Proceeding Paper

Cognitive Radio Network Technology for IoT-Enabled Devices †

Omer Al-Dulaimi 1, * , Mohammed Al-Dulaimi 2 , Aymen Al-Dulaimi 3 and Maiduc Osiceanu Alexandra 4

1 Department of Telecommunication Engineering, University Politehnica of Bucharest,

077042 Bucharest, Romania
2 Department of Computer Engineering, Al-Rafidain University College, Baghdad 46036, Iraq;
mohammed.khudhaer.elc@ruc.edu.iq
3 Department of Communication Technical Engineering, Al-Farahidi University College, Baghdad 00965, Iraq;
aymenaldulaimi@uoalfarahidi.edu.iq
4 Department of Director for Management of Scientific Research, University Politehnica of Bucharest,
060042 Bucharest, Romania; sanda.maiduc@upb.ro
* Correspondence: omer_mohammed.al@stud.etti.upb.ro
† Presented at the International Conference on Electronics, Engineering Physics and Earth Science (EEPES’23),
Kavala, Greece, 21–23 June 2023.

Abstract: The exponential development of wireless applications has increased problems in the
spectrum. The unlicensed frequency spectrum is becoming highly saturated, in order to support the
conditions of new radio devices with increasing data rates. The spectrum that has previously been
allocated is also unused. As a consequence of these developments, scientists have been putting a lot
of effort into developing an approach to the issue of the limited spectrum that could make it possible
to create a more effective utilization of it. As cognitive radio permits opportunistic use of the licensed
spectrum in less crowded areas, it has been proposed as a solution to this challenge. This paper
provides an overview of the cognitive radio environment, including a dynamic spectrum access
strategy, as well as additional information on the cognitive capabilities operating in combination
IoT communication technologies. We investigate the utilization of cognitive radio in the Internet of
Things along with the significant role that cognitive radio plays in making the Internet of Things
possible. Cognitive radio will provide a comprehensive examination of spectrum sensing, which
will cover the many types of sensing, sensing that is based on machine learning, as well as open
topics that still need to be addressed further in this sector. This research paper is written in a way that
provides detailed instructions for the purpose of assisting new researchers in the area of Cognitive
Radio Networks.

Citation: Al-Dulaimi, O.; Al-Dulaimi,

Keywords: cognitive radio; internet of things; software define radio; spectrum sensing
M.; Al-Dulaimi, A.; Alexandra, M.O.
Cognitive Radio Network
Technology for IoT-Enabled Devices.
Eng. Proc. 2023, 41, 7. https:// 1. Introduction
doi.org/10.3390/engproc2023041007 Considering the predetermined frequency allocation of typical wireless networks,
Academic Editor: Grigor Mihaylov there is only a limited amount of the wireless spectrum that is appropriate for broadband
communications. As a result of this scarcity, the concept of Cognitive Radio (CR) communi-
Published: 13 July 2023 cation was developed. CR communication comprises a number of mechanisms that enable
licensed and unlicensed user systems to coexist on the same spectrum. The utilization of
intelligent transceivers has become possible via developments in Software-Defined Radio
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
(SDR), and digital signal processors, which allow for the dynamic and adaptive utilization
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. of the available spectrum. Licensed and unlicensed wireless devices may share the same
This article is an open access article spectrum with the CR method, which was inspired by the concept of software-defined
distributed under the terms and radio [1]. Figure 1 shows that numerous companies are making significant efforts to realize
conditions of the Creative Commons CR technology because of the wide variety of potential uses it could have, from TV White
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Spaces (TVWSs) [2] to satellite communications [3–5]. According to the CR network, prin-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ cipal (licensed) users (PUs) have spectrum priority. In contrast, Secondary (unlicensed)
4.0/). Users (SUs), also known as cognitive users, make use of this spectrum in a way that does

Eng. Proc. 2023, 41, 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2023041007 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/engproc

Eng. Proc. 2023, 41, x 2 of 11
Eng. Proc. 2023, 41, 7 2 of 11

of this spectrum in a way that does not disrupt the typical operation of Licensed Primary
Users
not(PUs).
disruptSUs
theare also known
typical operation as of
cognitive users.
Licensed Primary In order for(PUs).
Users the SUSUsto are
be able
also to take as
known
advantage of the unused sector of the spectrum, it is necessary for it to have
cognitive users. In order for the SU to be able to take advantage of the unused sector of theCR capabili-
ties.spectrum,
These CRit capabilities
is necessaryallow thehave
for it to SU to CRcollect information
capabilities. These about its working
CR capabilities allowcondi-
the SU
tions and to information
to collect make autonomous
about itsadjustments to its radio
working conditions andparameters. Numerousadjustments
to make autonomous studies
haveto sought
its radiotoparameters.
define the “CR” and its
Numerous various
studies cognitive
have sought cycles since
to define theit“CR”
started
and[6,7]. Ex-
its various
isting wireless
cognitive systems
cycles sincecan improve
it started theirExisting
[6,7]. spectralwireless
efficiency in twocan
systems main ways: their spectral
improve
• efficiency in two amain
Implementing ways:for opportunistic spectrum access, commonly known as
strategy
• DSA.
Implementing a strategy for opportunistic spectrum access, commonly known as DSA.
• • Spectrum
Spectrum sharing,
sharing, which
which refers
refers to the
to the process
process of allowing
of allowing primary
primary user
user (PU)(PU)
andand
secondary
secondary user
user (SU)(SU) systems
systems to share
to share thethe spectrum
spectrum thatthat is currently
is currently available.
available.

