Jett Wilson – 10B (2024)

Investigating the Angle of Incident

That Maximises the Effectiveness of
a Photovoltaic (PV) Cell

Part I: Background Information

1. Introduction:
PV Cells – An Introduction:
Photovoltaic Cells otherwise known as ‘PV’ units, are a form of
renewable energy that has immense usage and development in the last
three decades, to power much of the world’s infrastructure-based and
appliance electricity needs. Resulting from the exponentially growing
concern surrounding the various gases released from non-renewable
incomplete combustion:
C n H 2 n +2+O2 yields C /CO+ H 2 O
→

Several promising technologies have been proposed to help combat these

growing emissions, inducing
negative ecological and
societal compounds such as
Volatile Organic Compounds
(VOCs), C O x and N Ox
(Zeman, n.d.). One such
technology, could include
that of the photovoltaic cell.
Estimated to have one of
the highest renewable
technology growth rates
according to a paper by the
Delft University of Technology, Solar energy is advantageous to non-
renewable for a variety of different reasons, including:
 Lack of emissions during the lifespan of the conversion technology
 Noiseless operation, thus decreasing noise pollution
 Exceptional lifetime for minimal maintenance requirements
 Ability to decentralise from the main power grid, allowing for
viable private consumer usage
Furthermore, Solar technology’s ability to be scaled make it an
exceptional technology for scalable production. (Cook, 1986)
 Jett Wilson – 10B (2024)

Photovoltaic cells operate, by converting photon (light) energy into that

of traditional electricity. PV (Solar) cells achieve this, through the usage
of a semiconductor material of which have the transformation properties
necessary to transform photonic energy into electric energy.
Semiconductors are unique materials that prove advantageous to the
overall effectiveness and viability of Photovoltaic Cell units (RS, 2022).
These materials, chiefly silicon-based in the application of Solar Cells,
allow for the transferral of photons to electrons through two distinct
types of semiconductor layers, commonly referred to as the n-type layer,
and it’s counterpart p-type (EIA, n.d.). The p and n layers differ, as one is
comprised of ‘holes’ while another rich in electrons; a system that obeys
Gauss’s law of electrostatics, while creating a positive-negative diode
(The divergence of the vector field is identical to 0). ‘Holes’ in which
valence electrons can be taken, are created artificially. This is done by
irregularly placing many atoms that have free valence slots outside of the
lattice to create such uneven areas. Through the use of a crucial
principle known as the photovoltaic effect, incoming photonic energy
excites the electrons from their lattice, to travel freely. In their excited
state, an electric field is generated, leaving electrons in their excited
state as they pass through the circuit and remain replenished from
continuous solar energy.
To calculate the overall output of a Solar Cell, the following equation may
be used in both theory and practice:
P= A × G× η
Such that:

- A is the area of the Photovoltaic panel, cell or array, measured in m 2

- G is the Solar Irradiance, defined as the solar energy received per unit
area, and measured in W /m2
- η is the efficiency of the Solar panel; a constant value often specified on
the product, but can also be calculated through:
Pout
η ( Solar Cell )= ∗100
P¿
This formula may, additionally, be used in conjunction if the energy hf
(frequency & Planck’s constant) given that the Photon flux density Φ is known.

Whilst PV cells are an important technology in reducing non-renewable

expenditure globally, it is a technology that suffers from inconsistent or below-
average power output in many situations due to the system having not been
optimised in its setup. One major factor of variability could include the angle of
inclination of the solar panel. As a result, due to the importance of the
technology and the urge to maximise its potential, the primary goal of the
 Jett Wilson – 10B (2024)

following research project is to find the angle of incident ray that maximises
output and calculate the corresponding PV cell inclination.

Supporting Scientific Points in Hypothesis – Sun Angle +

Insolation:
Insolation is defined as the quantity of Solar energy that can penetrate
the Atmosphere and Ionosphere surrounding
the Earth. (Ritter, n.d.). This value of insolation,
known as solar irradiance, can be decreased by
means of increasing the angle of light, relative to
the Normal line on Earth. If this angle is
steepened, the lowest photons would strike the
surface at a distance closer to the energy
source than that of the corresponding shallower
angle. Despite this, the point in which the
highest photons hit would be identical to any
shallower angle. It may be concluded that
although the area hit increased, the same number of photons strike the
surface, leading to less photonic density. This, therefore, could decrease
the output of a PV cell.
Supporting Scientific Points in Hypothesis – Atmospheric
Scattering:
This may be calculated practically, using Air Mass as the quantitative
subject variable, through the equation:

√ ()
2
s
AM = 1+
h

Such that there exists a shadow cast of s length, created by an arbitrary

vertical structure of height h .

