between the boulder and Earth, the boulder pulls up on Earth
with as much force as Earth pulls down on the boulder. The forces are equal in strength and opposite
in direction. We say the boulder falls to Earth. Could we also say Earth falls to the boulder? The
answer is yes, but the distance Earth falls is much less. Although the pair of forces between the

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boulder and Earth are the same, the masses are quite unequal. Recall that Newton's second law states
that acceleration is not only proportional to the net force, but it is also inversely proportional to the
mass. Because Earth has a huge mass, we don't sense its infinitesimally small acceleration. Although
Earth's acceleration is negligible, strictly speaking it does move up toward the falling boulder. So
when you step off a curb, the street actually comes up a tiny bit to meet you!
A similar, but less exaggerated, example
occurs during the firing of a cannon. When the
cannon is fired, there is an interaction between
the cannon and the cannonball. The force the
cannon exerts on the cannonball is exactly
equal and opposite to the force the cannonball
exerts on the cannon, so the cannon "kicks."
On first consideration, you might expect the cannon to kick more than it does, or you might wonder
why the cannonball moves so fast compared with the cannon. According to Newton's second law, we
must also consider the masses.

Let F represent both the action and reaction forces; M, the mass of the cannon; and m, the mass of
the cannonball. Different size symbols are used to indicate the differences in masses and the
resulting accelerations. The acceleration of the cannonball and cannon are
F
Connonball; =𝐚
m
𝐅
Connon ; =𝐚
𝐌
Do you see why the change in the velocity of the cannonball is great compared with the change in
velocity of the cannon? A given force exerted on a small mass produces a greater acceleration than
the same force exerted on a large mass.
If we extend the basic idea of a cannon recoiling from the cannonball it
launches, we can understand rocket propulsion. Consider air escaping from
an untied, blown-up balloon. If the balloon is released and allowed to move
as shown in Figure , it accelerates as the air comes out. A rocket accelerates
in much the same way—it continually recoils from the exhaust gases ejected
from its engine. Each molecule of exhaust gas acts like a tiny molecular
cannonball shot downward from the rocket

A common misconception is that a rocket is propelled by the impact of

exhaust gases against the atmosphere. In fact, before the advent of rockets, it
was commonly thought that sending a rocket to the moon was impossible
because of the absence of an atmosphere for the rocket to push against. This

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is like saying a cannon won't recoil unless the cannonball has air to push against. This is not true!
Both the rocket and recoiling cannon accelerate because of the reaction forces created by the
"cannonballs" they fire air or no air. In fact, rockets work better above the atmosphere where there is
no air drag,
Using Newton's third law, we can understand how a helicopter gets its lifting force. The whirling
blades are shaped to force air particles downward (action) and the air forces the blades upward
(reaction). This upward reaction force is called lift. When lift equals the weight of the craft, the
helicopter hovers in midair. When lift is greater, the helicopter climbs upward.

Birds and airplanes also fly because of action and reaction forces. When a bird is soaring, the shape
of its wings deflects air downward; the air in turn pushes the bird up. The slightly tilted wings of an
air plane also deflect oncoming air downward and produce lift. Airplanes must continuously push air
downward to maintain lift and remain airborne. This continuous supply of air is produced by the
forward motion of the aircraft, which results from jets or propellers that push air backward. When
the engines push air back, the air in turn pushes the engines and the plane forward. We will learn
later how the curved surface of an airplane wing enhances the lifting force.
7.3.4 Do Action and Reaction Forces Cancel?
Since action and reaction forces are equal and opposite, why don't they cancel to zero?
To answer this interesting question,
we first consider the system
involved. Consider the force pair
between the apple and the orange in
Figure. Suppose we ignore the apple
and everything else and concentrate
only on the orange. We draw an
imaginary circle around the orange
and call it the system. The pull from
the apple supplies a force on the
system, and the system accelerates. In this case, the interaction is between the system (the orange)
and something external (the apple), so the action and reaction forces don't cancel. The fact that the
orange simultaneously exerts a force on the apple, which is external to the system, affects the apple
but not the orange.

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 EXERCISE
1. What is inertia. How it is related to the mass of an object?
2. What is the difference between an object at rest and an object in motion according to the first
law of motion?
3. Can an object be in motion without a force acting on it? Why or why not?
4. How does the concept of inertia relate to the first law of motion?
5. Why is the first law of motion sometimes referred to as the law of inertia?
6. Can inertia be overcome, and if so, what are some examples of how this can be done?
7. How does the second law of motion explain why it is more difficult to push a heavier object
than a lighter one?
8. How does the direction of force affect the acceleration of an object, according to the second
law of motion?
9. How can the second law of motion be used to calculate the force required to accelerate an
object of known mass at a certain rate?
10. How does the second law of motion apply to real-world scenarios, such as the motion of
objects in space or the movement of vehicles on the road?
11. A 5 kg object is pushed with a force of 10 N on a frictionless surface. What is the
acceleration of the object?
12. A 2 kg object is moving with an initial velocity of 5 m/s. It is subjected to a constant force of
10 N for 5 seconds. What is the final velocity of the object, assuming no external forces act
on it?
13. A 10 kg object is dropped from a height of 50 m. What is its velocity just before it hits the
ground, assuming air resistance is negligible?
14. A 1000 kg car is traveling at a constant speed of 20 m/s on a horizontal road. The driver
suddenly applies the brakes, and the car comes to a stop in 5 seconds. What is the average
force applied by the brakes, according to the second law of motion?
15. How does the Third Law of Motion explain the behavior of a rocket during launch?
16. Why is it necessary for an object to experience a reaction force in order to move in a certain
direction?
17. Can the Third Law of Motion be applied to situations where there are multiple interacting
objects?
18. Is it possible for an object to experience a reaction force that is greater than the force it exerts
on another object?

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 CHAPTER EIGHT
MOMENTUM
8.1 What is momentum?
If a loaded lorry and a car are moving at the same speed, it is more difficult for the lorry to stop.
This is because the lorry possesses a physical quantity, momentum, more than the car.
All moving objects possess momentum.Every object has mass. So when an object is moving, then
it will obviously have momentum. Momentum depends upon the mass and velocity of an object.
An object with mass that is in motion has momentum, which is defined by the equation
Momentum = mass × velocity
p = mv
Where m = mass in kilograms (kg)
v = velocity in metres per second (m/s)
p = momentum in kilogram metre per second (kg m/s)
This means that an object at rest (i.e v = 0) has no momentum
Momentum keeps an object moving in the same direction, making it difficult to change the direction
of an object with a large momentum. Since velocity is a vector this means that the momentum of an
object also depends on its direction of travel. This means that momentum can be
either positive or negative
If an object travelling to the right has positive momentum, an object travelling in the opposite
direction (to the left) will have negative momentum.

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Example
Which object has more momentum?

Both the tennis ball and the brick have the same momentum
Even though the brick is much heavier than the ball, the ball is travelling much faster than the brick.
This means that on impact, they would both exert a similar force (depending on the time it takes for
each to come to rest)
8.2.1 Momentum and Newton’s second law of motion.
Newton's definition of quantity of motion, which is now commonly referred to as momentum, is a
fundamental concept in mechanics. In his work, Newton defined momentum as the product of an
object's mass and velocity. He also recognized that the rate of change of momentum, which is now
commonly referred to as force, was directly related to the motion of an object.
The reason behind Newton's definition of momentum and its relationship to force can be attributed
to his observations of the behavior of objects in motion. Newton recognized that objects in motion
tend to continue moving in a straight line at a constant speed unless acted upon by an external force.
He also observed that the force required to change the motion of an object was proportional to its
mass and acceleration.
By defining momentum as the product of mass and velocity, Newton was able to provide a
quantitative measure of an object's motion. He also recognized that the rate of change of momentum,
which is force, was directly related to the motion of an object. In other words, the greater the force
applied to an object, the greater the rate of change of its momentum, and therefore the greater the
change in its motion.

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Newton's definition of momentum and its relationship to force provided a theoretical foundation for
understanding the motion of objects in the physical world. It allowed scientists to make quantitative
predictions about the behavior of objects in motion and provided the basis for the development of the
laws of motion, which are still widely used in modern physics
8.2.2 Relation between momentum and force.
The second law of motion states that the force acting on an object is equal to the product of its mass
and acceleration. Mathematically, we can express this law as:
F = ma
where F is the force, m is the mass of the object, and a is its acceleration.
𝑣𝑓 −𝑣𝑖
As 𝑎= 𝑡
𝑣𝑓 −𝑣𝑖
Therefore, F= m( )
𝑡
𝑚𝑣𝑓 −𝑚𝑣𝑖
F= 𝑡
𝑃𝑓 −𝑃𝑖
F= 𝑡
∆𝑝
F= 𝑡

Therefore, we can conclude that the force acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of its
momentum.

