Theory Assignment 2

Equipment design

Questions
1 Design of a Vertical Short Tube Evaporator (Calandria Evaporator)
We are tasked with designing a vertical short tube evaporator to concentrate 56,000
kg/hr of an aqueous caustic soda solution from 30% NaOH to 70% NaOH using a
single-effect process. The specifications and conditions are as follows:
 Feed Characteristics:
o Flow Rate: 56,000 kg/hr
o Initial Concentration: 30% NaOH
o Target Concentration: 70% NaOH
o Inlet Temperature: 35°C
 Operating Conditions:
o Steam Chest: Saturated steam at 1.7 atm (absolute)
o Evaporator Pressure: 0.16 atm (absolute)
o Boiling Point Elevation: 15°C for the 70% NaOH solution
o Specific Heat of Feed Solution: Equivalent to that of water (4.18
kJ/kg·°C)
o Specific Heat of Superheated Steam: 1.871 kJ/kg·°C
o Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient: 2500 W/m²·°C
 Evaporator Specifications:
o Tubes:
 Outer Diameter: 100 mm
 Thickness: 1.5 mm
 Pitch: Triangular, 125 mm
 Length: 1220 mm
 Number of Tubes: 626
o Downtake:
 Inner Diameter: 1500 mm
  Outer Diameter: 1520 mm
o Tubesheet:
 Diameter: 3710 mm
 Thickness: 36 mm
o Vapor Drum:
 Height: 3000 mm
 Inner Diameter: 3400 mm
 Thickness: 12 mm
 Closure: Dished end with 2 sight glasses
o Calandria:
 Thickness: 12 mm
 Inner Diameter: 3400 mm
This design will effectively facilitate the concentration of caustic soda solution while
ensuring optimal performance and safety.

2 Design Kettle Type Reboiler using the following details

Design Details:
 TEMA Code: AKU
 Total Number of U Tubes: 26 (52 tubes in total)
 Length of One U Tube: 4.8 m (average tubular section length: 2.4 m)
 Tube Dimensions:
o Outer Diameter (OD): 30 mm
o Inner Diameter (ID): 25 mm
o Pitch: 1.5 times the OD of the tube, square pitch
 Tube Bundle Diameter: 420 mm
 Height of Weir: 500 mm
 Outer Shell Dimensions:
o Outer Diameter: 840 mm
o Thickness: 12 mm
 Corrosion Allowance: 3 mm
 Allowable Stress: 98 N/mm²
  Joint Efficiency: 85%
This configuration provides the essential specifications for the kettle type reboiler,
ensuring it meets operational requirements while addressing structural integrity and
safety standards
3 Consider the Following Data:

FCp (kW/°C) Initial Temperature (°C) Target Temperature (°C)

1.8 160 50

2.5 50 25

3.0 25 140

1.2 90 150

0.6 150 200

a) Graphing Minimum Heating Utility and Pinch Temperature

 Create a graph showing the minimum heating utility and pinch temperature as
functions of the minimum temperature difference in the network.
b) Grand Composite Curve
 Select a specific value for the minimum temperature difference and draw the
grand composite curve. Assume you have available utility at 95°C, 115°C, and
250°C, with increasing costs associated with higher temperatures. Determine
the optimal utility usage based on this analysis.
c) Cooling Water Outlet Temperature
 Given that cooling water is available at 10°C, calculate the outlet temperature
that minimizes water usage. Assess whether there is a penalty for reduced
usage. Discuss solutions in scenarios where the cooling water returned to the
cooling tower cannot exceed 30°C
4 Consider the Following Data for a Crude Unit
Hot Streams

Stream Fcp (kW/°C) Tin (°C) Tout (°C)