Figure
Figure 1. The
1. The development
development of wireless
of wireless communication
communication andand related
related fields.
fields.

In addition, the most essential activities that are available in any of the hypothesized
In addition, the most essential activities that are available in any of the hypothesized
cognitive cycles are spectrum awareness, spectrum analysis, decision, and spectrum adap-
cognitive cycles are spectrum awareness, spectrum analysis, decision, and spectrum ad-
tation. These tasks need to be completed repeatedly until there is a full adaptation to the
aptation. These tasks need to be completed repeatedly until there is a full adaptation to
changed environmental state.
the changed environmental state.
The structure of this paper is as follows: Section 2 illustrates the spectrum sensing
The structure of this paper is as follows: Section II illustrates the spectrum sensing
strategy. Section 3 highlights the main practical imperfections that may arise in a practical
strategy. Section
CR system III highlights
cognitive the mainbased
radio network practical imperfections
on IoT. that4may
Then, Section arise the
presents in acognitive
prac-
ticalcapabilities
CR systemoperating
cognitiveinradio network based on IoT. Then, Section IV presents
combination with IoT communication technologies. Section the 5
cognitive capabilities
concludes the paper. operating in combination with IoT communication technologies.
Section V concludes the paper.
2. Spectrum Sensing Strategy
2. Spectrum Sensing
2.1. Spectrum Strategy
Sensing Technique
2.1. Spectrum Sensing Technique
Spectrum sensing’s fundamental purpose is to choose between two hypotheses:
• Spectrum
H0 : Thesensing’s
status offundamental
the channel purpose is to choose
is idle, which meansbetween two hypotheses:
it is available for opportunistic
• H0: usage
The status of the channel is idle, which means it is
secondary users (SUs) and means no licensed user signal is available forpresent
opportunistic
(PU):
usage secondary users (SUs) and means no licensed user signal is present (PU):
H 0 : Y ( n ) = N ( n ); (1)
𝐻 : 𝑌(𝑛) = 𝑁(𝑛); (1)
• H1 : The status of channel is busy, meaning a licensed user (PU) signal is active, leading
• H1: toThe
preventing
status ofSUs from occupying
channel the spectrum:
is busy, meaning a licensed user (PU) signal is active,
leading to preventing SUs from occupying the spectrum:
H1 : Y (n) = h X (n) + N (n). (2)
𝐻 : 𝑌(𝑛) = ℎ 𝑋(𝑛) + 𝑁(𝑛). (2)the
The SU received signal is denoted by Y(n), the PU broadcast signal by X(n), and
AWGN by N(n), 2 . The
The SUisreceived
indicatedsignal where AWGN
is denoted by Y(n),has
the aPU
mean of zerosignal
broadcast and a by
variance of σthe
X(n), and
channel
AWGN gain is denoted
is indicated by N(n),bywhere
h, samples
AWGN arehas
indexed
a meanfrom N where
1 toand
of zero n is anofinteger,
a variance 𝜎 . Theand
N
channel gain is denoted by h, samples are indexed from 1 to N where n is an integer, andthe
is the total number of samples. In order to choose between the two hypotheses,
N isdeciding
the totalthreshold
number value is oftenIn
of samples. compared
order to to a test statistic
choose betweenoftheY(n).
twoH1hypotheses,
is presumedthe to be
true and PU’s signal is considered active if the test statistic is larger than the threshold. On
 deciding threshold value is often compared to a test statistic of Y(n). H1 is p
Eng. Proc. 2023, 41, 7 true and PU’s signal is considered active if the test statistic is larger 3 of 11 than

On the other hand, the test statistic is below the threshold, H0 is considered
PU signal
the other can
hand, thebe
testnonexistent.
statistic is belowThe overarching
the threshold, paradigm
H0 is considered of and
valid, spectrum
the PU dete
in Figure
signal can be2.nonexistent. The overarching paradigm of spectrum detection is shown in
Figure 2.

Figure 2. Spectrum sensing model.