8.3 Elastic and inelastic collisions

Elastic and inelastic collisions are two types of collisions that describe the interaction between two
objects. The key difference between them lies in the conservation of kinetic energy.
In an elastic collision, both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved. In other words, the total
amount of kinetic energy in the system before the collision is equal to the total amount of kinetic
energy after the collision. Elastic collisions typically occur between objects with no permanent
deformation, and the objects bounce off each other.
An example of an elastic collision is a game of pool, where the cue ball collides with a stationary
ball, and both balls move away from each other with the same speed after the collision.
In contrast, in an inelastic collision, momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not. The total
kinetic energy of the system before the collision is greater than the total kinetic energy of the system
after the collision. In inelastic collisions, some of the energy is converted into other forms of energy,
such as heat or sound, and the objects may stick together or deform.

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An example of an inelastic collision is a car crash. When two cars collide, they may stick together
and become deformed, and the kinetic energy of the system is not conserved due to the conversion
into other forms of energy.
In summary, the main difference between elastic and inelastic collisions is that inelastic collisions
involve a loss of kinetic energy, whereas elastic collisions do not.

8.4 Derivation of the law of conservation of momentum using the Third Law Motion.
The law of conservation of momentum states that the total momentum of a system of objects remains
constant if there is no net external force acting on the system. This law can be mathematically
derived from the third law of motion, which states that for every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction.
Consider a system of two objects, A and B, with masses m1 and m2, respectively. Let v1 and v2 be
their initial velocities, and u1 and u2 be their final velocities.

According to the third law of motion, the force that object A exerts on object B is equal and opposite
to the force that object B exerts on object A. Let FA and FB be the magnitudes of these forces,
respectively. Then we can write:
FA = -FB ---------------- (1)
Using Newton's second law of motion, we can relate the forces to the accelerations of the objects.
m1 . a1 = m2. a2 ---------------(2)
where a1 and a2 are the accelerations of objects A and B, respectively.

As we can express the acceleration in terms of velocities, therefore we can write equation (2) as
𝑢1 −𝑣1 𝑢2 −𝑣2
m1 ( ) = - m2 ( ) ---------------------(3)
𝑡 𝑡
where ‘t’ shows the time of impact.
Cancelling t on both sides, we get equation (3) as
m1 (𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) = - m2 (𝑢2 − 𝑣2 )

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m1 𝑢1 − 𝑚1 𝑣1 = - m2 𝑢2 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
m1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2

𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 = 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2

This is the statement of the law of conservation of momentum for a two-object system. It says that
the total momentum of the system, which is the sum of the momenta of the individual objects, is
conserved:
This equation holds true regardless of the nature of the forces between the objects, as long as there is
no net external force acting on the system.
Example
Trolley A of mass 0.80 kg collides head-on with stationary trolley B at a velocity of 3.0 ms-1.Trolley
B has twice the mass of trolley A. The trolleys stick together. Using the conservation of momentum,
calculate the common velocity of both trolleys after the collision.

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Page 94 of 141
 EXERCISE
1. What is momentum and how is it related to an object's mass and velocity?
2. How does momentum affect the motion of objects in a collision or explosion?
3. How does the momentum of an object change as it undergoes a change in velocity?
4. What is the conservation of momentum and how does it apply to closed systems?
5. How does the principle of momentum conservation help explain the behavior of objects in
various physical phenomena, such as rocket propulsion or ballistic motion?
6. Can momentum be negative, and what does this imply about an object's direction of motion?
7. How do changes in the direction of an object's momentum affect its motion?
8. How does the momentum of an object relate to its kinetic energy?
9. A 5000 kg truck is traveling at a velocity of 20 m/s, and collides with a stationary 2000 kg
car. If the truck and car stick together after the collision, what is their final velocity?
10. A 1000 kg rocket is traveling at a velocity of 500 m/s. If the rocket engine shuts off and the
rocket coasts to a stop, what is the distance traveled before it comes to a complete stop?
11. A 200 kg object is dropped from a height of 10 m. If the object collides with a stationary 100
kg object on the ground, what is the velocity of the two objects after the collision?
12. A 1000 kg car traveling at a velocity of 25 m/s collides with a stationary 2000 kg truck. If the
collision is completely inelastic, what is the final velocity of the combined car and truck?
13. A bullet of 5 gm is fired from a pistol of 1.5 kg. If the recoil velocity of pistol is 1.5 m/s, find
the velocity of bullet.
14. A boy of 50 kg mass is running with a velocity of 2 m/s. He jumps over a stationary cart of 2
kg while running. Find the velocity of cart after jumping of boy.

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 CHAPTER NINE
THERMAL PHYSICS
9.1 Heat and temperature
Heat and temperature are a closely related topic, and as such, the difference between the two can be
a bit confusing. The core difference is that heat deals with thermal energy, whereas temperature is
more concerned with molecular kinetic energy.

Heat describes the transfer of thermal energy between molecules within a system and is measured
in Joules .Heat measures how energy moves or flows. An object can gain heat or lose heat, but it
cannot have heat. Heat is a measure of change, never a property possessed by an object or system.
Therefore, it is classified as a process variable. There are many sources of heat, but the following are
the main sources of heat:
 Sun
 Chemical
 Electrical
 Nuclear
Temperature describes the average kinetic energy of molecules within a material or system and is
measured in Celsius (°C), Kelvin (K), Fahrenheit (°F), or Rankin (R). It is a measurable physical
property of an object also known as a state variable. Other measurable physical properties
include velocity, mass, and density, to name a few.

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9.1.1 Comparing Heat and Temperature

Heat Temperature

measurement of
Definition form of energy hotness or coldness

Units of Celsius, Kelvin,

joule, calorie Fahrenheit
Measurement

Values positive positive and negative

goes from hot to rises when heated;

Property falls when cooled
cold

Device calorimeter thermometer

9.2.1 The four types of temperature scales

Need to know if you should put a coat on before you go out? Want to check if you can put the
cookies in the oven? Temperature scales provide a way of quantifying and measuring how hot or
cold a material is. There are four major temperature scales that are used around the world –
Fahrenheit and Celsius are frequently used in everyday, around the house measurements, while the
absolute zero-based Kelvin and Rankine scales are more commonly used in industry and the
sciences.

Fahrenheit Scale
The Fahrenheit scale of temperature is the
common form of temperature measurement
used in the United States and some parts of
the Caribbean. It was created by the German
scientist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit in the
early 18th century and adapted its
measurements standards from a previous
scale created by Ole Roemer.
Water freezes at 32 degrees Fahrenheit, and boils at 212 degrees F. The Fahrenheit temperature
scale includes negative temperatures, below 0 degrees F. The coldest possible temperature,
absolute zero, is -459.67 degrees F.

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Celsius Scale.
Outside the United States, most of the world uses
the Celsius scale to measure temperatures. Two
versions of the Celsius scale were created in the
early 18th century – one by Swedish scientist
Anders Celsius, and another by the French Jean
Pierre Cristin. The Celsius scale is sometimes
referred to as the centigrade scale, because it is
based on a 100 degree division between the
freezing and boiling points of water: water
freezes at 0 degrees Celsius and boils at 100
degrees C. Because of how the boiling and freezing points are arranged, each degree of Fahrenheit
is 1.8 times the size of a degree Celsius. Like Fahrenheit, Celsius includes negative temperatures.
Absolute zero falls at -273.15 degrees C.

Kelvin Scale.
The Kelvin scale was adapted from the Celsius scale in the 19th century by the British scientist
William Thompson, later Lord Kelvin. Kelvin was designed in order to set the zero point of the
temperature scale at absolute zero. Because of this, absolute zero is located at 0 K – Kelvin does
not use degrees in its notation. You can convert from Celsius to Kelvin by adding 273.15 to a
Celsius temperature. Water freezes at 273.15 K, and boils at 373.15 K. Because of its direct relation
to absolute zero, Kelvin temperature is widely used in scientific equations and calculations. For
instance, the ideal gas law, used to show the relationship between mass, pressure, temperature and
volume, uses Kelvin as its standard unit.
Rankine Scale.
While not widely used – apart from some U.S. engineering fields – the Rankine scale provides an
absolute zero-based equivalent to the Fahrenheit scale. Essentially, it is for the Fahrenheit scale
what Kelvin is for Celsius. The scale was created by Scottish scientist William John Rankine in
the 19th century, shortly after the creation of the Kelvin scale. Temperatures can be converted
from Fahrenheit to Rankine by adding 459.67. Absolute zero is thus located at 0 degrees Rankine.
Water freezes at 491.67 degrees R, and boils at 671.67 degrees R.
9.2.2 Conversion of temperature scales.
The three common temperature scales are Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin. Each scale has its uses,
so it's likely you'll encounter them and need to convert between them. Fortunately, the conversion
formulas are simple given below.

