29.09.

2014

Lecturer: Assosciate Prof. Mehmet Dal

Editor: Assist .Prof. Sibel ÇİMEN

Electronics and Communication Engineering
University of Kocaeli

Course Book :
• Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, by Charles K. Alexander
and Matthew N. O. Sadiku, McGraw Hill; 5rd edition
(2007)

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Reference Books:
1) Electric Circuits, by James W. Nilsson and Susan Riedel,
Prentice Hall; 8th edition (2007)

2) Schaum's Outline of Electric Circuits, by Mahmood

Nahvi and Joseph Edminister, McGraw‐Hill; 4th edition
(2002)

3) Introduction to Electric Circuits, by Richard C. Dorf and

James A. Svoboda, Wiley, 7th edition (2006)

4) Schaum's Outline of Basic Circuit Analysis, by John

O'Malley and John O'Malley, McGraw‐Hill; 2nd edition
(1992)

Course Outline
1) Second Order DC Circuits (Fund. of Electric Circuits, CH 8)

2) Sinusoids and Phasors (Fund. of Electric Circuits, CH 9)

3) Sinusoidal Steady‐State Analysis (Fund. of Electric Circuits,

CH 10)

4) AC Power Analysis (Fund. of Electric Circuits, CH 11)

5) Frequency Response (Fund. of Electric Circuits, CH 14)

6) Laplace Transform (Fund. of Electric Circuits, CH 15

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Overview
• The previous chapter introduced the concept of first order
circuits.
• This chapter will expand on that with second order circuits:
those that need a second order differential equation.
• RLC series and parallel circuits will be discussed in this
context.
• The step response of these circuits will be covered as well.
• Finally the concept of duality will be discussed.

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*
* This chapter will cover alternating current.
* A discussion of complex numbers is included prior
to introducing phasors.
* Applications of phasors and frequency domain
analysis for circuits including resistors,
capacitors, and inductors will be covered.
* The concept of impedance and admittance is also
introduced.

*
* Alternating Current, or AC, is the dominant
form of electrical power that is delivered to
homes and industry.
* In the late 1800’s there was a battle between
proponents of DC and AC.
* AC won out due to its efficiency for long
distance transmission.
* AC is a sinusoidal current, meaning the current
reverses at regular times and has alternating
positive and negative values.

*
* Sinusoids are interesting to us because there
are a number of natural phenomenon that are
sinusoidal in nature.
* It is also a very easy signal to generate and
transmit.
* Also, through Fourier analysis, any practical
periodic function can be made by adding
sinusoids.
* Lastly, they are very easy to handle
mathematically.

*
❖A sinusoids is signal that has the form of the
sine or cosine function.

❖Consider the sinusoidal voltage.

as a function of ωt

❖ Sinusoids repeat itself

every T seconds.

❖ T is called the period of

sinusoids.

as a function of t
İf write t+T instead of t
➢ The frequency f of the sinusoids
➢ Consider a more general expression for the sinusoids.

Phase (in radian or degrees)

➢ Let us consider two sinusoids.

❖ İn this case, 𝑣1 lags 𝑣2 by 𝝋

❖ İf 𝝋 ≠ 0, 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are out

of phase

❖ İf 𝝋 = 0, 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are in
phase
➢ A sinusoids can be expressed either in sine or cosine
function.

➢ We can transform a sinusoids from sine to cosine or

vice versa.
➢ The graphical technique can be also used to add two
sinusoids of the same frequency.
➢ For example;
?

-4
5

+53.10
cos 𝜔𝑡
+3

sin 𝜔𝑡
Calculate the phase angel between 𝑣1 = −10 cosሺ𝜔𝑡 +
500 ሻ and 𝑣2 = 12sinሺ𝜔𝑡 − 100 ሻ. State which sinusoid is
leading.

Solution:
❖A phasor is a complex number that represents the
amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.

❖Before we completely define phasors and apply them to

circuit analysis, we need to be thoroughly familiar with
complex numbers,

❖A complex number z can be written in rectangular form as;

Real part imaginary part

❖The complex number z can be written in polar or
exponential form as;

magnitude phase

❖z can be expressed in three forms;

❖Relationship between polar and rectangular form;
❖Following operations are important;
The idea of a phasor representation is based on Euler’s
identity:

Real imaginary part

part

As such, the transformation between time domain to phasor domain is:

Time-domain represantaion

Phasor-domain represantaion
 Sinusoid-Phasor Transformations

Time-domain represantaion Phasor-domain represantaion

Difference Between 𝒗 𝒕 and V
Solution:
Solution:
❖ Here is an important use of phasors for summing
sinusoids of the same frequency.