2. Research Question:

What is the angle of inclination that

would maximise the output of a PV
Cell?
 Jett Wilson – 10B (2024)

Part II: Preliminary Experiment Information

3. Hypothesis:
It is predicted, that as the angle of incidence deviates at a steeper angle
relative to the normal line, the output measured in Watts will decrease.
As a result, the maximal output of the tested PV cell will occur when the
selected light source is perpendicular to the normal line.
The reason for this judgement stems from several implications regarding
incident angles less or greater than 90 degrees. One such implication for
this predicted outcome, is the increased rate of reflection. Due to the
increased rate of photonic reflection by increasing the angle of incidence
(Bailey E, 2023), the output of the solar panel is henceforth expected to
decrease. Furthermore, to this, increasing the angle of incidence
simultaneously increases the surface area covered by the light source in
the experiment. Because only a finite number of photons are emitted as
constant, this implies that the light absorbed by the solar panel itself
captured a smaller area relative to the total coverage; fewer photons
would be predicted to result in an overall smaller output with fewer freed
electrons through the PV effect. While less relevant to the experiment
itself, another vital factor to consider in a real-world scenario involving
solar panel output, is the earth’s rotation moving the solar panel further
away. This factor, paired with Rayleigh scattering in the atmosphere lead
to even further decreases in the output of a solar panel, coming into
relevance at more extremal times such as Dusk and Dawn.
Due to decreases in predicted output further away from the Normal Line,
it can therefore be concluded that the path of the sun perpendicular to
this line would provide the most intensive sunlight throughout the day.

4. Materials & Equipment List:

1x Multimeter
 Jett Wilson – 10B (2024)

6x Electrical Connecting Wire

1x OneCar Kit (Solar Panel 0.65W)

1x 40cm Retort Stand

1x Boss Clamp

1x Metre Ruler

Blu-Tack

1x Half Protractor

1x Halogen Work light

1x Masking Tape Roll

1x 14-Watt Maximum AC/DC Power Source

5. Risk Assessment:
Risk: Prevention: Management:
Risk of heavy This threat can be In the unlikely event
equipment falling off prevented with almost that an item does fall,
the elevated testing certainty, by utilising it may cause minor to
surface, contacting a standard protocol of moderate trauma to
with vulnerable areas placing all items – prone areas such as
of the body. namely the retort the feet. In order to
stand – at least 10cm combat the risk after
from the edge of an it has already
elevated table, occurred, halt
Furthermore, the immediate experiment
table should have a operations, and notify
barrier at the edges, the teacher of the
as further protective hazard. If glass from
precautions against the work light were to
the risk of heavy items additionally puncture
falling. Furthermore, skin during such an
wearing leather shoes event, a further step
may be a good would be to run high-
supporting strategy to pressure cold water
this, to dampen the from the emergency
impact effect should tap, before asking a
the risk transpire. trained first aid
professional within
the school premises to
 Jett Wilson – 10B (2024)

remove the
penetrated glassware
from the skin.
Risk of electrocution Possibly the most If electrocuted,
by the required AC/DC hazardous of the risks immediately seek help
power source. within the planned from a supervisor, who
experiment, this would then direct the
threat will be afflicted individual to
prematurely mitigated trained professionals.
through a number of Depending on the
safety precautions. severity of the electric
These could include shock, the emergency
refraining from tap may or may not be
touching any metal used depending on
electrical contacts in whether the flesh has
use for the electrical been cauterised.
system on the project,
as well as plugging
the power to the lamp
as only DC to
minimise potential
tissue damage,
protracted by the
usage of alternating
current without any
direct need.
Furthermore,
deactivating all
electrical equipment
immediately after use
is a common safety
practice that should
be exercised by
everyone.