TCR 950.00 140.0 110.0

MCR 370.50 220.0 195.0

LCR 450.25 260.0 200.0

KER 130.75 240.0 42.0

LGO 50.60 235.0 48.0

HGO 75.80 275.0 70.0

LR1 150.40 330.0 260.0

LR2 80.50 340.0 190.0

LR3 220.60 245.0 190.0

LR4 85.20 180.0 95.0

NAP 1400.00 120.0 60.0

Cold Streams
Stream Fcp (kW/°C) Tin (°C) Tout (°C)
C1 500.00 40.0 150.0
C2 600.00 150.0 160.0
C3 590.00 155.0 340.0
C4 180.00 145.0 280.0
Questions
a) Grand Composite Curve
 Select a specific minimum temperature difference and draw the grand
composite curve. Assume you have available utility at 95°C, 115°C, and
380°C, with increasing costs associated with higher temperatures. Determine
the optimal utility usage based on this analysis.
b) Cooling Water Usage
 Given that cooling water is available at 12°C, calculate the outlet temperature
 that minimizes water usage. Assess whether there is any penalty for
decreased usage. Discuss scenarios where the returned cooling water cannot
exceed 32°C.
c) Hot Oil Utility
 If hot oil at 400°C is available as a utility, determine the outlet temperature that
minimizes its usage. Discuss the costs associated with using heating oil. Is it
always advisable to use the lowest possible flow rate? Why or why not?
d) Furnace Utilization
 If all hot utility needs to be satisfied using a furnace, what are the expected
stack losses? What is the actual utility consumption? What would be a suitable
flame temperature to use?
5 How can you utilize super-targeting to determine the optimal minimum heat recovery
approach temperature (HRAT) for the following cost data in Problem 2?
 Hot Utility Cost: ₹248,667/kW (Temperature change: 600°C to 580°C)
 Cold Utility Cost: ₹99,634/kW (Temperature change: 20°C to 40°C)
 Fixed Cost per Unit: ₹1,543,476
 Cost of Area: ₹18,650/m²
 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U): 0.31 kW/(°C·m²)
Additionally, how would you calculate the total annualized cost using this formula?
Total Annualized Cost=(Cost of Hot Utility × Hot Utility Amount in kW)+
(Number of Exchangers × Fixed Cost per Unit)+(Cost of Area × Total Area)
6 For the stream data in table, prepare composite curves for (∆T)min = 10°C, and then
find the minimum utilities and pinch. Verify your results using any computer program
for PA. Compare the minimum utilities and pinch found for (∆T)min = 10°C with those
given in Section 3.4 for (∆T)min = 20°C.
7 Respond with "yes" (right) or "no" (wrong) to the following statements, providing brief
reasoning where applicable?
(A) Can HEN be designed in PA before finding targets?
(B) Do minimum cold and hot utilities increase with increasing (∆T) min?
(C) Is it true that there should be no heat flow across the pinch for minimizing
utilities?
(D) Does total heat transfer area increase with increasing (∆T) min?
(E) Is it accurate to say that only one HEN design is possible for a given set of
process streams?
(F) Can the number of units in an HEN exceed that predicted by the Umin formula?
(G) Is super targeting the procedure used to find the optimum value of (∆T) min?
(H) Is pinch information unnecessary for assessing the potential to reduce utilities in
a given HEN?
(I) Are utility streams represented on the balanced grid diagram?
(J) Is the grid diagram not essential for evaluating the potential to reduce utilities in a
given HEN?
(K) Is HEN design in PA based on pinch and golden rules?
8 A process has one hot stream and one cold stream with the following characteristics:
 Hot Stream:
o Flow Rate: 5 kg/s
o Heat Capacity: 4.1 kJ/kg·K
o Temperature Range: 140°C to 40°C
 Cold Stream:
o Flow Rate: 4.2 kg/s
o Heat Capacity: 3.8 kJ/kg·K
o Temperature Range: 30°C to 160°C
Using a T-H plot and a minimum temperature driving force of 10°C, please illustrate
these two streams. From the plot or other analysis, determine the following:
1. Possible heat recovery
2. Range of temperature driving force for heat recovery
3. Minimum cold and hot utilities required
9 A process includes one hot stream and one cold stream with the following
specifications:
 Hot Stream:
o Flow Rate: 6 kg/s
o Heat Capacity: 4.5 kJ/kg·K
o Temperature Range: 150°C to 50°C
 Cold Stream:
o Flow Rate: 5 kg/s
o Heat Capacity: 3.5 kJ/kg·K
o Temperature Range: 20°C to 170°C
Please represent these two streams on a T-H plot, using a minimum driving force of
10°C. Based on this plot or your analysis, identify the following:
1. Possible heat recovery
2. Range of temperature driving force for heat recovery
3. Minimum cold and hot utilities required
10 Respond with "yes" (right) or "no" (wrong) to the following statements, providing brief
reasoning where applicable?
(A) Does enthalpy decrease with an increase in temperature?
(B) Can there be heat transfer from a cold surface to a hot surface? If so, what are
the requirements?
(C) In a counter-current heat exchanger, can the hot stream temperature (HST) curve
intersect the cold stream temperature (CST) curve?
(D) In a heat exchanger, should the heat transfer coefficient be small or large? Why?
(E) Is heat integration between two cold streams meaningful? Why or why not?
(F) In a typical T-H plot, does the enthalpy scale on the x-axis start from zero? Can it
start from any negative or positive value? Why or why not?
(G) Should the hot stream ine be above or below the cold stream line in a T-H plot?
Why?
(H) What is the relationship between exergy destruction and irreversibility?
(I) To improve the exergy efficiency of a heat exchanger, should the temperature
driving force be reduced or increased? Why?
11 Determine if this reboiler is suitable for the specified duty, focusing only on the
thermal design. Assume that the shell can accommodate the vapor rate. Use the
following physical properties of the process fluid (liquid):