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 Celsius to Fahrenheit ° F = 9/5 ( ° C) + 32
Kelvin to Fahrenheit ° F = 9/5 (K - 273) + 32
Fahrenheit to Celsius ° C = 5/9 (° F - 32)
Celsius to Kelvin K = ° C + 273
Kelvin to Celsius ° C = K – 273
Fahrenheit to Kelvin K = 5/9 (° F - 32) + 273

9.2.3 Useful Temperature Facts

 Absolute zero is 0 K.
 Water boils at 100°C or 212°F.
 Water freezes at 0°C and 32°F.
 Celsius and Fahrenheit are the same at -40°.
 Celsius and Fahrenheit are degree scales.
 The degree symbol is not used to report temperature using the Kelvin scale.

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9.3 Thermometer for measurement of temperature

A thermometer is a device used for measuring temperature. The working of a thermometer is based
on the principle that most substances expand when heated and contract when cooled.
There are different types of thermometers, but the most common type is the mercury thermometer. It
consists of a glass tube with a bulb at one end that contains mercury. The bulb and part of the tube
are filled with the mercury, and the rest of the tube is empty.
When the thermometer is exposed to a higher temperature, the mercury in the bulb and tube expands,
and it rises up in the tube. The temperature is then read off the scale, which is marked on the tube.
Conversely, when the temperature decreases, the mercury contracts and moves down the tube.
Other types of thermometers include digital thermometers, which use electronic sensors to measure
temperature and display it on a screen, and infrared thermometers, which use infrared radiation to
measure the temperature of an object without making physical contact with it.
Regardless of the type of thermometer, accurate temperature measurement requires calibration to
ensure that the instrument reads the correct temperature. This can be done by comparing the
thermometer to a known temperature source, such as a calibrated reference thermometer.

9.4 Specifying the heat energy

9.4.1 Heat capacity.
Heat capacity or thermal capacity is a physical property of matter, defined as the amount of heat to
be supplied to an object to produce a unit change in its temperature. The SI unit of heat capacity is
joule per kelvin (J/K). Heat capacity is an extensive property.
In basic thermodynamics, the higher the temperature of a material, the more thermal energy it
possesses. In addition, at a given temperature, the more of a given substance, the more total thermal
energy the material will possess.
On an atomic level, absorbed heat causes the atoms of a solid to vibrate, much as if they were
bonded to one another through springs. As the temperature is raised, the energy of the vibrations
increases. In a metal, this is the only motion possible. In a liquid or gas, absorbed heat causes the
atoms in the molecule to vibrate, and the molecule to both rotate and move from place to place.
Because there are more “storage” possibilities for energy in liquids and gases, their heat capacities
are larger than in metals.
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Heat capacity for a given matter depends on its size or quantity and hence it is an extensive property.
The unit of heat capacity is joule per Kelvin or joule per degree Celsius.
Mathematically,
Q = CΔT
Where Q is the heat energy required to bring about a temperature change of ΔT and C is the heat
capacity of the system under study.
9.4.2 Specific heat capacity.
The specific heat capacity is defined as the quantity of heat (J) absorbed per unit mass (kg) of the
material when its temperature increases 1 K (or 1 °C), and its units are J/(kg K) or J/(kg °C).
Specific heat values can be determined in the following way: When two materials, each initially at a
different temperature, are placed in contact with one another, heat always flows from the warmer
material into the colder material until both the materials attain the same temperature. From the law
of conservation of energy, the heat gained by the initially colder material must equal the heat lost by
the initially warmer material.
We know that when heat energy is absorbed by a substance, its temperature increases. If the same
quantity of heat is given to equal masses of different substances, it is observed that the rise in
temperature for each substance is different. This is due to the fact that different substances have
different heat capacities. So heat capacity of a substance is the quantity of the heat required to raise
the temperature of the whole substance by one degree. If the mass of the substance is unity then the
heat capacity is called Specific heat capacity or the specific heat.
Specific Heat Capacity Formula
Q = C m ∆t
Where
 Q = quantity of heat absorbed by a body
 m = mass of the body
 ∆t = Rise in temperature
 C = Specific heat capacity of a substance depends on the nature of the material of the
substance.
 S.I unit of specific heat is J kg-1 K-1.
For liquid at room temperature and pressure, the value of specific heat capacity (Cp) is
approximately 4.2 J/g°C. This implies that it takes 4.2 joules of energy to raise 1 gram of water
by 1 degree Celsius. This value for Cp is actually quite large. This (1 cal/g.deg) is the specific
heat of the water as a liquid or specific heat capacity of liquid water.
One calorie= 4.184 joules; 1 joule= 1 kg (m)2 (s)-2 = 0.239005736 calorie

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 The specific heat capacity of water vapour at room temperature is also higher than most other
materials. For water vapour at room temperature and pressure, the value of specific heat capacity
(Cp) is approximately 1.9 J/g°C.
As with most liquids, the temperature of water increases as it absorbs heat and decreases as it
releases heat. However, the temperature of liquid waterfalls & rises more slowly than most other
liquids. We can say that water absorbs heat without an immediate rise in temperature. It also
retains its temperature much longer than other substances.

9.4.3 Molar heat capacity.

Molar heat capacity is defined as the amount of heat required to raise 1 mole of a substance by 1
degree Kelvin. Molar heat capacity is very similar to specific heat capacity but measures per mole
instead of per gram of substance.
In other words, Molar specific heat of a solid or liquid of a material is the amount of heat required to
increase the temperature of one mole of solid or liquid by one Kelvin (or one degree Celsius) of the
substance. C is the letter that we use to symbolize it. Its unit of measure is J mol-1K-1.
Consequently, to raise the temperature of a mole of solid through a temperature difference of ∆T,
you would require an amount of heat equal to Q=µC ∆T.
When you talk about the molar specific heat capacity of a substance, what you are really talking
about is the amount of heat you need to deliver in order to raise the temperature of one gram
molecule of the substance by one degree Celsius.. It is assumed that the specific heat of water is one.
This is due to the fact that we defined a unit of heat (calorie) by utilizing water in our calculations.

9.4 Ccomparing heat capacity and specific heat capacity

Heat capacity and specific heat capacity are two closely related concepts that describe the ability of a
material to store heat energy.
An example of heat capacity is the reason why large bodies of water, such as oceans and lakes, are
able to maintain a relatively constant temperature throughout the day. Due to their high heat
capacity, they are able to absorb a large amount of heat energy from the sun without experiencing a
significant rise in temperature. This property helps to regulate the Earth's climate and makes large
bodies of water important for supporting life.
An example of specific heat capacity can be seen in cooking. When cooking a pot of soup, it takes
longer to heat up than the pot itself because the soup has a higher specific heat capacity than the pot.
The soup requires more heat energy to raise its temperature than the pot does, which means it will
take longer to heat up.
In summary, heat capacity refers to the total amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature
of a substance, while specific heat capacity refers to the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of a given mass of substance.

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Example

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9.5 Defining the thermodynamical terms of matter
9.5.1 Melting and solidification.
Melting is the change of state from a solid to a liquid. Melting of a pure substance occurs at a
particular constant temperature called melting point. The change of state from a liquid to a solid is
called solidification or freezing or casting
9.5.2 Boiling and condensation.
Boiling is the process of transferring a medium from a liquid to a vapour state by applying heat.
When a liquid medium is applied to heat, then the medium will start to boil at a certain temperature
(boiling point temperature). At this particular temperature, the liquid phase changes to the vapour
state, known as the boiling phenomenon.
In reverse, condensation is the process of transferring a medium from a vapour to a liquid by
removing the heat from the medium. When a medium initially in the vapour state is cooled, then its
phase will change from vapour to liquid state, known as the condensation phenomenon. Vapours are
generated by boiling, and liquid droplets are formed by condensation.
9.5.3 Latent Heat.
Latent heat refers to the amount of energy required to change the state of a substance from one phase
to another without changing its temperature. This means that during a phase change, such as melting
or vaporization, energy is either absorbed or released by the substance, without any corresponding
temperature change.
There are three types of latent heat:
1. Latent heat of fusion: This is the energy required to change a solid into a liquid without
changing its temperature. This occurs when a substance melts, such as when ice melts into
water.
2. Latent heat of vaporization: This is the energy required to change a liquid into a gas without
changing its temperature. This occurs when a substance evaporates, such as when water boils
and turns into steam.
3. Latent heat of sublimation: This is the energy required to change a solid directly into a gas
without changing its temperature. This occurs when a substance undergoes sublimation, such
as when dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) turns into gas.