6. Variables:

a. Independent Variable:
The independent variable of the experiment conducted, will be the
angle of incident from which the solar energy will reach the Solar
panel. This is to be measured relative to
the azimuthal (or normal) line, which is
the imaginary line that extends
upwards perpendicular to the desired
surface, being the PV cell. Because
the angle of the PV cell will be kept
 Jett Wilson – 10B (2024)

constant and upwards, this normal line can, by extension, be

considered perpendicular to the testing surface. The angle of incident
is to be measured using the azimuth-relative degree variation,
measuring from -80 azimuthal degrees (or 10 standard degrees
measured from the testing surface) to 80 A.D (170 S.D).
b. Dependent Variable
The dependent variable, in contrast, is to be the wattage outputted by
the PV cell relative to the output energy. While the input light energy
is equivalent to that of a forecast day and hence impairing its output,
the dependent variable aims to maximise the Wattage based on the
given constraints, making it applicable to more effective
circumstances. While the Multimeter that this will be measured from
does not have a wattage reading, the simple direct proportion
relationship of:
W =V × I
Allows for the calculation of the Wattage to be derived by combining
its voltage (V) and Current (I) components, which can be measured.
The Current, Voltage and Amperage is to be plotted as a function of
the angle when plotting the graphical visualisation.
c. Control Variables:

1. Light Intensity – As the independent variable in question changes

only the angle in which the light directs relative to the photovoltaic
cell, the Light Intensity is an important control variable that must
be maintained to preserve the validity of the experiment. In order
to keep the light intensity of the experiment constant at all times,
an AC/DC power regulator is to be utilised, capping all voltage at
12V. This therefore allows for a consistent amperage within the
system, calculated through ohm’s law from the resistance and
voltage; values already known and taken as constants. This data
will be collected in a numerical constants table underneath that of
the main data table for reference. The units of Volts have been
chosen to approximate the light intensity output, due to the
scarcity of Lux meters in possession.
2. Temperature – Building on environmental characteristics such as
Light Intensity, the temperature must be always held constant. The
reason for this stems from the drastic shifts that the efficiency of
solar panels can undergo when presented different sets of
environments, once again invalidating the experiment. While this
control variable is to be initially held constant by science lab
regulations for lack of humidity and ventilation, LASER-assisted
temperature tools may additionally allow for continuous monitoring
of both the temperature of the lamp to dictate constant applied
 Jett Wilson – 10B (2024)

temperature, as well as the ambient temperature. This data will be

collected in a numerical constants table underneath that of the
main data table for reference and will use the units of Degrees
Celsius to convey temperature.
3. Wattage of Solar Panel – For all tests, a simple control variable
protocol would be to use the same specifications of PV Cell for all
days on the experiment. As a result, the chosen Solar Panel was
that of a 0.65W Monocrystalline panel.
4. Distance of Light from Solar Panel – This control variable is
vital to the experiment to be held constant, as creating variation in
this would lead to an immense margin of error in the final table
values. To keep this variable constant is, furthermore, an integral
part of the Method, in which a ruler stuck to a protractor is moved
along the 10-degree increments of the protractor. Mimicking the
polar coordinate system, the retort stand with the light would
navigate to the position of the ruler and adjust the length such that
the tip of the light corresponds to 15cm on the ruler.

7. Method:
1. Find a flat, non-combustible surface that is at least 20 cm away from
any sharp drop in elevation. Group items featured on the equipment list
for usage.

2. Set up Boss Clamp and attach to the Retort stand 15 cm from the base
measured using a Metre ruler.

3. Ensure the Boss Clamp's grippers are aligned perpendicular to the

ground. Attach the 150W Halogen work light to the grippers of the boss
clamp by tightening in a clockwise rotational motion, ensuring the light is
pointing directly towards the ground using a perpendicular metre ruler,
and a protractor at the base.

4. Place the 0.65V PV cell directly underneath the halogen light, ensuring
that the incident angle is perpendicular with a protractor to ensure so.
Attach the Halogen light to an AC/DC laboratory battery, ensuring the
contacts are connected to DC power. Do this while both devices are off
and the voltage is set to minimum.

5. Connect one wire to the solar panel, then attach it to a Multimeter.

Then, attach the compliment electrical wire from the other Multimeter
input back to the Solar Panel.

6. Turn on the Multimeter and set to 20mV precision setting. Then, turn
on the Halogen Light after the laboratory battery has been turned on,
 Jett Wilson – 10B (2024)

and set to 12 Volts in chronological order.. Wait for five seconds, then
record the voltage value. Record this quantity.

7. Switch to the Amperage setting on the Multimeter, to a precision

20mA. Record the value without delay in a graph column adjacent to the
Voltage value.