 Density: 540 kg/m³

 Specific Heat: 2.8 kJ/kg·°C
 Thermal Conductivity: 0.095 W/m·°C
 Viscosity: 0.15 mN·s
 Surface Tension: 0.90 N/m
 Heat of Vaporization: 330 kJ/kg

For the vapor, the density is 15.0 kg/m³. The vapor pressures at various
temperatures are as follows:

Temperature (°C) Pressure (bar)

50 5.5
60 6.9
70 8.6
80 10.5
90 12.8
 100 16.0
110 19.0
120 21.5

12 A vertical thermosiphon reboiler is needed for a column where the liquid at the base
is essentially pure n-butane. The required vapor rate is 5 kg/s, and the pressure at
the base of the column is 20.9 bar. Heating will be provided using saturated steam at
5 bar. Estimate the number of tubes required, each with an outside diameter of 25
mm, an inside diameter of 22 mm, and a length of 4 m. At 20.9 bar, the saturation
temperature of n-butane is 117.8°C, and the heat of vaporization is 828 kJ/kg.
 Sepration :
Column Design Procedure
Higher pressure
Lower relative volatility so need more trays
Higher vapor density, so reduced column diameter
Higher boiling and dew points, so hotter reboiler and condenser.May mean that reboiler utility becomes
more expensive. Try to avoid needing a fired heater if possible
In some cases, high reboiler temperatures can cause product degradation
– Monomers can polymerize
– Foods and flavors can degrade
Lower pressure
Fewer trays, bigger diameter

Try to avoid dropping condenser temperature to point where (expensive) refrigeration is needed
Try to maintain total condenser to obviate net gas compression and minimize vent gas loss

Try to avoid vacuum operation for safety, quality and reliability reasons

• It is not trivial to formulate and solve distillation column optimization problems

Discrete variables: number of trays, feed tray
Continuous variables: pressure, reflux rate
Many options for complex columns
Column sequencing
• Operational constraints and design margins may make the mathematically optimal design impractical