Figure 2. Spectrum sensing model.
Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curves are frequently utilized to evaluate
sensing accuracy. These curves represent the relationship between the possibility of a false
Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curves are frequently utiliz
alarm and the possibility of a missed detection [8,9]. To describe these probabilities, we
sensing
assume thataccuracy. Thesethat
Pd is the possibility curves
a reportrepresent the relationship
made by the unlicensed between
SU about the presence the p
false alarmPUand
of a licensed the
signal possibility of a missed detection [8,9]. To describe these
is present.
we assume that Pd is the possibility that a report made by the unlicensed
Pd = Prob[ H1 | H1 ]. (3)
presence of a licensed PU signal is present.
It is possible to protect primary receivers from interference if the probability of de-
tection is highly sufficient. As a result, having a 𝑃 high=P𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏[𝐻 |𝐻 ]. False alarm
d is very desirable.
probability (Pfa ) is the chance that the SU will report a PU signal when none actually exists.
It is possible to protectP primary receivers from interference if(4)the pro
f a = Prob [ H1 | H0 ].
tection is highly sufficient. As a result, having a high Pd is very desirabl
False alarms
probability (Preduce spectral efficiency because of the chances lost when the spectrum
fa) is the chance that the SU will report a PU signal when non
is not used. Moreover, this decline may have an unfavorable impact on QoS. As a result,
ists.
Pfa should be kept low to prevent the wasted potential of the spectrum. Miss detection
probability (Pm ) is the chance that a PU signal will be missed even when it is actually present.
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏[𝐻 |𝐻 ].
Pm = Prob[ H0 | H1 ]. (5)
False alarms reduce spectral efficiency because of the chances lost w
In the event of miss detection, SUs may transmit in the same band as main users (PUs),
trum is notinused.
which results severe Moreover, this
interference for PUs.decline
Thus, Pmmay have
should an unfavorable
be reduced so that licenseimpact
result, Pfa should be kept low to prevent the wasted potential of the spect
users are not interrupted.
tection probability
2.2. Machine Learning with(P m) is the
Spectrum chance that a PU signal will be missed even
Sensing
tually
CR present.
is an intelligent radio system with perception, learning, and reasoning [10]. Spec-
trum sensing lets the system perceive its radio surroundings. Classification and gener-
alization algorithms help the system learn from data. 𝑃 =The𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏[𝐻 |𝐻 ].
system uses knowledge and
reasoning to achieve its goals [10]. Spectrum sensing that is based on machine learning
(ML) isIn the
able event channels
to identify of missoccupied
detection, SUs radio
in cognitive maynetworks
transmit inthe
due to the same band
intelligent
architecture of the system [10,11]. This is accomplished by addressing categorization and
(PUs), which results in severe interference for PUs. Thus, Pm should be re
assessment. Figure 3 provides an illustration of the supervised and unsupervised machine
license users are
learning methods thatnot
haveinterrupted.
been developed. Energy statistics, probability vectors, and
temporal occupancy are just a couple of the features employed in machine learning models
for spectral
2.2. Machine sensing. The selected
Learning features may
with Spectrum obviously influence the efficiency with
Sensing
which primary users are identified.
• CR is without
Learning an intelligent
supervision radio system
is an option with
that could perception,
be practically learning,
viable for cognitive and r
Spectrum sensing
radio networks lets the
that operate system RF
in unknown perceive its radio surroundings. Clas
environments.
• In the case thatalgorithms
generalization cognitive radio
helpalready
the possesses
system previous
learn fromdata regarding
data. The the system
sur- us
roundings, it may make use of this information by employing the supervised learn-
anding
reasoning
technique. to achieve its goals [10]. Spectrum sensing that is based
learning (ML) is able to identify channels occupied in cognitive radio netwo
intelligent architecture of the system [10,11]. This is accomplished by addr
rization and assessment. Figure 3 provides an illustration of the supervis
pervised machine learning methods that have been developed. Energy sta
bility vectors, and temporal occupancy are just a couple of the features
machine learning models for spectral sensing. The selected features may
Eng. Proc. 2023, 41, x 4 of 11

Eng. Proc. 2023, 41, 7 • In the case that cognitive radio already possesses previous data regarding the4 sur-
of 11
roundings, it may make use of this information by employing the supervised
learning technique.

Figure 3. Machine learning for CR.