8. Turn off the Halogen light. Place the protractor onto and
perpendicular relative to the Solar Panel and align the Metre ruler
parallel to the normal line (90 degrees) of the protractor. Then, deviate
this metre ruler 10 degrees away from the normal line towards the right
direction.

9. Align the halogen light perpendicular to the ruler, and at the distance
of 40cm established in step 1. and repeat steps 6-8.

10. Repeat steps 6-9 until

the Halogen light is at 170
degrees, or 80 degrees
relative to the azimuth. After
this, disable all electric
equipment and repeat steps
6-9 again by deviating
towards the left-hand side by
10-degree increments.
Record all data in a table
from the top down
categorically, ensuring the
table begins from the
leftmost (10 degrees), to the
rightmost (170 degrees)
nadir.

11. Reset all equipment to the status of Step 3. Then, repeat steps 6-9, 3
times, the repeated trials judge reliability more accurately.

12. After all values have been plotted, in a table, formulate a new column
for Wattage. Multiply each
Fig. Annotated visual diagram on
corresponding dependent value for the layout of the experiment. This
Voltage and Amperage for the same example shows only an example
independent variable increment to configuration at 110 degrees.
find the wattage. This is the summative dependent variable for
interpretation and visualisation. Furthermore, find the mean of all three
trials conducted.
 Jett Wilson – 10B (2024)

============================================
===========

Part III: Data & Visualisation

Relationship Between the Incident Ray and the Wattage
of a PV Cell
Obtuse Measurements Acute Measurements
Voltage
Voltage Amperage Wattage Angle Amperage Wattage Angle
(V) (mA) (W) (°) (V) (mA) (W) (°)
1.68 2.72 4.57 90 1.43 1.02 1.46 10
1.65 2.38 3.93 100 1.49 1.24 1.84 20
1.63 2.32 3.78 110 1.56 1.64 2.55 30
1.63 2.14 3.45 120 1.57 1.70 2.66 40
Trial 1 1.61 1.84 2.96 130 1.58 1.83 2.89 50
1.58 1.64 2.59 140 1.62 2.28 3.69 60
1.53 1.41 2.16 150 1.64 2.59 4.24 70
1.53 1.36 2.08 160 1.64 2.71 4.44 80
1.42 1.04 1.48 170 170
Voltage
Voltage Amperage Wattage Angle Amperage Wattage Angle
(V) (mA) (W) (°) (V) (mA) (W) (°)
1.69 2.74 4.63 90 1.48 1.10 1.63 10
1.64 2.41 3.95 100 1.53 1.28 1.96 20
1.64 2.36 3.87 110 1.57 1.66 2.61 30
1.62 2.06 3.33 120 1.59 1.72 2.74 40
Trial 2 1.59 1.84 2.93 130 1.62 1.88 3.10 50
1.57 1.8 7 2.95 140 1.62 2.31 3.74 60
1.56 1.52 2.37 150 1.64 2.60 4.26 70
1.53 1.39 2.13 160 1.68 2.69 4.52 80
1.45 1.11 1.61 170 170
Voltage Amperage Angle Voltage Amperage Angle
(V) (mA) Wattage (mA) Wattage
 Jett Wilson – 10B (2024)

(W) (°) (V) (W) (°)

1.71 2.70 4.62 90 1.44 1.04 1.49 10
1.64 2.44 4.00 100 1.49 1.21 1.8 20
1.63 2.38 3.88 110 1.57 1.6 2.51 30
1.60 2.19 3.50 120 1.59 1.68 2.67 40
Trial 3 1.58 1.91 3.02 130 1.60 1.74 2.78 50
1.57 1.72 2.70 140 1.61 1.98 3.21 60
1.53 1.43 2.19 150 1.62 2.34 3.79 70
1.52 1.34 2.04 160 1.63 2.63 4.3 80
1.48 1.09 1.61 170 170
Voltage
Voltage Amperage Wattage Angle Amperage Wattage Angle
(V) (mA) (W) (°) (V) (mA) (W) (°)
1.69 2.72 4.61 90 1.45 1.05 1.53 10
1.64 2.41 3.96 100 1.50 1.24 1.87 20
1.63 2.35 3.84 110 1.57 1.63 2.56 30
1.62 2.13 3.43 120 1.58 1.70 2.69 40
Average 1.59 1.86 2.97 130 1.60 1.82 2.92 50
1.57 1.74 2.75 140 1.62 2.19 3.55 60
1.54 1.45 2.24 150 1.63 2.51 4.10 70
1.53 1.36 2.08 160 1.65 2.68 4.42 80
1.45 1.08 1.57 170 170
Ambient Light Output PV Temperature Light Source
Volts milliAmps Watts Temperature Volts
1.17 0.54 0.63 21.2 12
 Jett Wilson – 10B (2024)