9.6 Vaporization and Evaporation

Vaporization and evaporation are both processes in which a liquid turns into a gas, but there are
some key differences between the two:

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 1. Definition: Vaporization is the process by which a liquid is transformed into a gas or vapor at
a temperature below its boiling point, while evaporation is the process by which a liquid is
transformed into a gas or vapor at a temperature at or below its boiling point.
2. Energy: Vaporization is an energy-intensive process that requires a substantial amount of
heat to change a liquid into a gas. In contrast, evaporation is a natural process that occurs
when the surface molecules of a liquid gain enough energy to break away and enter the air as
a gas.
3. Rate: Vaporization occurs rapidly, and it is not always visible. For example, when you boil
water on a stove, the water vaporizes rapidly and can be seen as steam. In contrast,
evaporation occurs more slowly, and it can take place over an extended period, such as when
water evaporates from a puddle.
4. Temperature: Vaporization takes place at a specific temperature, which is the boiling point of
the liquid. In contrast, evaporation can occur at any temperature at or below the boiling point
of the liquid.

9.6.1 Evaporation Cause Cooling?

Liquid evaporating from a surface has a cooling
effect. And different liquids have this effect to
different degrees. For example, rubbing alcohol
has more of an evaporative cooling effect than
water. Alcohol evaporates comparatively more
quickly than water, so scientists class it as a
"volatile" liquid. But regardless of the liquid,
they all follow the same principle of
evaporative cooling. In its liquid state, the
substance—whether water or alcohol—has a
certain heat content, which is central to the
process. Also critical to this are two of the three
basic phases of matter: liquid and vapour. (The solid phase is, of course, the third.)
Evaporation causes cooling because the process requires heat energy. The energy is taken away by
the molecules when they convert from liquid into gas, and this causes cooling on the original
surface.
9.6.2 Examples for evaporation causes cooling
1. During the hot summers, the water in the earthen pot is usually kept cool. Water cools in the
pot because the surface of the pot has large pores through which water seeps to the outside of
the pot. This water evaporates and absorbs the vaporization latent heat, allowing the water
inside the pot to cool.

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 2. During the hot summers, people, particularly in villages, frequently sprinkle water on the
ground in front of their homes.
3. Water vaporization from tree leaves also cools the environment
9.7 Thermal Expansion

In physics, Thermal expansion can be defined as the change in the length, width, height, or volume
of any material on changing the temperature. Thermal expansion is very evident in solids as atoms
are densely packed. Thermal expansion of solids has loads of applications in day to day life.
Thermal Expansion in Metals
It is a well-known phenomenon now that substances expand on heating and contract on cooling. If
you heat a body, it alters its dimensions. Depending on the shape of the body.
1. The expansion can occur in length in which case it is called Linear Expansion.
2. If we take a square tile and heat it, the expansion will be on two fronts, length and breadth,
here it is called Area Expansion.
3. If we take a cube and heat it, all its sides expand and now the body experiences an increase in
the overall volume due to this and it is called Volume Expansion.

9.7.1 Effects of expansion and contraction of solids.

Why gaps are left in railway tracks? The expansion
of solids may damage the bridges, railway tracks,
and roads as they are constantly subjected to
temperature changes. So provision is made during
contraction for expansion and contraction with
temperature. For example, railway tracks buckled on
a hot summer day due to expansion if gaps are not left between sections.
Bridges made of steel girders also expand during the day and
contract during the night. They will bend if their ends are fixed.
To allow thermal girder rests on rollers in the gap left for
expansion.
Overhead transmission lines are also given a certain amount of
sag so that they can contract in winter without snapping.

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9.7.1 Applications of Thermal Expansion in everyday life
Thermal expansion is used in our daily life.
Thermometers.
In thermometers, thermal expansion is used in temperature measurements.
Removing tight lids.
To open the cap of a bottle that is tight enough, immerse in it hot water for a minute or so. Metal cap
expands and becomes loose. It would now be easy to turn it to open.
Riveting.
To join steel plates tightly together, red hot rivets are forced through holes in the plates. The end of
hot rivets is then hammered. On cooling, the rivets contract and bring the plates tightly gripped.
Fixing metal tires on wooden wheels.
Iron rims are fixed on wooden wheels of carts. Iron rims are heated. The thermal expansion allows
them to slip over the wooden wheel. Water is poured on it to cool. The rim contracts and becomes
tight over the wheel.
Bimetallic Strip.
A bimetal strip consists of two thin strips of different
metals such as brass and iron joined together. On
heating the strip, brass expands more than iron. This
unequal expansion causes the bending of the strip.
bimetal strips are used for various purposes. Bimetal
thermometers are used to measure temperature,
especially in furnaces and ovens. Bimetal strips are
used in thermostats. A bimetal thermostat is used to
control the temperature of the heater coil in an electric
iron.
Thermostats.
The thermostat is a heat-regulating device which works on the principle of thermal expansion.

9.8 The three processes of heat transfer

9.8.1 Conduction
Have you noticed how the end of a metal spoon placed in a hot soup becomes warm after a few
minutes? This phenomenon is a classic example of heat transfer through conduction. Conduction is
the transfer of heat through molecular collisions between objects that are in close physical contact.

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How does heat transfer occur through conduction? Consider a metal object being heated on one end,
as shown in the figure. Due to its high temperature, the molecules on this end have kinetic energies
and begin to vibrate and move rapidly. The faster-moving molecules collide and transfer some of
their kinetic energy to slow-moving molecules. This process continues until the whole object reaches
thermal equilibrium, a state where the temperature is constant throughout

9.8.2 Convection.
Convective heat transfer is the transfer of heat between two bodies by currents of moving gas or
fluid. In free convection, air or water moves away from the heated body as the warm air or water
rises and is replaced by a cooler parcel of air or water.
Or
Convection (or convective heat transfer) is the transfer of heat from one place to another due to the
movement of fluid. Although often discussed as a distinct method of heat transfer, convective heat
transfer involves the combined processes of conduction (heat diffusion) and advection (heat transfer
by bulk fluid flow). Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases.

9.8.3 Radiation
Radiation heat transfer is one of the three ways heat can be transferred. The other two ways of heat
transfer are convection heat transfer and conduction heat transfer. Each method of heat transfer is
defined in function of how the heat is transferred from the emitting object with a higher temperature
to its surrounding or another object with a lower temperature. The convection heat transfer uses mass
movement to transfer heat and the conduction heat transfer uses solid material to transfer heat. The
radiation heat transfer does not necessarily need a material medium support for heat to be

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transferred. The radiation heat transfer allows the heat to be transferred even when the considered
objects are not in direct contact or are separated in space. Radiation heat transfer is possible through
vacuum, gas or liquid. In the vacuum the heat will be fully transferred, in gas there will be an
attenuation due to the absorption and reflection by the gas molecules, the attenuation is even higher
in liquids as they are denser than gas. In general radiation heat transfer in liquid is negligible in
comparison to heat transfer by convection and conduction, for this reason most of the time radiation
heat transfer means the study of heat transfer through the vacuum and gas media.

9.8.4 Thermal Radiation

All bodies with a temperature above zero Kelvin (absolute zero) will emit energy in the form
of electromagnetic waves. The range of electromagnetic waves is unlimited. Thermal radiation is the
electromagnetic wave with a wavelength in the range of visible, infra-red and a portion of
ultraviolet. The wavelength of thermal radiation allows to distinguish it from other forms of
electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves, x-rays, and radiation associated with radioactivity of
alpha/beta particles such as gamma rays

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 EXERCISE

1. Convert the temperature given in the Celsius scale to the Fahrenheit scale:

(i) 25° C

(ii) 45° C (v) 90° C

(iii) 0° C (vi) 40.3° C

(iv) 20° C (vii) 65° C

2. Convert the temperature given in the Fahrenheit scale to the Celsius scale:

(i) 102° F (v) 185° F

(ii) 37° F (vi) 158° F

(iii) 200° F (vii) 68

(iv) 175° F

3. What is the normal body temperature in degree Fahrenheit?

4. What is the freezing point of water in degree Celsius?

5. One day the minimum temperature in Ghizer was recorded as 80.6° F. What was the temperature

in degree Celsius of Ghizer on that day?

6. In the month June, on one day the maximum temperature in Gilgit was recorded as 42.4° C.

Convert it into degree Fahrenheit.