1
 • Most designs are “close to optimal” rather than rigorously optimizedCalculated optimum
reflux ratio is usually between 1.05 and1.10 times Rmin. Most designers choose to use a
somewhat larger reflux ratio to allow some design margin: typically 1.15 Rmin. Reflux
and pressure are main optimization parameters, number of trays and feed tray usually
have lower impact on cost.
Side Streams
• Withdrawing a side stream allows a component to be removed that has accumulated in the middle of the
column.Use of side strippers and rectifiers allows higher purity in a side stream.For intermediates withdrawn
above the feed tray use a side stripper to strip out light components.A side reboiler allows part of the heat
requirement to be added at a lower temperature using cheaper hot utility (or less area).A side condenser allows
part of the heat to be removed at a higher temperature using cheaper cold utility (or less area).Vertical wall
separates column sections.Three products can be made using a single shell (middle product purity is much better
than simple side draw).Up to 30% savings in capital and energy costs.BASF have built 30 since 1984, BP 1,
SASOL 2

Complex Column Simulation

• Most simulators allow specification of side streams, side columns and intermediate exchangers. Adding
an additional stream or exchanger adds a degree of freedom, so one more column specification is required
– Usually side-stream draw rate or exchanger duty. DWC is usually not a standard option in the
simulation program, but can be built up from component sections
• High Capacity Trays

• Closed downcomers,Maximize active area,Directional valves,Enhanced phase separation, Reduced tray spacing
– UOP: MD™, ECMD™, PFMD™, SimulFlow™
2
 – Shell: HiFi™,ConSep™
– Koch-Glitsch: SuperFrac®, Ultra-Frac®
• Sulzer: VGPlus™. Increased active area or enhanced phase separation enable much higher throughput
– E.g.: UOP SimulFlow™ has 230% capacity of sieve trays.Efficiency is usually similar to sieve or valve
trays, but some designs have enhanced efficiency as well as capacity. Enhanced capacity trays are used
a lot in revamps to save buying a new shell, also for very large diameter new columns. Details must be
obtained from vendors.

Heat Transfer Equipments:

Typical Furnace Temperatures: Flame temperature, Depends on fuel composition, excess air ratio and air preheat
Radiant exit or bridgewalltemperature. Depends on tube temperaturesand heat flux. Stack temperatur, Depends
on amount of convectiveheat recovery, Ultimately limited by acid gas dewpoint or plume formation.

Furnace Efficiency:

Ho of fuel fired Tflame - Tstack

c
Tflame - Tambient

3
4
 • Furnace efficiency is increased by air preheat and reducedby increased excess air

• Stack temperature is limited by acid gas dew point (whichincreases with higher water
content or acid content in fluegas). Typically use 250F for natural gas, 350F for fuel oil.

• Typical overall furnace efficiency is about 85%, but not all ofthe useful heat is necessarily
used for process heating.

Combustion Chemistry

• Methane burns according to:

CH4 + 2 O2 + 8 N2 → CO2 + 2H2O + 8 N2
6
ΔH°c, LHV = 21,502 Btu/lb = 191.8 kcal/mol.Hence for 1 MMBtu we need 10 /21502 = 46.5 lb CH4
• 46.5 lb CH4 = 2.9 lbmol, i.e., 1040 scf
• For stoichiometric combustion we need 10,400 scf of air. In practice, we typically use 5 to 20%
excess air
• Prevents formation of carbon monoxide
• Prevents soot formation

Fired Heater Emissions:

Regulations limit emissions of:
– NOx, SOx, particulates, CO, metals, unburned hydrocarbon. Fuel selection / pretreatment controls S
and metals. Excess air controls CO, HC and particulate NOx is the hardest to control:
5
 – Excess air makes NOx worse. Flue gas recirculation to reduce flame temperature. Special burner
designs (staged air, staged fuel)

– Catalytic de-NOx can be used as expensive last resort

Thermosiphon Reboilers
If we set the reboiler below the liquid level in the column sump then the statichead drives liquid into the reboiler,
The difference in density caused by vaporization then sets up a circulation,limited by pressure drop
Typically design for about 25 to 33%vaporization per pass Thermosiphon orientation can be vertical (tubeside
flow) or horizontal(shellside flow)