Figure 3. Machine learning for CR.
3. Cognitive Radio Network Based on IoT
3. Cognitive
The amount Radioof Network
connectedBased on IoT
hardware has increased because of the IoT’s many different
connectivity
The amount methods. This category
of connected hardware includes a wide because
has increased variety ofof electronic equipment,
the IoT’s many differ-
some examples of which are smartphones, smart home appliances,
ent connectivity methods. This category includes a wide variety of electronic equipment,and other forms of
smart equipment. These high-tech gadgets can communicate
some examples of which are smartphones, smart home appliances, and other forms ofwith one another, collect
information,
smart equipment. process it, and
These take appropriate
high-tech gadgets canaction. This identifies
communicate withtheoneinternet of things
another, collect
at the center of
information, both present
process and appropriate
it, and take future economics.
action.InThisaddition, thethe
identifies exponential
internet ofgrowth
things
of internet-of-things
at the devicesand
center of both present hasfuture
raisedeconomics.
competition In for a limited
addition, the spectrum.
exponentialIngrowth
terms of of
spectrum availability, cognitive radio looks like an achievable solution
internet-of-things devices has raised competition for a limited spectrum. In terms of that might sup-
port both existing
spectrum and emerging
availability, internet-of-things
cognitive radio looks like andevices.
achievable Thissolution
constitutes
thatanmight
extensive
sup-
understanding of how cognitive radio and the internet of things can work
port both existing and emerging internet-of-things devices. This constitutes an extensive together. The
Internet of Things (IoT) is able to be combined with cognitive radio
understanding of how cognitive radio and the internet of things can work together. The technology, and the
resulting
Internet of system
Thingsis (IoT)
referred to as
is able tothe
be Cognitive
combined Radio Internet of
with cognitive Things
radio (CRIoT).and
technology, CRIoT
the
will be used in many applications, including time-sensitive ones like technology
resulting system is referred to as the Cognitive Radio Internet of Things (CRIoT). CRIoT and intelli-
gent transportation.
will be used in manyThe combined including
applications, technologies must satisfyones
time-sensitive many network
like parameters,
technology and in-
including channel assignment delay, end-to-end latency, dependability,
telligent transportation. The combined technologies must satisfy many network energy efficiency,
param-
and high
eters, throughput.
including Adapting
channel to expanding
assignment delay, connectivity
end-to-end requires
latency, several communication
dependability, energy
standards and technologies. CR applications for Bluetooth, ZigBee, and Wi-Fi interior
efficiency, and high throughput. Adapting to expanding connectivity requires several
smart environments are among the many IoT applications and services. IoT networks
communication standards and technologies. CR applications for Bluetooth, ZigBee, and
must accomplish various tasks. In the Primary User’s presence, interference-free channels
Wi-Fi interior smart environments are among the many IoT applications and services. IoT
will be collected, and providing any IoT operating channel changes with continuous PU
networks must accomplish various tasks. In the Primary User’s presence, interfer-
monitoring. For many Internets of things gadgets, licensed spectrum access is regulated to
ence-free channels will be collected, and providing any IoT operating channel changes
reduce interference with core users [12].
with continuous PU monitoring. For many Internets of things gadgets, licensed spectrum
access
3.1. is regulated
Internet of ThingstoDefinition
reduce interference with core users [12].
Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of things connected to the Internet that can
3.1. Internet of Things Definition
communicate via various communication protocols. Sensors and communication modules
allowInternet of Things
these objects (IoT)with
to interact is a the
network of things
surroundings connected
[13–15]. to the
Pressure, Internethumidity,
proximity, that can
and temperature sensors are among those sensors. Nowadays, the IoT connects themod-
communicate via various communication protocols. Sensors and communication real
ules digital
and allow worlds.
these objects
Things towill
interact with
interact the
and surroundings
learn [13–15].
with IoT. The Pressure,
Internet proximity,
of Things is going
humidity,
to andaspect
affect every temperature sensors
of our lives, are among
connecting ourthose sensors.
televisions, Nowadays,smartphones,
automobiles, the IoT con-
nects the
utility real and
meters, digital
heart worlds.
monitors, Things will
thermostats, andinteract andeverything
virtually learn withelse
IoT.we
Thecan
Internet of
think of.
Things is
Several going to affect
technologies and every aspect
protocols, of our
such lives, connecting
as Wireless our televisions,
Sensor Networks, automo-
IPv6, IPv6 Low
power Wireless Personal Area Networks (6LoWPAN), Constrained Application Protocol
(CoAP), and Cognitive Radio, have contributed to the development of the IoT since its
conception at the end of the year of 1998 [16]. As a result of this shift, there are now more
 biles, smartphones, utility meters, heart monitors, thermostats, and virtually everything
else we can think of. Several technologies and protocols, such as Wireless Sensor Net-
works, IPv6, IPv6 Low power Wireless Personal Area Networks (6LoWPAN), Con-
Eng. Proc. 2023, 41, 7 5 of 11
strained Application Protocol (CoAP), and Cognitive Radio, have contributed to the de-
velopment of the IoT since its conception at the end of the year of 1998 [16]. As a result of
this shift, there are now more app-development environments available online, and more
app-development
compact, low-power environments available
devices, such as sensorsonline, and more on
and actuators, compact, low-power
the market. devices,
Limitations in
such as sensors and actuators, on the market. Limitations in size, cost, power,
size, cost, power, battery life, range, storage, processing, and data transfer are common battery life,
range, storage,
among processing,
IoT gadgets. and dataintransfer
Connectivity are common
IoT networks among high,
is typically IoT gadgets.
and theConnectivity
underlying
in IoT networks is typically high, and the underlying protocols are simple
protocols are simple [17]. The five layers of Figure 4 make up the IoT architecture [17]. The five
[18–20]:
layers of Figure 4 make up the IoT architecture [18–20]:
• The radio frequency identification (RFID) tags, sensors, actuators, etc., that make up
• the The physical
radio frequency
world are identification
represented(RFID)
by thetags, sensors, (or
Perception actuators, etc., that
Recognition) make
layer. Dataup
the physical world are represented by the Perception (or Recognition)
collection and transformation is the primary function. Some of them, like actuators, layer. Data
collection
take andsignal
a control transformation
and turn itisinto
the aprimary function.motion;
predetermined Some of them, like actuators,
take a control signal and turn it into a predetermined motion;
• The primary function of the transmission (or network) layer is to send or receive
• The primary function of the transmission (or network) layer is to send or receive
control signals between the middleware layer and the perception layer via various
control signals between the middleware layer and the perception layer via various
networking technologies;
networking technologies;
• The middleware is a software layer that processes the information it receives from
• The middleware is a software layer that processes the information it receives from the
the lower layers and makes decisions depending on the results;
lower layers and makes decisions depending on the results;
• The IoT applications can be found in the application layer. It then uses that infor-
• The IoT applications can be found in the application layer. It then uses that information
mation to tailor its service offering to the end user;
to tailor its service offering to the end user;
• As well as the information gathered at the transport layer, the business layer gives
• As well as the information gathered at the transport layer, the business layer gives
system administrators command over the entire IoT infrastructure. It creates nu-
system administrators command over the entire IoT infrastructure. It creates numerous
merous types of company plans.
types of company plans.