7. A 500 g block of aluminum is heated from 20°C to 80°C. Calculate the amount of heat energy
required to raise the temperature of the block. The specific heat capacity of aluminum is 0.91
J/g°C.

8. A 2 kg block of copper is heated with 500 J of heat energy. If the temperature of the block
increases by 5°C, what is the specific heat capacity of copper?
9. Differentiate between evaporation and vaporization in four points.

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 CHAPTER TEN
LENSES
10.1 What Are Lenses?
A lens is a transmissive optical device that focuses or disperses light beams using refraction. A
simple lens consists of a single piece of transparent material, while compound lenses consist of
several simple lenses arranged along with a common axis. A lens can focus light to form an image,
unlike a prism, which refracts light without focusing.
10.2 Types of Lenses
The lens classification depends on how the light rays bend when they pass through the lens. The two
main types of lenses are:
 Convex Lens (Converging)
 Concave Lens (Diverging)
Convex lenses are thick in the middle and thinner at the edges. A concave lens is flat in the middle
and thicker at the edges. A convex lens is also known as the converging lens as the light rays bend
inwards and converge at a point which is known as focal length. On the other hand, the concave lens
is also known as a diverging lens because it bends the parallel light rays outward and diverges them
at the focal point.
Simple lens and compound lens are the two classifications of lenses. Simple lenses are different from
compound lenses based on their surface of curvature. Following are the different types of simple
lenses.

Compound lenses are those constructed out of a combination of different simple lenses. The lens
types used to build a compound lens may have different refractive indices and other properties. The
placement of lenses are such that they lie on a single axis, and properties like focal length are
calculated again for the new compound lens.
1. Convex lens or converging lens: It is thicker at the center than at the edges and converges the
light rays to a focal point. It is used in cameras, telescopes, and magnifying glasses.
2. Concave lens or diverging lens: It is thinner at the center than at the edges and diverges the
light rays. It is used in correcting myopia (nearsightedness) and astigmatism.
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 3. Plano-convex lens: It has one flat and one convex surface and is used for collimating and
focusing the light beam.
4. Plano-concave lens: It has one flat and one concave surface and is used for diverging the
light beam.
5. Biconvex lens: It has two convex surfaces and is used in magnifying glasses, projectors, and
cameras.
6. Biconcave lens: It has two concave surfaces and is used in correcting hyperopia
(farsightedness).
10.3 Lens Terminology
10.3.1 Pole
The centre of the spherical refracting surface of the lens is called the pole. The point where the
principal axis meets the surface of the lens.
10.3.2 Optical Centre
The point on the principal axis at the centre of the lens is called Optical centre.
10.3.3 Centre of Curvature
A lens has two spherical surfaces, these two spherical surfaces form a part of a sphere. The centre of
these spheres is known as the centre of curvature.
10.3.4 Principal axis
The principal axis is an imaginary line passing through the centres of curvature and the pole.
10.3.4 Aperture
The area of the lens suitable for refraction is called Aperture. The aperture of the lens is the effective
diameter of its light-transmitting area.
10.3.5 Focus
Focus is the point onto which collimated light parallel to the axis is focused.
10.3.6 Focal length
The focal length is the distance between the optical centre and the focal point or focus of the lens

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10.4 Ray diagram of a concave lens and the convex lens

10.4.1 Concave Lens

A concave lens produces a smaller image for the viewer. The focal point of a concave lens is the
point from which the light rays parallel to the axis seem to diverge, after passing through the lens.
The distance from the optical centre of the lens to the focal point is called the focal length of the
lens.
The image formed in a concave lens has the following characteristics:
 Located on the object-side of the lens
 A virtual image
 An upright image
 Small in size (i.e., smaller than the object)
 The image formed in a concave lens is always in between the focal point and the optical
centre. The location of the object doesn’t affect the characteristics of the image formed.
A concave lens always generates a virtual image. It can never form a real image. The image is
always formed on the same side of the lens as the object, thus can be seen in the lens only and cannot
be formed in a screen and as the distance of the object from the optical centre increases the size of
the image decreases.
10.4.2 Convex Lens
A convex lens is a lens with an outward curve. Unlike the concave lens, the thickness at the centre of
a convex lens is more than the thickness at the edges of the lens. Convex lenses are converging
lenses. They have the ability to converge a parallel beam of light into a point. This point is called the
focal point of the convex lens and the distance from the optical centre to the focal point is called the
focal length. The focal point is on the opposite side of the lens from which the light rays originate.
 When an object is placed at infinity, the real image is formed at the focus. The size of the
image is highly diminished and point size.

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 When an object is placed beyond the centre of curvature, the real image is formed between
the centre of curvature and focus. The image size will not be the same as the object. It will be
diminished in size..

 When an object is at the centre of curvature, the real image is formed at the other centre of
curvature. The size of the image is the same as compared to that of the object.

 When an object is placed in between the centre of curvature and focus, the real image is
formed behind the centre of curvature. The size of the image is larger than that of the object.

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  When an object is placed at the focus, a real image is formed at infinity. The size of the
image is much larger than that of the object.

 When an object is placed in between focus and optical centre, a virtual image is formed. The
size of the image is larger than that of the object.

10.5 The human eye and a camera lens

The human eye and a camera lens both work to capture images by focusing light onto a sensor or
film. However, there are some significant differences in the way they operate.

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The human eye has a natural lens, which works by changing shape to adjust the focus. When you
look at something up close, the lens becomes more curved to increase the refractive power and focus
the light onto the retina at the back of the eye. Conversely, when you look at something far away, the
lens flattens out to reduce the refractive power and focus the light onto the same spot on the retina.
The retina then converts the light into electrical signals, which are sent to the brain to create the
visual image.
In contrast, a camera lens is a fixed piece of glass or plastic that does not change shape. Instead, it
uses a series of curved surfaces to bend the light and focus it onto the camera's sensor or film. The
aperture of the camera lens can be adjusted to control the amount of light that enters the camera.
One advantage of a camera lens over the human eye is that it can have a wider range of focal
lengths. This means that it can capture images at very close range or very far away, while the human
eye has a more limited range of focus.
Another difference between the human eye and a camera lens is the way they handle color. The
human eye contains three types of color-sensitive cells, or cones, which allow us to see a full range
of colors. In contrast, most cameras use a single sensor to capture all colors, and then use a filter to
separate them into red, green, and blue channels.
In summary, both the human eye and a camera lens work by focusing light onto a sensor or film, but
they do so in different ways. The human eye has a natural lens that changes shape to adjust the
focus, while a camera lens uses a series of curved surfaces to bend the light. Additionally, the human
eye can detect a wider range of colors than most cameras, which typically use a single sensor and
color filter.

10.6 Short sightedness, long sightedness and correction.

Lenses are commonly used to correct vision problems such as short-sightedness (myopia) and long-
sightedness (hyperopia). In both cases, the lens helps to focus light properly onto the retina, which
allows for clearer vision.
For short-sightedness, the lens used to correct the problem is concave or diverging, meaning that it is
thicker at the edges than in the middle. This type of lens helps to spread out the light rays entering

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the eye, which reduces the overall refractive power of the lens system and allows for distant objects
to come into focus on the retina.

For long-sightedness, the lens used to correct the problem is convex or converging, meaning that it is
thicker in the middle than at the edges. This type of lens helps to bring light rays closer together,
which increases the overall refractive power of the lens system and allows for close-up objects to
come into focus on the retina.

To determine the correct prescription for a corrective lens, an eye doctor will perform a thorough eye
exam and measure the degree of short-sightedness or long-sightedness. This measurement is
typically expressed in diopters, which represents the strength of the lens needed to correct the vision
problem.
The corrective lenses can be made from different materials such as glass or plastic, and can be
designed as either single vision lenses or progressive lenses. Single vision lenses have a consistent
power across the entire lens, while progressive lenses have a gradual change in power from the top
to the bottom of the lens to allow for both near and far vision correction.

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10.7 Uses of lenses
The lenses are used in many things, They are
used in medical eyeglasses either for reading
or walking, They are used in wars, and the
leaders use binoculars to follow the
battles. Convex lenses are used in projectors,
Multi-junction Solar cells, and peepholes in
doors.
The person who fixes the watches uses a
magnifier lens to see the minute parts of the
watches, The lenses are used in the
manufacture of many things as projectors,
cameras, and magnifying lenses.
The lenses are used in designing some optical devices such as Telescopes which are used for the
formation of enlarged images of heavenly bodies. Lenses can be used in a magnifying glass, they can
be used in prosthetics for the correction of visual impairments, They can attenuate light, They are
used in imaging systems, and they can be used in radar systems.
The lenses are used in Microscopes which are used to form magnified images of tiny bodies that
cannot be seen with the naked eye and they are used in making medical glasses to treat vision defects
such as myopia and hypermetropia

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 EXERCISE

1. What is a lens and how does it work?

2. How do convex and concave lenses differ in their shape and function?

3. tiate between image formations of convex and concave lenses in three points.