Relati onship of the Incident Ray (°) to the

Photovoltaic Output (V, mA, W)
milliAmps Voltage Watts
5
4.5
Power (Voltage; Milliamp; Watt)

4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170

Angle (Degrees)

Fig. – This graph illustrates the decreasing trend, as the 0.65W solar
panel’s light source deviates further from the normal line (90 degrees).

Part IV: Interpretation & Analysis `

8. Graph Interpretation & Hypothesis Validity:
The graph in Part III shows an overall parabolic relationship, the
Wattage, as well as it’s sub-components of Amperage and Voltage. The
graph is parabolic, due to it’s definitive crest and troughs characterised
by a consistent increase from 10 degrees to 80 degrees, peaking at the
crest at 90 degrees
before continuing
roughly a symmetric
trajectory from 100 to
170 degrees. This
graph furthermore
aligns with several
 Jett Wilson – 10B (2024)

other previous studies regarding similar experiments, such as the

Institute of Physics having yielded an identical parabolic trend during an
investigation into the output of a solar panel modelled over different
times of the day. Furthermore, when considering the normal line as a
point of origin, the results from the experiments show the incident ray’s
relationship to output, the graph has negative correlation.
This trend perfectly aligns with the previous predictions made in the
Hypothesis, which predicted a maxima value at 90 degrees (4.61 W),
steadily losing Wattage output on both sides of the graph; the left and
right nadir 1.53W and 1.57W respectively. As a result of this, the
conclusion prediction made in the Hypothesis - the Normal line holding
the highest output value – sufficiently justifies its overall validity. In
addition, the equation of output in Part I supports this claim, as the
steeper angles of incidence decreased solar irradiance.
Whilst the Wattage proved to be an easy concept to explain as an
aggregate of different factors, it is more challenging to scientifically
interpret the initially unusual consistency in the Voltage of the PV cell.
Despite this, preliminary research eventually allowed me to deduce this
value to be mediated by the PV cell itself. As such, the voltage is able to
remain quite constant throughout the experiment.

9. Validity of the Method:

Overall, the experiment performed quite well in a number of categories
that prove the validity of the experiment.

Strengths:
Within the experiment, the various controlled variables were effectively
maintained constant. As a result of this, the experiment can be quite
confidently stated to have changed only the factor of the incident ray’s
angle. While necessary steps were taken to ensure this, with its success
already apparent in the low deviation between trials in the table, further
techniques such as the LASER temperature meter allowed for real-time
confirmation for the effectiveness of the techniques utilised. In this case,
a constant Photovoltaic Cell temperature of 21±0.3 degrees was
maintained throughout the trials. This, henceforth, allowed for
quantitative cross-reference with the target figures specified in the
variables section. While the successful controlling of control variable
factors such as light intensity, temperature and radius length from the
Solar Panel is undeniable, the experiment and method had further
strengths beyond this. For example, the 10-degree increments utilised
between 10 to 170 degrees allowed for the clear extrapolation of trends
from the data due to the precise nature of each measurement. Whilst not
supporting the validity of the Method and experiment, however, the
 Jett Wilson – 10B (2024)

sensible usage of three trials paired with the multimeter’s set value of 3
significant figures allow for adequate precision in the measuring
equipment, and a relatively good judge for the reliability of the
experiment.

Weaknesses:
Despite the many strengths of the Method in evaluating the research
question, there were some aspects in which the Method could have
further refined in order to create a more valid experiment. For example,
while the temperature did stabilise in the halogen lightbulb and was
subsequently measured, the experiment had begun only five seconds
after turning the light on. Although starting immediately after the work
light had turned on would have allowed for a more efficient use of
laboratory time, the measurements taken while the lightbulb had not
stabilised, and so it’s radiating temperature may had been altered to a
slight degree. Although such a recurring incident would leave the
conclusions made from the graph unaffected, any factor that decreases
it’s overall accuracy would lead to consideration of the experiment’s
overall validity. Furthermore, another weakness in this experiment’s
validity could stem from the hand-operated nature of the angle-shifting
system. While the results written in the table were for the most part
consistent, the need to align an object directly onto the increment of a
ruler while separated, lead to potential for human variability, through
possible inaccuracies such as the parallax error. As a result of this, the
results presented may less accurately reflect the true values of the
experiment.