Five-layer IoT
Figure 4. Five-layer IoT architecture.
architecture.

It is
It is anticipated
anticipatedthat,
that,bybythe year
the 2025,
year Internet
2025, of Things
Internet networks
of Things would
networks include
would more
include
than 50 billion connected heterogeneous items. Some examples of these
more than 50 billion connected heterogeneous items. Some examples of these devices in- devices include
sensors,
clude surveillance
sensors, cameras,
surveillance kitchenkitchen
cameras, appliances, mobilemobile
appliances, phones,phones,
thermostats, utility
thermostats,
meters, and nearly anything else. The requirement for reliable wireless
utility meters, and nearly anything else. The requirement for reliable wireless commu- communication
will increase
nication will dramatically as a resultas
increase dramatically of athis expansion.
result A few examples
of this expansion. A fewofexamples
how the internet
of how
of things is already being integrated into day-to-day life include the smart grid, smart
the internet of things is already being integrated into day-to-day life include the smart
energy management, smart security, smart farming, smart transportation, smart housing,
grid, smart energy management, smart security, smart farming, smart transportation,
and smart cities [21,22]. A significant barrier is presented by the scarcity of the available
smart housing, and smart cities [21,22]. A significant barrier is presented by the scarcity
spectrum. In this study, we focus on this issue, which is a direct result of the proliferation
of the available spectrum. In this study, we focus on this issue, which is a direct result of
of IoT devices and the consequent convergence of the cognitive radio paradigm.
the proliferation of IoT devices and the consequent convergence of the cognitive radio
paradigm.
3.2. Cognitive Radio Network Technology for IoT
In recent years, researchers’ attention has largely been focused on the three fields,
communication, opportunistic, and sensing. However, IoT will not be capable of eval-
uating its capacity to deal with potentials of developing difficulties without extensive
cognitive capabilities [23]. It is currently clear that both intra- and inter-cognitive commu-
nication (INTRACC and INTERCC, respectively) are crucial for the Internet of things. In
INTRACC mode, cognitive objects share the same set of abilities, whereas in INTERCC
Eng. Proc. 2023, 41, 7 6 of 11

mode, they have a unique sets of skills. Cognitive radio-based IoT frameworks are being
researched. Future IoT items should think, learn, and recognize both social as well as
physical worlds [24,25]. These objects should feature observation action cycles, intelligent
decision making and knowledge discovery, enormous data analytics, and on-demand
service provisioning. Hence, IoT will require cognitive radio network integration. The
following causes necessitate it:
• Wireless methods will become increasingly important in the future for transmitting
data between sensors and cloud servers. According of their limited range, wire-
less solutions like Bluetooth and Zigbee have made way for the CRNs-based IoT
paradigm [23,25];
• The situation will increase because of the massive number of IoT objects and it will
be tough to provide bandwidth to such a large number of devices. Concurrently,
the growing population of licensed users will provide challenges for those who lack
proper authorization for this purpose. Bandwidth acquisition costs will also be expen-
sive. This encourages us to look outside the box for solutions, and CRNs might be
that resolution;
• Interference issues will arise when the number of IoT objects increases and they are
moved around. IoT objects utilizing a CRN can opportunistically seek out channels
with low interference to improve upon communication;
• Spectrum sharing is not possible with current wireless communication technolo-
gies. Spectrum sharing problems will be an issue for future cellular networks as
well. This advantage of cognitive radio technology bodes well for the future, when
more machines will compete for limited spectrum. However, the implementation of
spectrum-sharing areas should take into account regulatory, business, and technologi-
cal frameworks.