4. How does the focal length of a convex lens affect the size and orientation of the image
formed?

5. Why does a concave lens always form a virtual image?

6. How do the distances of the object and image from a convex lens affect the magnification of
the image formed?

7. Can a concave lens form a real image? If so, under what conditions?

8. How does the refractive index of a convex lens affect the angle of incidence and the angle of
refraction of light passing through it?

9. What do you mean by defects of vision. How lenses are used to correct these defects. Explain.
10. How are lenses used in various optical instruments like telescopes, cameras, and
microscopes? Explain.

11. What is a fisheye lens and how is it different from a regular lens?

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 CHAPTER ELEVEN
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROSTATICS
A number of simple experiments demonstrate the existence of electric forces and charges. For
example, after running a comb through your hair on a dry day, you will find that the comb attracts
bits of paper. The attractive force is often strong enough to suspend the paper. The same effect
occurs when certain materials are rubbed together, such as glass rubbed with silk or rubber with fur.
Another simple experiment is to rub an inflated balloon with wool. The balloon then adheres to a
wall, often for hours. When materials behave in this way, they are said to be electrified, or to have
become electrically charged. You can easily electrify your body by vigorously rubbing your shoes
on a wool rug. Evidence of the electric charge on your body can be detected by lightly touching (and
startling) a friend. Under the right conditions, you will see a spark when you touch, and both of you
will feel a slight tingle. (Experiments such as these work best on a dry day because an excessive
amount of moisture in the air can cause any charge you build up to “leak” from your body to the
Earth.)

11.1 Electric charge and its types

The basic knowledge of the atomic structure of matter is necessary to understand the phenomenon of
static electricity or charge. Discoveries in the past have shown that an atom of any element consists
of a central nucleus with one or more electrons revolving around it in fixed orbits. The nucleus is
made up of two types of particles called neutrons and protons. An electron has negative charge,
while the proton possesses positive charge. A neutron, however, does not have any net charge at all.
An atom in the normal state contains an equal number of electrons and proton which make it
electrically neutral. A body is said to be positively charged when it loses some of its electrons.
It becomes negatively charged when its gain some electrons by some means. Hence, we can say that
charge is produced basically due to transfer of electron.
In a series of simple experiments,
it was found that there are two
kinds of electric charges, which
were given the names positive
and negative by Benjamin
Franklin (1706–1790). We
identify negative charge as that
type possessed by electrons and
positive charge as that possessed
by protons.

To verify that there are two types of charge, suppose a hard rubber rod that has been rubbed with fur
is suspended by a sewing thread, as shown in Figure. When a glass rod that has been rubbed with

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silk is brought near the rubber rod, the two attract each other (Fig. a). On the other hand, if two
charged rubber rods (or two charged glass rods) are brought near each other, as shown in Figure b,
the two repel each other. This observation shows that the rubber and glass have two different types
of charge on them.

11.2 Interaction of similar and opposite charges.

On the basis of above observations, we conclude that charges of the same sign repel one another and
charges with opposite signs attract one another. Repel and attraction is measured in terms of force.
The magnitude of this force depends upon the magnitude of charged bodies and their separation.
Higher the magnitude of product of charges, higher will be the force produced and vice versa. Lower
the distance between the charges, higher will be the magnitude of force produced and vice versa.

11.3 Electric field

An electric field around a charge is the region where its effect can be felt by another charge. In other
words, an electric field is region where a charged body experiences an electric force when placed at
any point in it. Such a field can be represented by a number of line, called electric lines of force or
field lines. If the curved line show in the following figure is an electric line of force, then the tangent
to this line a points A,B, C and D indicate the direction of electric field at these

points. The arrow at each of these points indicates the direction in which a small positive charge
would move, if it were placed at that particular point. Hence
The direction of the electric field at any point is given by the direction of force acting on a small
positive charge placed at that point.

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The following figures shows some of the electric lines of force in typical fields. Note the presence
of a neutral point P, in figure c. If a charge is placed at this point, it would experience equal and
opposite forces, and therefore would remain stationary. The electric field produced between the
oppositely charged parallel plates is uniform except at the end where the field varies in both
magnitude and direction form point to point.

11.4 Electric field strength/ Intensity

Electric field strength can be defined the force experienced by a test charge when placed in the field
of a source charge. If a body with charge q experiences a force F at some point in space, then the
electric field E at that point is given by
𝐹
𝐸=
𝑞
If force is measured in Newton, and charge in Coulombs, the unit of electric field strength becomes
Newton/Coulomb.
Example 01
A charge of 20 C experiences a force of 100 N when placed in an electric field. What is the strength
of electric field?
Solution:

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Here q = 20 C
F = 100 N
𝐹
Using the above equation 𝐸 = 𝑞

Putting the values

100
𝐸=
20
E = 5 N/C

11.5 Charging an object by electrostatic induction

The phenomenon in which a charged body produces an opposite charge at the near end and a like
charge at the extreme end of an insulator placed near it, is termed as electrostatic induction. If an
uncharged conducting body PQ is mounted on an insulating stand and a negatively charged ebonite
rod is placed near one end of P of it, test will reveal the presence of negative charge at Q and a
positive charge at P. When the ebonite rod is removed, the charges on PQ will vanish showing that
the effect is only temporary. If the ebonite rod is replaced by a positively charge glass rod, end P will
be negatively charged and Q will be positively charged as shown.
Hence the process of production of charge by such a process is termed as electrostatic induction.

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This induction of charges on the conductor can be explained in terms of electrons. The electrons in
the negatively charged ebonite rod repels those in the conducting body and force them to the extreme

end at Q. As a s result , P becomes positively charged and Q negatively charged. In the case of glass
rod, the attractive influence of the positive charges creates an excess of electrons at P and a
deficiency of electrons of Q. Consequently, P become negatively charged and Q positively charged.
If the conductor PQ is touched at Q while a negatively charged ebonite rod is placed near P, there
will be a momentary flow of electrons through the human body to the earth. The positive charges do
not leak away in this instance due to the attractive influence of the negatively charged rod. If the
finger is withdrawn, and then the ebonite rod is removed, PQ will be left with a net positive charge.
In the same way the conductor can be charge negatively as shown.

11.6 Electric potential

If a body is lifted to a certain height above the earth’s surface, it gains potential energy. The gain in
potential energy is due to the work done in moving the body against the gravitational force of earth.
At different points in the gravitational field, the body will possess different amount of potential
energy, depending on the particular positions of these points in the field. Hence, points in a
gravitational field are said to possess gravitational potential. If the raised body is free to move, its
tendency is to move a point of lower level where the potential is less, thus losing potential energy.
Similarly, points in the electric field surrounding a charged body are said to have electric
potential. Points nearer to charged body have a higher potential than points further away. Work has

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to be done to bring a charge up to any position within the electric field, just as work has to be done
to put a body at a certain height in a gravitational field.
The SI unit of charge in the coulomb represented by C. One coulomb is equal equivalent to 6.25 ×
1018 electron-charge. In the following figure, a positive charge of one coulomb (unit charge) placed
at A would experience a repulsive force of F due to the electric field of the positively charged body
X. This repulsive force will cause the unit charge to be driven to a point Q, where the effect of force
is zero. Theoretically, we can take this point Q to be at infinite distance from X. Now if the unit
charge is moved from infinity Q to the point A, an external force has to be do work against the
repulsive force of the field and therefore, energy has to be supplied. As a result, the positive charge
of one coulomb gains an amount of potential energy equal to the work done by the external force.

Since the positive charge of one coulomb is too small to affect or modify the electric field, we can
describe the electric field due to X in terms of the potential energies of this charge at various points
in the field. The change of potential energy which occurs when such charge is moved between two
points in the field can then be considered as the change the potential of the electric field itself.
Thus, the electric potential at a point A in an electric field can be defined as the potential energy
gained by positive charge of one coulomb, when it is moved from infinity to point A against the
field.
The unit of electric potential is volt which is equal to joule per coulomb.