Horizontal is usually cheaper, butvertical handles dirty fluids

Flow Regimes in Thermosiphon Tubes

• Different flow regimes occur as vapor/liquid ratio increases.Slug flow is undesirable as itcauses noise and vibration,
• Kettle Reboilers :More expensive than horizontal thermosiphon, Larger diameter shell forsame duty.Additional
liquidoutlet nozzleallows for blowdown
• TEMA types are (A or B) K (Tor U).Often used as steam
generator because of built in separator for vapor and allowance forblowdown.
Stab-in Reboilers
• The tube bundle can sometimes be fitted inside the column sump: this savesa shell
• The behavior is similar tokettle reboilers
The designer has to make sure there is enough sumpheight to give good level control and pump NPSH without
exposing
6
 Boiling Heat Transfer Coefficient
• As ΔT between wall andfluid increases, h increases at first due to bubbles, but then vapor blankets the surface and
the heat transfer coefficient falls

• For fired boilers this canlead to tube failure.Avoid film boiling by limiting design to maximum “critical flux”

Approximate h Values for Boiling

Liquid Boiling (Shell Side or Tube Side) h (Btu/(hr.ft2.F))

Water 1500
Water solutions, 50% water or more 600
Light Hydrocarbons 300
Medium Hydrocarbons 200
Freon 400
Ammonia 700
Propane 400
Butane 400
Amines 300
Alcohols 300
Glycols 200

7
 Benzene, Toluene 200

Note: Coefficients are based on 3/4 inch diameter tubes. For Tube side flows, correct by

Partial Condensers: Condensing molecules (e.g. water) have to diffuse throughnoncondensibles (e.g. air).
Diffusion resistance decreases coefficient.Big difference to size of exchanger. Calculation of condensing
coefficients is complex, particularly whencoupled with diffusion resistances,usually done using HX design
programs (HTRI, HTFS, BJAC). Need to design for accumulation of noncondensibles even in totalcondensers.
Provide a vent at the top of the exchanger. Manually vent as often as required by experience. To keep
noncondensibles out of steam system, boiler feed water isdegassed by steam stripping.

Approximate h Values forCondensation:

Vapor Condensing (Shell Side or Tube Side) h (Btu/(hr.ft2.F))

Steam 1500
Steam, 10% non-condensable 600
Steam, 20% non-condensable 400
Steam, 40% non-condensable 220
Pure Light Hydrocarbons 250-300
Mixed Light Hydrocarbons 175-250
8
 Gasoline 150-220
Gasoline-steam mixtures 200
Medium Hydrocarbons 100
Medium hydrocarbons with steam 125
Pure Organic solvents 250
Ammonia 600

Note: Coefficients are based on 3/4 inch diameter tubes. For Tube side flows, correct by

Enhancement of Condensing HeatTransfer: UOP High Cond Tubes:

Mechanical enhancement, Applied to tube OD. Optimized fin profile.Modified Fins, High Extended Area,
Improves condensate drainageMinimizes liquid condensate filmthickness.

Steam Generators: Most process heating is carried out using steam generatedin boilers – specialized fired heaters.
Boilers are sold as packaged units, usually rated in Mlb/hror boiler horsepower. Two main types of packaged boiler:
water-tube and fired-tube. Both types are usually forced draft. Fuel can be natural gas, LPG or any heating oil (#2 or
#6most common).Design codes: ASME BPV Code Sxn I (high pressure boilers for process and power applications)
or Sxn IV (lowpressure steam and hot water).

Simplified Steam System: Steam is usually generated at highpressure. We can expand from HP to MP to LP in steam
turbines instead of Hence recover, shaftwork that can be used in the process or converted.
9
 Boiler &
Superheat
HP Main

Process
BFW heating
preheat MP Main

Process
heating
Vent LP Main

Process
heating

Degassing Condensate return

Process
Make-up heating

Steam Generation Basics

• BFW preheat, boiling and superheat can allbe carried out inside packaged boilers
Preheat, boiling and superheat are often in separate exchangers when recovering.
• Boiler efficiency =
useful heat / fuel fired
• Typically ~85% (similar to fired LHV. High efficiency
10
(condensing) boilers can have much higherefficiencies but are not widely used for process.