3.3. Reasons for Utilizing Cognitive Radio Network in the IoT

The deployment of IoT networks is difficult due to a number of challenges, including a
limited communication range, resource scarcity, interference problems, and Reconfigurabil-
ity. The application of cognitive radio has the potential to improve all of these challenges, as
well as others, including heterogeneity, reconfigurability, and automaticity. The utilization
of Cognitive Radio in the Internet of Things is probably driven by the requirement to
overcome these issues. It is difficult to allot frequency bands to the ever-increasing number
of Internet of Things devices because there is a limited amount of the spectrum available.
By enabling more frequency reuse, CR provides a solution to this challenge. The vast
majority of technologies that are a part of the internet of things, such as RFID and IEEE
802.15.4 (ZigBee), make use of the same oversubscribed ISM and UHF frequency bands.
This results in interference. Therefore, it is to be anticipated that interference will occur
when multiple devices use these frequencies.
CR solves this problem by allowing for interference-free spectrum access on demand.
Because of the restrictions placed on them by the ISM’s unlicensed bands, wireless tech-
nologies can only communicate over short distances. Buying licensing to access a frequency
spectrum that guarantees long-distance connectivity is expensive and unnecessary. With
CR, you do not have to spend money on a license, and you may take advantage of empty
frequencies to have long-distance conversations whenever you want. In order to store and
analyze the data they produce, IoT items must establish connections with one another and
send that data to a large number of servers (Cloud servers).
To fix this problem, CR is the best option. Many different approaches can be taken
to solving heterogeneity issues in IoT applications. To handle this diversity, new forms
of communication should be developed that allow for self-discovery, self-organization,
and self-management of their respective environments [26]. Among these paradigms,
CR is a viable option for dealing with heterogeneity problems. The flexibility to change
configurations and operate autonomously is another factor. In fact, it is anticipated that
smart things will be able to alter themselves automatically. This means that things should
 To fix this problem, CR is the best option. Many different approaches can be taken to
solving heterogeneity issues in IoT applications. To handle this diversity, new forms of
communication should be developed that allow for self-discovery, self-organization, and
self-management of their respective environments [26]. Among these paradigms, CR is a
viable option for dealing with heterogeneity problems. The flexibility to change config-
Eng. Proc. 2023, 41, 7 urations and operate autonomously is another factor. In fact, it is anticipated that smart7 of 11
things will be able to alter themselves automatically. This means that things should be
able to scan their surroundings, identify nearby companions, and reorganize themselves
accordingly.
be able to Inscan
thistheir
case,surroundings,
CR is shownidentify
to be an effective
nearby strategy. and
companions, When everything
reorganize is
themselves
considered, it is clear
accordingly. that case,
In this cognitive
CR isradio
shownholds
to great
be anpotential
effectiveasstrategy.
an IoT enabler.
When everything is
considered, it is clear that cognitive radio holds great potential as an IoT enabler.
3.4. IoT Applications and CR
3.4. IoT Applications and CR
As shown in Figure 5, the IoT will be implemented in every facet of society, from
As shown
private residences toin Figure
public 5, the IoT willfrom
infrastructures, be implemented
the academy in to every facet offrom
the hospital, society,
the from
factoryprivate
to theresidences to publicThe
local supermarket. infrastructures, from presents
internet of things the academy to the hospital,
unprecedented from the
possibil-
ities; factory
its full to the local and
influence supermarket.
potential The
willinternet
be seenofwhen
thingsmore
presents
andunprecedented possibilities;
more things become
online its in
fullthe
influence
future. and potential will
Applications be seen
in the whenfield,
medical more the
andmilitary,
more things becomera-
cognitive online
dio-vehicular ad hoc networks, emergency networks, smart grids, and smart metering ad
in the future. Applications in the medical field, the military, cognitive radio-vehicular
are allhoc networks,
possible usesemergency networks, smart
for this technology. All of grids,
these and smart metering
are examples are all applica-
of probable possible uses
for this technology. All of these are examples of probable applications
tions for CR technology inside the Internet of Things; however, there are currently only for CR technology
a
inside the Internet of Things; however, there are currently only a small
small number of studies in the literature that address these issues. The authors of [27–33] number of studies in
providethe anliterature
overview thatofaddress these issues.
IoT applications and The authors of [27–33]
demonstrate how CRprovide
can be an overview
used to solveof IoT
applications and demonstrate
some of the problems inherent to these programs.how CR can be used to solve some of the problems inherent
to these programs.

Figure 5. Challenge and issues for IoT in the monitoring environment.