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11.7 Electric potential and potential difference
Electric potential and potential difference are both important concepts in the study of electric fields
and circuits.
Electric potential, also known as voltage, is a scalar quantity that represents the amount of work
required per unit charge to move a test charge from an infinite distance away to a specific point in an
electric field. It is measured in volts (V) and is denoted by the symbol V. Electric potential is a
property of a point in space and is defined by the electric field at that point.
Potential difference, on the other hand, is the difference in electric potential between two points in an
electric field. It is also known as voltage difference and is measured in volts (V). Potential difference
represents the amount of work required per unit charge to move a charge between two points in an
electric field. It is denoted by the symbol ΔV, which means "change in voltage".
The key difference between electric potential and potential difference is that electric potential is a
property of a single point in an electric field, while potential difference is the difference in electric
potential between two points in an electric field. Electric potential represents the amount of work
required per unit charge to move a charge to a specific point, while potential difference represents
the amount of work required per unit charge to move a charge between two points

11.8 Applications of electrostatics

1. Nylon Clothes
When the clothes made up of nylon are rubbed against some other fabric or against the wearer’s
skin, static electricity is formed. This electrostatic force developed between the skin and the clothing
particles is accountable for the chattering sound caused while removing such clothes. To avoid static
getting developed on a nylon cloth, a fabric softener must be added while washing it.
2. Rubbing a Rod with a Cloth
When a rod is rubbed with a cloth, it tends to develop a certain charge on it. The polarity of the
charge depends upon the nature of the material of the rod. A glass rod when rubbed with a piece of
cloth develops a positive charge, whereas a plastic rod tends to develop a negative charge. On
bringing these charged rods closer to a freely hanging pom-pom ball, a force of attraction or
repulsion is observed. Therefore, the electrostatic force helps in concluding the charge that is present
on the ball.
3. Television Screen
The dust particles floating freely in the air get polarized by the television screen. Due to this, the
charged dust particles stick to the television screen. This is the reason why a layer of dust gets
deposited on the screen minutes after cleaning the previous layer. This interaction between the dust
particles and the screen is known as the electrostatic interaction. If a person moves his/her hand even
a few centimeters above the screen, he/she can easily feel the electrostatic force in action.

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4. Winter Wear
The best example of the electrostatic force can be seen during the winter season when the air is dry
and the humidity is low. Electrostatic force gets developed between the fabric layer and the skin
unintentionally whenever the person moves. While taking off woolen clothes a crackling sound is
made. This is because when the two charged bodies are separated from each other, an exchange of
charges takes place. To avoid the development of electrostatic charges between the clothes and the
skin, a person must moisturize his/her dry skin.
5. Photocopier
A photocopier or a photocopy machine is one of the best examples of electrostatic force in real life.
The original paper is placed on a glass screen. The image of this original paper is transferred to a
drum that is positively charged. The ink powder or the toner used is usually charged with a negative
polarity. The drum rolls against the paper on which the impression is required to be created. The ink
then gets transferred to the paper, thereby successfully creating a photocopied image of the original
document.
6. Balloon Party Trick
The balloon party trick involves the deposition of charges on the outer surface of the balloon by
rubbing it against a person’s hair. After developing a considerable amount of charge on its surface,
the balloon easily sticks to any surface containing the opposite charge or no charge. This interaction
between the two bodies is nothing but electrostatic interaction.
7. Charged Comb
After we finish combing our hair, we unintentionally deposit a significant amount of charge on the
teeth of the comb. When this charged comb is subjected to some lighter particles such as bits of
paper, it causes the paper particles to get attracted to the comb. This process is nothing but a clear
demonstration of electrostatic force existing between the comb and the paper particles.
8. Doorknob
When a person randomly touches a metallic doorknob, he/she is prone to feel a short term electric
shock. This is due to the existence of electrostatic force between the doorknob and the person’s
hand. Since the door nob is made up of metal, it is capable of transferring the electrons to every
object that comes in contact with it. This transfer of electrons charges the other body and leads to the
development of electrostatic interaction between the doorknob and the skin. One can effectively
avoid it by touching a wooden surface before touching the metallic doorknob or handle.

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 EXERCISE
1. Explain the following observations.
a) A polythene rod, rubbed with a dry cloth, attracts small pieces of paper
b) Nylon undergarment crackle in dry weather.
c) We notice lightening with sound while changing dress in the dark.
2. A glass rod becomes positively charged when rubbed with silk. How does the glass rod
become charged? . Explain in terms of transfer of electrons.
3. If a pith ball is repelled by a rubber rod, what can be deduced about the charges on the pith
ball and the rubber rod?
4. The diagram shows a negatively charged rod held near but not touching a metal rod. How the
charges will rearrange themselves on metal rod at P and Q sides?

5. A negatively charged polythene strip attracts a suspended object. Is it correct to conclude that
the object is positively charged? Why?
6. A light conducting sphere, positively charged, hangs vertically on an insulating thread. When
a metal plate on an insulating stand is brought near, the sphere is immediately deflected as
shown.

a) Explain why the sphere move immediately to the new position?

b) How does the movement of the ball illustrates the meaning of the term electric field?

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 c) What will happen if the sphere is given negative charge?

7. A droplet of ink in an industrial ink-jet printer carries a charge of 1.6 x 10–11 coulombs and is
deflected onto paper by a force of 3.2 x 10–4 Newtons. Find the strength of the electric field
to produce this force. (Ans. 2 x 107 N/C)

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 CHAPTER TWELVE

CIRCUITS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT

Every material is made up atoms and every atom contain small particles i.e electron, proton and
neutron, called sub atomic particles. Electrons revolve around the nucleus of an atom.
In some materials, electrons are strongly bonded with the nucleus of an atom because of electrostatic
force between them thus they cannot move freely. Such type of materials are called insulators.
In some materials, the electrostatic force between the electron and the nucleus is weak to the extent
that the electrons can move freely with external energy is applied to them, such materials are called
conductors.

Electric charges are of types, positive charge and negative charge. So current is produced due to flow
of positive and negative charges. In metals, the current is produced only due to flow of electrons i.e
negative charges.
In case of electrolyte its molecules are dissociated among positive and negative ions in solution.
Thus, the current in electrolyte is due to the flow of positive and negative charges.
12.1 Electric current
The flow of electric charge through any cross-sectional area is called electric current. If the charge Q
is passing through an area A in time t second, then the current flowing through it will be
mathematically represented as
Q
I=
t

Current is a scalar quantity. SI unit of current is Ampere ‘A’ which is equal to coulomb per second.
Example
1. A defibrillator passes 12.0 Ampere of current through the torso of a person for 0.0100
seconds. How much charges move?
Solution:

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As we have
𝑄
I= 𝑡

Rearranging for Q, we get Q= I . t

Putting values
Q = 12A . 10−2seconds
We get Q= 0.12 Coulomb

12.2 Conventional current and electronic current

Conventional current refers to the flow of positive charge, while electronic current refers to the flow
of negative charge.

Conventional current is based on the assumption that current flows from the positive terminal of a
voltage source to the negative terminal. This is because when electric circuits were first studied, it
was not yet known that the actual flow of electrons in a circuit is from negative to positive. So, in
conventional current, the direction of current flow is opposite to the direction of electron flow.
On the other hand, electronic current refers to the actual flow of electrons in a circuit, from the
negative terminal of the voltage source to the positive terminal. This is the direction in which
negatively charged particles are physically moving through a wire or other conductive material.
12.3 Circuit diagram
A circuit diagram (also known as an electrical diagram, elementary diagram, or electronic schematic
diagram) is a simplified conventional graphical representation of an electrical circuit.
The path through which the current flows (charges move) is called electric circuit.
An simple electric circuit includes the following components.

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Battery or a generator: a device that gives energy to the charged particles constituting the current.
Bulbs/ Lamps: devices that use current.
Resistors: devices which control the flow of current.
Switch: devices which maintain or break the circuit (closes or opens the circuit)
In addition, the following symbols must be familiar to you.

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12.4 Combination of resistor in a circuit.
In an electrical circuit, resistors are components that limit the flow of electrical current. They are
used to control the amount of current flowing through a circuit by offering resistance to the flow of
electricity. When multiple resistors are connected in a circuit, they can be connected in two different
ways: in series or in parallel.
12.4.1 Series combination
A series circuit is a circuit where resistors are connected in a single path so that the current flows
through each resistor in turn. In a series circuit, the total resistance is equal to the sum of the
individual resistances. The voltage drop across each resistor is proportional to its resistance value,
and the total voltage across the circuit is equal to the sum of the voltage drops across each resistor.

In a series circuit, the current is the same through each resistor, and the voltage is divided between
the resistors. This means that if one resistor in the series circuit fails or is removed, the current
through the entire circuit will stop. Examples of series circuits include the string of lights on a
Christmas tree or the cells in a battery.
12.4.2 Parallel combination
A parallel circuit is a circuit where resistors are connected in separate branches so that the current
divides between the resistors. In a parallel circuit, the total resistance is less than the resistance of the
smallest individual resistor. The voltage across each resistor is the same, and the total current
through the circuit is equal to the sum of the currents through each resistor.