❖Current 𝑖1 ሺ𝑡ሻ is in standart form. Its phasor is;

❖ we need to express 𝑖2 ሺ𝑡ሻ in cosine form. The rule for converting
sine to cosine is to substract 900 .

❖ if we let 𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 , then
 10/7/2012

Background

As v cos(t + + 2) = v cos(t + ), restrict – <  ≤ 

Engineers throw an interesting twist into this

formulation
o The frequency term t has units of radians
o The phase shift  has units of degrees: –180° <  ≤ 180°

Background

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Background
A positive phase shift causes the function to lead of 
For example, –sin(t) = cos(t + 90°) leads cos(t) by 90°
1
cos(t)
sin(t)

0.5

+90°
-0.5

-1
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
time(t)

Compare cos(t) and cos(t + 45°)

Background
If the phase shift is 180°, the functions are out of phase
E.g., –cos(t) = cos(t – 180°) and cos(t) are out of phase
1
cos(t)
sin(t)

0.5

‐180°
-0.5

-1
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
time(t)

Compare cos(t) and cos(t – 180°)

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Why we use Phasors?

Solutions Using Transforms

Real, or time
Problem Solution
domain

Complicated and difficult

Transform solution process

Inverse
Transform

Transformed Transformed
Transformed Transformed Complex or
Problem Relatively simple Solution
Problem Solution transform domain
solution process, but
using complex numbers

Phasors
The idea of phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity.
In general,

we use this relation to express v(t). If v(t) defines as;

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Phasors
• If we use sine for the phasor instead of cosine,

• then v(t) = Vm sin (ωt + φ) = Im (Vm j(ωt + φ) )

• and the corresponding phasor is the same as that

Phasors
• Differentiating a sinusoid:

This shows that the derivative v(t) is transformed to the phasor domain
as jωV

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Phasors
• Integrating a sinusoid

• Similarly, the integral of v(t) is equivalent to dividing its corresponding

phasor by jω.

Find the sinusoids represent by phasors.

Solution:

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Converting this to time domain gives

in time domain

Using the phasor approach, determine the curret i(t) in a

circuit described by the integrodiffential equation.

Solution:

We transform each term in the equation from time domain

to phasor domain.

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İn time domain

İn phasor domain

ω=2 so;

İn time domain

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 Begin with the resistor;

 İf the current trough a resistor R is

 With Ohm’s law voltage acrosss R;

 The phasor form of this voltage;

 İf the phasor form of current;

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 For inductor L;

 The current trough L is

 The voltage acrosss L;

Transform to the phasor

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 For capacitor C;

 The voltage across C is

 The current trough C is

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Solution:

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 İf Z=R+jX inductive

İf Z=R‐jX capasitive

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Example 2.9.

Solution:

İn phasor form
1

Example 2.9.

İn phasor the circuit comes….

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Example 2.9.

The voltage across the capacitor is…

2.6. The Kirchhoff Law in Frequency Domain

 For KVL, let ࢜૚ , ࢜૛ ,…, ࢜࢔ be the voltages around a closed

loop.

 In the sinusoidal steady‐state, each voltage may be written in

cosine form.

 This can be written as

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2.6. The Kirchhoff Law in Frequency Domain

 or

2.6. The Kirchhoff Law in Frequency Domain

 İf we let ࢏૚ , ࢏૛ ,…, ࢏࢔ be the current leaving or entering a

closed surfaced in a network at time t,

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2.6. İmpedance Combinations

 Applying KVL around the loop gives,

 The eqivalent impedance at the

input terminals is;

2.6. İmpedance Combinations

 İf N=2;

 The current trough the impedance

Voltage division relationship

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2.6. İmpedance Combinations

 Applying KCL at the top node;

 The eqivalent impedance is;

 The eqivalent admitans is;

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2.6. İmpedance Combinations

 İf N=2;

 Eqivalent impedance is;

 Also;

 The current in the impedances;

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current division
relationship

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2.6. İmpedance Combinations

 Delta‐to‐wye or wye‐to‐delta transformations can be applied…

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2.6. İmpedance Combinations

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Example 2.10.
Find the input impedance of the
circuit in Fig. Assume that the circuit
at ࣓=50 rad/s.