Judgement:
While there were some limitations to the overall accuracy of the
experiment, the clear relationship shown in the graph paired with
numerous strengths within the experiment itself leads to a judgement
that the experiment is valid.

10. Improvements to the Experiment:

Improvements:
1. Use of a more low-profile light with an integrated hinge. This
improvement was suggested, primarily due to the difficulty that I
faced manoeuvring the cumbersome work light into an adequate
position to record data. As a result of this, it is likely that to some
degree the overall accuracy of the experiment slightly declined,
requiring one hand to keep the work light balanced and in precisely
the position required, due to the boss clamp being unable to
independently support it’s mass. Due to this setback in the
 Jett Wilson – 10B (2024)

efficiency of the conducted experiment, swapping this work light

for an equally effective light bulb kit connected to the DC setting
would be more efficient, easy to set up and light enough to work
with both hands, perhaps decreasing the risk for human error.
2. Changing of the Halogen Light to an LED. The reason for this
suggested change, stems not only from the efficiency of the Light-
emitting diode and therefore ability to continue operating for
extended period of time, but also from its comparatively small heat
emission. A byproduct of its superior 60% electricity-to-light
conversion percentage, the small heat expenditure would
furthermore eradicate both the need to wait 10-20 seconds in order
to compensate for the immediate surrounding’s rapid spike in heat
as well as the need to explicitly mention the factor as a controlled
variable. Furthermore, this also allows for far brighter lights to be
shone with the same amount of energy expenditure as that of a
halogen lightbulb, furthermore, improving the experiment by
mimicking a more accurate brightness.
3. Using a Lux Meter to better control light intensity. Whilst the
brightness of the halogen work lamp was already held constant, the
usage of the Lux meter could have proven as an advantageous
improvement due to its ability to quantitatively synthesise evidence
that the controlled variable had been legitimately held constant
throughout the experiment. This meter would have been
incorporated in the method, to check the brightness in conjunction
with every measurement made, and plotting a single trial of data to
ensure the brightness was held a constant.

Extension:
- A possible extension, one that involves changing the
independent variable, is to measure Temperature as opposed
to the angle of incidence. This extension could be proposed, due
to it’s more significant relevance regarding real-world issues
surrounding Photovoltaic technology. By changing the independent
variable of the Photovoltaic cell to the temperature, a much more
nuanced and surprising result may have resulted from the
nonlinearity and more complex scientific reasoning required to
hypothesise the answer correctly or intelligently. Because of the
uncertain nature of the precisely correct temperature to optimally
run a PV cell, it would have hence provided much more meaning
and depth of interpretation to the experiment itself. As a result, a
possible course of action if I were to undertake this, would be to
pour boiling water in between the range of 70 to 100 degrees
Celsius, within a resistant reservoir such as steel. By utilising the
temperature LASER pointer previously employed, limited exposure
to the water’s radiation next to the PV cell before conducting a
similar multitool method could allow for the increase of
 Jett Wilson – 10B (2024)

temperature in the PV cell. With periodic changes in water,

increments of 5 degrees would be an achievable goal with such an
extension.

11. Research Question Conclusion + Justification:

Overall, the experiment’s result dictated that the normal line of 90
degrees was the angle of incidence
that was most effective. Despite
this, while the experiment had
resulted in a perpendicular
incident ray being the most
effective, this did not take into
account the inclination of the Solar
Panel itself to come to a definite
conclusion. Although the primary
conclusion to the investigation
could feasibly be seen to be
entirely 90 degrees upwards, it is
important to also consider Earth’s placement on a globe. As a result of
this, an important point to consider would be the Sun’s shift from the
normal line relative to how far one is from the equator geographically.
When considering Spherical angular coordinate components ϕ and θ , it
can therefore be considered that the θ value’s deviation from the normal
line corresponds to the value of latitude. Because the solar panel can
be adjusted to match this new circular path in the same way that it would
benefit from the equatorial path, the research question’s primary answer
is relative to the observer’s latitude.
 Jett Wilson – 10B (2024)

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