Figure 5. Challenge and issues for IoT in the monitoring environment.
3.5. Problems and Challenges in Cognitive Radio Based on IoT
3.5. Problems and Challenges in Cognitive Radio Based on IoT
In order to fully benefit beyond what cognitive radio can provide IoT networks, some
In order to
unsolved fully benefit
research beyond
issues have what
to be cognitive
resolved. Manyradio can concerns
of these provide are
IoTaddressed
networks,in the
somenextunsolved research
section. issues have to be resolved. Many of these concerns are addressed
in the next section.
• Spectrum efficiency in the context of a network built on cognitive-radio-based internet-
• Spectrum efficiency
of-things nodes in the context
requires of a network
the optimization of abuilt on cognitive-radio-based
number of resources, includingin-
energy
ternet-of-things nodes requires the optimization of a number
efficiency, transmission power, latency, and data throughput. of resources, including
The authors of [34]
energy efficiency,an
formulated transmission
optimizationpower, latency,
problem and data throughput.
that considers transmissionThe authors
rate, of
transmission
power, and transmission delay in order to identify the best possible solution given
specific limitations. They used a polyhedral branch to obtain a solution. The results
demonstrate that transmission latency, power rate, and interference all rise in tandem
with network and packet size. There is much work to be carried out on the formulation
and solution of multi-objective optimization problems that take into account a wide
range of variables.
• Energy efficiency is a major issue that must be resolved in CR-based IoT networks. The
power consumption problem is exacerbated for energy-constrained nodes and battery-
powered devices when IoT items with cognitive radio capabilities perform additional
functions, primarily spectrum sensing. Energy harvesting as well as Cooperative Wire-
 tandem with network and packet size. There is much work to be carried out on the
formulation and solution of multi-objective optimization problems that take into
account a wide range of variables.
• Energy efficiency is a major issue that must be resolved in CR-based IoT networks.
The power consumption problem is exacerbated for energy-constrained nodes and
Eng. Proc. 2023, 41, 7 8 of 11
battery-powered devices when IoT items with cognitive radio capabilities perform
additional functions, primarily spectrum sensing. Energy harvesting as well as Co-
operative Wireless Networks are among the methods offered to address energy
less Networks
efficiency are among
challenges. the methods
The term “energyoffered to address
harvesting” refersenergy
to theefficiency
practice of challenges.
collect-
The
ing term
and “energy
storing harvesting”
energy refers toresources
from renewable the practicelikeof collecting
the sun and and storing
the wind forenergy
later
from renewable resources like the sun and the wind for later consumption
consumption [35]. When it comes to Green Computing and the practical use of the [35]. When
it comesoftothings,
internet Greenenergy
Computing and the
harvesting is practical use of as
often regarded theone
internet
of theofmost
things, energy
enabling
harvesting is often regarded as one of the most enabling and important
and important technologies. Using energy harvesting, the authors of [36] present a technologies.
Using energy
differential game harvesting,
model to the authors
handle of [36] present
the problem a differential
of resource allocationgame model to
in cognitive
handle the
wireless problem
sensor of resource
network (WSN). allocation in cognitive wireless sensor network (WSN).
•• Security is of paramountimportance
Security is of paramount importancein in CR-Based
CR-Based IoTIoT
networks, but itbut
networks, is also
it isa difficult
also a
undertaking as, because of the inherent heterogeneity of most IoT
difficult undertaking as, because of the inherent heterogeneity of most IoT products, products, each one
mustone
each conform to its own
must conform tostandardized security requirements.
its own standardized Not all heterogeneous
security requirements. Not all het-
networks can be successfully implemented using these guidelines.
erogeneous networks can be successfully implemented using these guidelines. Authentication,Au-
security assurance,
thentication, securityand intrusion
assurance, software
and intrusion aresoftware
just a few areofjust
theaprivacy andprivacy
few of the security
considerations
and that shouldthat
security considerations be made when
should developing
be made IoT systems
when developing [23].
IoT There[23].
systems have
been commendable attempts to address security concerns in several cognitive-radio-
There have been commendable attempts to address security concerns in several
enabled IoT applications, as illustrated in Figure 6.
cognitive-radio-enabled IoT applications, as illustrated in Figure 6.

Securityissues
Figure6.6.Security
Figure issuesinincognitive
cognitiveradio.
radio.