Boiler Horsepower

• Original definition (1880s)

– Amount of steam needed to operate a one horsepower steamengine
– 30 lb/h at 70 psig with feed water at 100F according to ASME in1889

• Current definition
– The heat required to boil 34.5 lb/h of water at 212F (33,475 BTU/h)

• Boiler horsepower is used in many rules of thumb

– e.g., “need to 2 to 5 square feet of boiler surface per boiler hp”

• Note also that boiler hp is based on boiling at 212F, sodoes not give steam flow rate directly (as latent
heat varies with T)

When selecting between air-cooled and water-cooled systems for cooling applications, various factors need to
be considered to determine the most appropriate choice. Here are 6 key points to consider for each type of cooling
system:
1. Efficiency
 Air-Cooled: Typically less efficient than water-cooled systems because air has a lower heat capacity than
water, requiring more energy or larger equipment to achieve the same level of cooling.
11
  Water-Cooled: More efficient, as water has a higher heat capacity and thermal conductivity, making it
better at absorbing and transferring heat.
2. Installation and Space Requirements
 Air-Cooled: Requires more space for heat dissipation since air is less effective at heat transfer. Larger fans
or heat exchangers may be needed. Easier and quicker to install as it doesn't require piping for water circulation.
 Water-Cooled: Requires additional infrastructure, including pumps, pipes, and cooling towers, which may
take up more space and require a more complex installation process.
3. Maintenance
 Air-Cooled: Generally has lower maintenance costs since there is no need to manage water quality or
corrosion issues. However, air filters and fans require periodic cleaning.
 Water-Cooled: Requires more maintenance due to potential issues like scaling, corrosion, and biological
growth in the water system. Water treatment and cooling tower cleaning are necessary to maintain performance.
4. Operating Costs
 Air-Cooled: Typically has higher energy costs due to lower efficiency and the need for larger fans and
equipment to dissipate heat.
 Water-Cooled: Can have lower operating costs over time due to higher efficiency but may have higher
initial installation costs due to the need for pumps, piping, and cooling towers.
5. Environmental Impact
 Air-Cooled: Does not use water, making it more environmentally friendly in areas where water is scarce.
However, it may have higher carbon emissions due to increased energy consumption.
 Water-Cooled: Uses a significant amount of water, which can be a concern in areas with water scarcity.
Additionally, water discharge and treatment can contribute to environmental issues if not managed properly.
6. Application and Location
 Air-Cooled: Ideal for locations with limited water access or where water conservation is important. Suitable
for smaller, standalone systems or areas with space constraints.

12
  Water-Cooled: Best for larger, high-capacity systems, industrial applications, or regions where high
efficiency is prioritized and water is readily available.

Air Cooler Design: Air ambient temperature is based on the dry bulb temperature that is notexceeded 5% of
the time during summer. Highest temperature would lead to uneconomic design. Sometimes add a few degrees
to allow for recirculation.Minimum approach of about 15F at cold end.F factor is typically 0.9 for air coolers
Face velocity (based on standard air) is typically about 500 ft/min (2.5m/s) basedon bundle area. Bundle area ≈
2 x tube horizontal cross section area. Air side pressure drop is usually very low (0.6” water)

Δp = air side pressure drop in inches of water

η = fan efficiency (typically 70

Air Cooler Example

• Design an air cooler to cool 200,000 lb/h of kerosene from 200 to 120F
• Duty = m.Cp.ΔT = 2 x 105 x 0.5 x 80 = 8 MMBtu/h
• Estimate hi = 120 Btu/(h.ft2.F), hence U = 3 Btu/(h.ft2.F)
• Tambient for design = 90F, allow 5F for recirculation
• Estimate Lmtd = (105-25)/ln(105/25) = 55.7F
• Estimate finned area Af = Q/U.F.Lmtd = 8 x 106 /(3 x 0.9 x 56) = 52,900 ft2
• Bare tube area A = Af/20 = 2650 ft2
• Assuming 20’ long ¾” tubes, 2650/3.9 = 678 tubes
• 10 banks of tubes, 2” fin diameter gives 68 tubes/bank