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Example 2.10.

ࢆ૚

ࢆ૜
ࢆ૛

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Example 2.11.

Solution:
 First we must transform time‐domain circuit to the phasor
domain.

15

Example 2.11.

16

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Example 2.11.

ࢆ૚

ࢆ૛

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Example 2.12.

Solution:

 The delta network

connected to nodes a,b
and c can be converted
to the Y network.
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Example 2.12.

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Example 2.12.

20

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3.4. Superposition Theorem

 Since AC circuits are linear, the superposition theorem
applies to AC circuits the same way it applies to dc circuits.

 The theorem becomes important if the circuit has sources

operating different frequencies.

 In this case, we must have a different frequency-domain

circuits for each frequency.

 The total response must be obtained by adding the

individual responses in the time domain.

 İts incorrect to try to add the responses in the phasor or

frequency domain.

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Example 3.7.
Use the superposition theorem
to find ‫ܫ‬଴ in the circuit.

Solution:
For two sources

Example 3.7.
When current source is closed the
circuit…

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Example 3.7.

Example 3.7.

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Total response;

Example 3.8.
Fin ݅଴ in the circuit shown in
Fig using superposisiton.

Solution:

dc ac source
source

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Example 3.8.

Example 3.8.

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Example 3.9.

 The circuit operates at three different

frequencies

 For this reason superposition the best way.

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Example 3.9.

12

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Example 3.9.

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Example 3.9.
To find ‫ݒ‬ଶ we set zero both 5-V soruce and the 2sin5t
current source.

Transform the circuit to the frequency domain.

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Example 3.9.
Z

15

Example 3.9.
To obtain ‫ݒ‬ଷ we set the voltage sources zero

Transform what is left to the frequency domain.

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Example 3.9.

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Example 3.9.

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3.5. Source
Transformation

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3.5. Source Transformation

Source transformation in the frequency domain involves
transforming a voltage source in series with an
impedance to a current source in parallel with an
impedance, or vice versa.

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Example 3.10.
Calculate ܸ௫ in the circuit of Fig. using the method of
source transformation.

Solution:
We transform the voltage source to a current source
obtain the circuit in Fig.

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Example 3.10.

ࢆ૚

22

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Example 3.10.

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Example 3.11.
Use the method of
source
transformation to
find ‫ܫ‬௫ in the circuit
of Fig.

Solution:

24

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Example 3.11.

ࢆ࢙

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Example 3.11.

ܼ଴

26

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Example 3.11.

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3.6. THEVENIN AND

NORTON EQUIVALENT
CIRCUITS

3.6. Thevenin and Norton Equivalent

Circuits
 Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems are applied to ac
circuits in the same way as they are to dc circuits.

 The only additional effort aries from the need to

manipulate complex numbers.

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3.6. Thevenin and Norton Equivalent

Circuits

Solution:
We find by setting the voltage source to zero.

3.6. Thevenin and Norton Equivalent

Circuits
Finding ;

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3.6. Thevenin and Norton Equivalent

Circuits
Finding ;

Example 3.12.

Find the Thevenin

equivalent of the circuit in
Fig as seen from
terminals a-b.

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Example 3.12.
Solution:

Example 3.12.

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Example 3.12.
• To obtain , we remove
the independent source.

• Due to the presence of the

dependent current source,
we connect a 3-A current
source nodeto terminals a-b
as shown in Fig.
• At the node, KCL gives
• 3 is an arbitrary value chosen
for convenience here, a
number divisible by the sum
of currents leaving.
• Applying KVL to the outer loop in Fig.
gives

Example 3.12.

• The Thevenin impedance is

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PRACTICE PROBLEM
• Determine the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig. as
seen from the terminals a-b.

• Answer:

Example 3.13.
• Obtain current in Fig. using Norton’s theorem.

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Solution 3.13:
• Our first objective is to find the Norton
equivalent at terminals a-b.

• is found in the same way as .

• We set the sources to zero as shown in Fig.

• As evident from the figure, the (8 − j2) and

(10 + j4) impedances are short-circuited, so
that

Solution 3.13:
• To get , we short-circuit
terminals a-b as in Fig. And apply
mesh analysis.