4. Cognitive Capabilities Operating in Combination IoT

4.Communication
Cognitive Capabilities Operating in Combination IoT Communication Technologies
Technologies
ItItisispredicted
predictedthat
thatadditional
additionalforms
formsofofcommunication
communicationtechnologies
technologieswill
willmake
makeitit
possible
possiblefor forIoT
IoTtotoincorporate
incorporatecognitive
cognitiveelements.
elements.This
Thisstudy
studydemonstrates
demonstrateswhy
whythese
these
reducing forms of communication are so crucial in the modern
reducing forms of communication are so crucial in the modern world. world.
•
• CR with Cloud Services: We predict that the “everything as a service” model, based
CR with Cloud Services: We predict that the “everything as a service” model, based
onon cloud-basedresource
cloud-based resourcesharing,
sharing,will
willbecome
becomethethecommon
commonpractice
practiceininthe
theworld
worldinin
the near future. With an internet connection, people will be able to use any
the near future. With an internet connection, people will be able to use any service service at
any time and from any location. Unfortunately, gaining access to these
at any time and from any location. Unfortunately, gaining access to these tools is tools is ex-
tremely
extremelydifficult. Service-based
difficult. Service-basedinfrastructure,
infrastructure, service-based platforms,and
service-based platforms, andservice-
ser-
vice-based software are the three primary service models in cloud computing.
based software are the three primary service models in cloud computing. Sensing as a
Sensing asalso
service is a service
advocatedis also advocated
in addition in addition
to these options. to
Duethese options.
to cloud Due to cloud
technology’s unique
technology’s
properties, communication, storage, setup, and management should bemanagement
unique properties, communication, storage, setup, and considered at
the network edge, close to end users. Cloud computing and CRN’s cognitive skills,
including dynamic spectrum access, can enable IoT services.
• CR with WSN: Recently, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have shown their value
in the real world. Because of their small size and low price, sensors have become
an invaluable tool for collecting data. Their incorporation into IoT frameworks has
been facilitated by the requirement for constant awareness everywhere. Spectrum
availability and interference continue to hinder the gathering of information from
these sensors in huge spatial deployments and domestic applications. In addition,
sensors with limited resources generate and transmit unprocessed data instead of vast
and valuable data streams. WSN data can be advantageous for localized applications,
but may not be optimal for the internet of things. Consequently, WSNs and CRNs offer
infrastructure-free, self-organized networks with intriguing IoT applications [37,38].
Eng. Proc. 2023, 41, 7 9 of 11

• CR with Wireless Sensor and Actuator Networks (WSANs): WSANs take action based
on environmental sensing. Their ad hoc nature results in minimal physical exertion
and, typically, a single task. The integration of WSANs in the IoT requires a broader
perspective. A significant obstacle is the timely and efficient transmission of actions to
actuators. Near-field communication (NFC) and RFID have been primarily adapted
for Wireless Sensor and Actuator Networks; however, a cognitive info communication
perspective is also being researched for inclusion in the IoT framework [39].
• CR with M2M and D2D Communication: The increasing number of devices has shifted
the focus from human-to-human (H2H) communication to machine-to-machine (M2M)
communication. Several devices, including mobile phones, laptops, and sensors, are
capable of exchanging data without human intervention. Machine-to-machine (M2M)
communication is crucial to the development of future internet of things frameworks
because of the significance of machine data. Increases in the number of connected
devices are becoming more common each year. Another difficulty is that the current
state of the internet does not allow for the efficient transport of massive amounts of data
from these devices. The vision centers on the incorporation of intelligence into these
devices, with the expectation that they will act independently to set up self-configuring
networks. Because of their vulnerability to interference, the conventional wireless
methods proposed for M2M communication have been largely abandoned [40]. The
integration of CRNs is also necessary for the efficient sharing of network resources
between M2M and conventional H2H communications. D2D communication, on the
other hand, can be utilized with CRNs to facilitate the internet of things because it
enables devices to interact directly with one another without the need for a relay node.

5. Conclusions
There is a rising demand for IoT devices that are both intelligent and CRN-enabled
in order to monitor surrounding radio environments, assess available frequencies, and
determine when and where to transmit. As a result of this requirement, there has been a
great deal of effort to create CR-based IoT systems as the standard paradigm for intelligent
IoT systems by making use of CR’s cognitive capacities. This study has supplied the current
frameworks of CR-based IoT systems, investigated the most recent SS and spectrum sharing
methodologies, and emphasized the benefits and drawbacks of each. This research has also
investigated the advantages of incorporating various new technologies, such ML methods,
into CR-based IoT setups. Lastly, several obstacles, future research areas, and outstanding
issues in development of CR-based IoT systems have been addressed and highlighted by
this work.

Author Contributions: The authors of this paper worked together to construct it. The idea and
framework for the article process were proposed by O.A.-D., A.A.-D. and M.A.-D.; O.A.-D. and
A.A.-D. were responsible for the literature search, data extraction, data analysis and manuscript
writing; M.O.A. and M.A.-D. did a thorough literature search, analyzed the data, and edited the early
proposal. O.A.-D. gathered the information, prepared the article, and analyzed and organized the
data. The paper was proofread by all authors. Each contributor has reviewed the final manuscript and
given their approval. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Polytechnic University of Bucharest [PUB Art] grant number
[HG 37/19.6.2019] and the APC was funded by [PUB Art].
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Eng. Proc. 2023, 41, 7 10 of 11

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