13
 • Bundle area = 68 x 20’ x (2/12) x 2 = 453 ft2
• Face velocity 500 ft/min = 227 x 103 acfm
• Assume 0.6” water pressure drop, then power = 227 x 103 x 0.6 / (6837 x 0. 7) =28.4 hp
• Assuming a 90% efficient electric motor driver, power consumed = 28.4 x 745.7 /0.9 = 23.5kW

• We can now use correlations to confirm design, check air side ΔT andcheck pressure drop

Temperature Control: Temperature control can be achieved by varying the air flow

• Louvers: Manual or automatic, Problem: can be affected by snow or ice

Variable speed drives: Simple version: two-speed motor, Variable speed motor has highest cost but best energy
efficiency and temperature control

• Variable pitch fan: Fan pitch adjusted automatically to vary air flow, Saves electricity at low pitch, but higher
maintenance, Often use a hot bypass if tight temperature control is needed

14
Acid Gas Scrubbing:

15
Absorption & Stripping: Heat Effects
• Increasing temperature decreases H and makes stripping
easier

y Increasing
T • For chemisorption, the EL is concave upwards. The
stripper must
x provide heat of reaction as well as stripping vapor
flow

y
• If EL has high curvature then it is difficult to strip to low
concentrations.But concentration in the stripped liquid is
what determines the concentration in the gas leaving
theabsorber

16
Here is a comparison of the four main types of distillation trays: sieve trays, valve trays, bubble cap trays, and
fixed valve trays. These trays are commonly used in distillation columns for vapor-liquid contact.

1. Sieve Trays
 Description: Flat perforated plates with small holes (sieves) that allow vapor to pass through while liquid
flows across the tray. No moving parts.
 Advantages:
 Simple design and easy to fabricate.
 Low cost compared to other tray types.
 High capacity due to unobstructed vapor flow through perforations.

 Disadvantages:

 Less efficient at low vapor flow rates, leading to "weeping" (liquid falls through the holes without
proper vapor-liquid contact).
 Sensitive to changes in flow rate.

 Applications: Suitable for high-capacity operations where cost is a concern, such as in petroleum refining
and bulk chemical production.
2. Valve Trays
 Description: Flat trays with movable valves (caps or discs) over the perforations. Vapor lifts the valves to
pass through, improving contact between vapor and liquid.
 Advantages:
 Self-adjusting to vapor flow, reducing weeping at low flow rates.
 Can handle a wide range of flow rates (more flexible than sieve trays).
 Higher efficiency than sieve trays at low to moderate vapor rates.
 Disadvantages:
 More expensive and complex to manufacture due to moving parts.
17 Chemical Engineering
  Higher pressure drop compared to sieve trays.
 Applications: Used in processes with varying flow rates or where a balance between efficiency and capacity
is needed, such as in chemical and petrochemical industries.
3. Bubble Cap Trays
 Description: Trays with risers (chimneys) covered by caps. Vapor flows through the risers and exits through
the slots in the caps, bubbling through the liquid on the tray.

 Advantages:
 Effective at low vapor flow rates, preventing weeping.
 Provides good vapor-liquid contact, leading to high efficiency.
 Stable operation over a wide range of flow conditions.

Disadvantages:
 Complex design with many parts, making it expensive to manufacture and maintain.
 Higher pressure drop due to the complex vapor path.
 Lower capacity compared to sieve or valve trays.

 Applications: Common in small-scale, specialty chemical operations where high efficiency and low vapor
rates are critical, such as in pharmaceutical or fine chemical production.