In a parallel circuit, if one resistor fails or is removed, the other resistors will continue to function.
Examples of parallel circuits include the wiring in a house or the electrical components in a car

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12.5 Measuring devices

While dealing with the current flowing in the circuits, we use different devices to measure the
current and the applied voltage.

12.5.1 Galvanometer

A galvanometer is a device that is used to detect small electric current or measure its magnitude. The
current and its intensity is usually indicated by a magnetic needle’s movement or that of a coil in a
magnetic field that is an important part of a galvanometer.

Construction and working of a galvanometer

The moving coil galvanometer is made up of a rectangular coil that has many turns and it is usually
made of thinly insulated or fine copper wire that is wounded on a metallic frame. The coil is free to

rotate about a fixed axis. A phosphor-bronze strip that is connected to a movable torsion head is
used to suspend the coil in a uniform radial magnetic field.
Essential properties of the material used for suspension of the coil are conductivity and a low value
of the torsional constant. A cylindrical soft iron core is symmetrically positioned inside the coil to
improve the strength of the magnetic field and to make the field radial. The lower part of the coil is
attached to a phosphor-bronze spring having a small number of turns. The other end of the spring is
connected to binding screws.
Let a current I flow through the rectangular coil of n number of turns and a cross-sectional area A.
When this coil is placed in a uniform radial magnetic field B, the coil experiences a torque, that can
be seen with the movement of the needle. Using the scale of the galvanometer, the current can be
calculated. A galvanometer is always connected in series with the circuit.

12.5.2 Ammeter

An ammeter (from ampere meter) is a measuring instrument used to measure the current in a circuit.
Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name. The ammeter is usually connected in

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series with the circuit in which the current is to be measured. An ammeter usually has low resistance
so that it does not cause a significant voltage drop in the circuit being measured.
The ideal ammeter has zero internal resistance. But practically the ammeter has small internal
resistance. The measuring range of the ammeter depends on the value of resistance. The ammeter is
connected in series with the circuit so that the whole electrons of measured current passes through
the ammeter. The power loss occurs in ammeter because of the measured current and their internal
resistance. The ammeter circuit has low resistance so that the small voltage drop occurs in the
circuit.

12.5.3 Voltmeter
The instrument which measures the voltage or potential difference in volts is known as the
voltmeter.
It works on the principle that the torque is generated by the current which induces because of
measured voltage and this torque deflects the pointer of the instrument. The deflection of the pointer
is directly proportional to the potential difference between the points. The voltmeter is always
connected in parallel with the circuit.
The voltmeter constructs in such a manner that their internal resistance always remains high. If it
connects in series with the circuit, it minimizes the current which flows because of the measured
voltage. Thus, disturb the reading of the voltmeter.

The voltmeter always connects in parallel with the circuit so that the same voltage drop occurs
across it. The high resistance of the voltmeter combines with the impedance of the element across

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which it is connected. And the overall impedance of the system is equal to the impedance that the
element had. Thus, no obstruction occurs in the circuit because of the voltmeter, and the meter gives
the correct reading.

12.6 Safety measures in household

Creating a safe environment where your family can grow and thrive is a top priority. Thankfully,
though a number of serious safety hazards lurk around the average home, most of these concerns are
pretty easy to address. Make sure you’re doing everything you can to achieve maximum safety at
home.
Electrical energy is distributed to various houses in your town or city from a power station by means
of two wires. One wire is earthed at the power station so it is at zero potential, it is called neutral
wire.
The other wire is at a certain potential, it is called live wire. Our body is good conductor if electricity
through which current can easily pass. Therefore, if a person holds live wire, then because of the
presence of voltage in it, current will start flowing to ground through the human body which may
prove fatal for the person. In order to avoid such a situation, the wire carrying electricity in the houses
should never be naked.
To prevent any large scale electrical danger at our home, we always use some safety devices in our
household connections.
12.6.1 Fuse
A fuse is an electrical safety device that operates to provide overcurrent protection of an electrical
circuit. Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too much current flows
through it, thereby stopping or interrupting the current. The fuse breaks the circuit if a fault in an
appliance causes too much current to flow. This protects the wiring and the appliance if something
goes wrong. The fuse contains a piece of wire that melts easily. If the current going through the fuse
is too great, the wire heats up until it melts and breaks the circuit.

Fuses in plugs are made in standard ratings. The most common are 3 A, 5 A and 13 A. The fuse
should be rated at a slightly higher current than the device needs:
 if the device works at 3 A, use a 5 A fuse
 if the device works at 10 A, use a 13 A fuse

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12.6.2 Circuit breaker
It is a safety device which is used in
place of fuse, Due to any fault when the current
exceeds the safety limit, then button of the circuit
breaker moves downward. Due to which the circuit
breaks and the flow of current stops in it. The
button of the circuit breaker is pressed after the
correction of the circuit. The circuit again gets
completed and the current flows in it.

These are automatically operated electrical switches

that protect electrical circuits from overloading or short circuiting. They detect faults and then stop
the flow of electricity. Small circuit breakers protect individual household appliances, whereas larger
ones can protect high voltage circuits supplying electricity to entire cities.

12.6.3 Earth wire

Most of our appliances such as electric iron, kettle, refrigerators, and motors etc are such that their
outer part is of some metal. Usually the outer part is insulated from the live part of the appliance
through which the current flows. Because of this insulation, no current flows through the outer metal
casing and one can safely touch it as we usually do.

But sometimes due to long use or due to carelessness the insulation is damaged and the outer casing
also gets live. Now if someone touches it, he may receive a severe electric shock which may prove
even fatal.

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In order to avoid such a situation, an additional wire is
used along with the live wire and neutral wire, this
wire is known as earth wire. It one end is directly
connected to earth by means of a water pipe leading to
ground or by means of earth terminal. Thus electric
circuit consists of three wires, live wire, neutral wire,
and earth wire.
Now whenever the metal casing of the appliance, due
to faulty insulation, gets connected with the live wire,
the circuit shorts and a large current would
immediately flow to ground through the earth wire. It
causes the fuse wire to melt or the circuit breaker
breaks the circuit. Therefore, the person who is using
the appliance is being saved.

12.6.4 Safety gloves

Safety gloves for electrical work are designed to protect

the hands and arms of electricians and other workers
from electric shock, burns, and other injuries while
working on or near electrical equipment. These gloves
are made from materials that are highly resistant to
electricity and heat, such as natural rubber, neoprene,
and PVC (poly vinyl chloride).
The main purpose of electrical gloves is to provide a barrier between the worker's skin and any live
electrical components or wires they may be handling. They are typically made of several layers of
insulating material, including rubber, that provide excellent electrical insulation.
Electrical gloves are classified by the voltage rating and level of protection they offer. The voltage
rating indicates the maximum voltage level the gloves are designed to protect against. The level of
protection is determined by testing the gloves to see how much electrical current they can withstand
before failing.
It is important to note that electrical gloves are only one part of a complete personal protective
equipment (PPE) system for electricians and other workers. They should always be worn in
conjunction with other PPE, such as safety glasses, face shields, and protective clothing.
When using electrical gloves, it is essential to follow proper safety procedures to ensure that they are
used correctly and effectively. This includes inspecting the gloves before each use, avoiding contact
with sharp objects, and avoiding contact with conductive surfaces. Workers should also be trained on
the proper use and care of electrical gloves and the risks associated with electrical work.

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 EXERCISE

1. Charges of 10 coulomb flows through a unit area in 2 seconds. Calculate the amount of
current.
2. Over the course of an 8 hour day, 3.8x104 C of charge pass through a typical computer
(presuming it is in use the entire time). Determine the current for such a computer.
3. What happens to the brightness of bulbs in a parallel circuit when one of the bulbs is
removed?
4. How does the total resistance of a circuit change when resistors are connected in series
versus in parallel?
5. If three identical bulbs are connected in series to a battery, and one of the bulbs is removed,
what happens to the other two bulbs?
6. Why do Christmas lights continue to work even if one of the bulbs burns out?
7. What are some common safety measures that should be taken when working with household
electricity?
8. What are the most important safety features of electrical outlets and switches in the home?
9. How can you test if a wire is live or not before touching it?
10. What is the purpose of a circuit breaker in the home electrical system, and how does it work?
11. What should you do if you experience an electrical shock while working with household
electricity?
12. What is the role of GFCI (Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter) outlets in preventing electrical
shock in the home?
13. What are the most common causes of electrical fires in the home, and how can they be
prevented?
14. What are some best practices for using extension cords safely in the home?
15. How can you protect your home from power surges, and what types of surge protectors are
available?

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