4. Fixed Valve Trays

 Description: Similar to valve trays but with fixed (non-moving) valve-like openings. The valve slots are
pre-set, and vapor flows through the slots to contact the liquid on the tray.
 Advantages:
 No moving parts, so they are simpler and more robust than regular valve trays.
 Better performance than sieve trays at low flow rates.
 Can handle a range of flow conditions like valve trays, but with less complexity.
 Disadvantages:
 Fixed openings limit flexibility compared to adjustable valve trays.
 Higher cost than sieve trays but lower than traditional valve trays.
18 Chemical Engineering
 Applications: Used in processes requiring lower maintenance and where intermediate flow conditions are
encountered, such as in large-scale petrochemical and refining operations.

19 Chemical Engineering
20 Chemical Engineering
21 Chemical Engineering
22 Chemical Engineering
Example 4.8
A rotary countercurrent dryer is fed with ammonium nitrate containing 5% moisture at the rate of 1,5 kg/s, and
discharges the nitrate with 0.2% moisture. The air enters at 405 K and leaves at 355 K; the humidity of the
entering air being 0.007 kg of moisture per kg of dry air. The nitrate enters at 294 K and leaves at 339 K.
Neglecting radiation losses, calculate the mass of dry airpassing through the dryer and the humidity of the air
leaving the dryer.Latent heat of water at 294 K = 2450 kJ/kg. Specific heatof ammonium nitrate = 1.88 kJ/kg K.
Specific heat of dry air = 0.99 kJ/kg K. Specific heat of water vapour = 2.01 kJ/kg K.

Solution
Mass of dry air passing through the dryer≈6.11kg/s

Humidity of the air leaving the dryer: ≈0.0188kg moisture/kg dry air

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Example 4.9

A rotary dryer is fed with sand at the rate of 1 kg/s. The feed is 50% wet and the sand is discharged with 3%
moisture. The air enters at 380 K with an solute humidityof 0.007 kg/kg. and leaves at 309 K and the air leaves
at310 K. Calculate the mass of air passing through the dryer and the humidity of the radiation loss of 25 kJ/kg
ofdry air. Latent heat of water at 294 K = 2450 kJ/kg. Specific heatof sand = 0.88 Id/kg K. Specific heat of dry
air = 0.99 kJ/kg K. Specific heat of vapour = 2.01 kJ/kg K.

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 Example 4.10

A porous solid is dried in a batch dryer under constant drying conditions. Seven hours are required to reduce
the moisture content from 35 to 10 percent. The critical moisture content was found to be 20 percent and the
equilibrium moisture 4 percent. All moisture contents areon the dry basis. Assuming that the rate of drying
duringfalling-rate period is proportional to the free-moisture content, how long should it take to dry a sample
of the same solid from 35 to 5 percent under the same drying conditions?

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Example 4.11

A film of polymer 2 m wide and 0.76 mm thick leaves the surface of a heated drum containing 30 weight percent
(dry basis) of acetone. It is dried by exposing both sides of the film to air at 1 atm and 65’C containing essentially
no acetone vapor. The flow of air is across the faces of the film at 3 m/so The critical acetone content is 10 weight
percent acetone (dry basis). The equilibrium acetone content is negligible. The density of the dry solid is 800 kg/m'.
(a) What would be the surface temperature of the film during the constant-rate period?
(b) What would be the constant drying rate,in kilograms per square meter per hour?
(c) How long would it take to reduce the acetone content from 30 to 0.5 percent if the diffusivity of acetone in the
solid is 8 x 10-4 cm2/s? For acetone-air mixtures

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Problem:2 Material is fed to a dryer at the rate of 0.3 kg/s and themoisture removed is 35% of the wet charge.
The stockenters and leaves the dryer at 324 K, The air temperature falls from 341 to 310 K, its humidity rising
from 0.01 to 0.02 kg/kg.Calculate the heat loss to the surroundings.Latent heat of water at 324 K = 2430 kJ/kg.
Specific heatof dry air = 0.99 kJ/kg K. Specific heat of water vapour =2.01 kJ/kg K.

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