• Notice that meshes 2 and 3 form a

supermesh because of the current
source linking them. For mesh 1,

For the supermesh,

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Solution 3.13:
• At node a, due to the current
source between meshes 2 and 3,

• From these equations;

• The Norton current is;

Solution 3.13: a

• Figure shows the Norton

equivalent circuit along with the
impedance at terminals a-b. By
current division,
b

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PRACTICE PROBLEM
• Determine the Norton equivalent of the circuit in Fig. as
seen from terminals a-b. Use the equivalent to find .

• Answer:

3.7. Op-Amp AC Circuits

• The three steps stated in Section 10.1 also apply to op
amp circuits, as long as the op amp is operating in the
linear region.
• As usual, we will assume ideal op amps. (See Section
5.2.) As discussed in Chapter 5, the key to analyzing op
amp circuits is to keep two important properties of an
ideal op amp in mind:

• 1. No current enters either of its input terminals.

• 2. The voltage across its input terminals is zero.

• The following examples will illustrate these ideas.

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Example 3.11:
• Determine (t) for the op
amp circuit in Fig. if
3 1000 V.

• Solution:
• We first transform the circuit
to the frequency domain.

Solution 3.11:

• Applying KCL at node 1, we

obtain;

• At node 2, KCL gives;

• From these equations;

• Hence;

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PRACTICE PROBLEM
• Find and in the op amp circuit of Fig. Let
2 5000 V.

• Answer:

Example 3.12:
• Compute the closed-loop gain
and phase shift for the circuit in
Fig. Assume that R1 = R2 = 10
k, C1 = 2 μF, C2 = 1 μF, and ω
=200 rad/s.

• Solution:
The feedback and input impedances are calculated as

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Solution 3.12:
• Since the circuit in Fig. is an
inverting amplifier, the closed-
loop gain is given by

Substituting the given values of R1, R2, C1, C2, and ω, we obtain

Thus the closed-loop gain is 0.434 and the phase shift is

. °.

3.9 APPLICATIONS
• The concepts learned in this chapter will be applied in
later chapters to calculate electric power and determine
frequency response.

• The concepts are also used in analyzing coupled circuits,

three-phase circuits, ac transistor circuits, filters,
oscillators, and other ac circuits.

• In this section, we apply the concepts to develop two

practical ac circuits: the capacitance multiplier and the
sine wave oscillators.

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3.9.1.Capacitance Multiplier

• The op amp circuit in Fig. 10.41 is known as a capacitance

multiplier, for reasons that will become obvious. Such a circuit is
used in integrated circuit technology to produce a multiple of a
small physical capacitance C when a large capacitance is
needed.
• The circuit in Fig. 10.41 can be used to multiply capacitance
values by a factor up to 1000. For example, a 10-pF capacitor
can be made to behave like a 100-nF capacitor.

3.9.1.Capacitance Multiplier
• In Fig. 10.41, the first op amp
operates as a voltage follower,
while the second one is an
inverting amplifier.

• The voltage follower isolates the

capacitance formed by the circuit
from the loading imposed by the
inverting amplifier.

• Since no current enters the input

terminals of the op amp, the
input current flows through the
feedback capacitor.

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• Hence, at node 1,

• Applying KCL at node 2 gives,

• From these equations,

• The input impedance is

Example 3.13:
• Calculate in Fig. 10.41 when
R1 = 10 k,R2 = 1M, and C =1nF.

• Solution:

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3.9.2. Oscillators
• We know that dc is produced by batteries. But how do
we produce ac?
• One way is using oscillators, which are circuits that
convert dc to ac.
• An oscillator is a circuit that produces an ac
waveform as output when powered by a dc input.
• The only external source an oscillator needs is the dc
power supply. Ironically, the dc power supply is usually
obtained by converting the ac supplied by the electric
utility company to dc. Having gone through the trouble of
conversion, one may wonder why we need to use the
oscillator to convert the dc to ac again.

• The problem is that the ac supplied by the utility company

operates at a preset frequency of 60 Hz in the United
States (50 Hz in some other nations), whereas many
applications such as electronic circuits, communication
systems, and microwave devices require internally
generated frequencies that range from 0 to 10 GHz or
higher.

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• Oscillators are used for generating these frequencies. In

order for sine wave oscillators to sustain oscillations, they
must meet the Barkhausen criteria:

1. The overall gain of the oscillator must be unity or

greater. Therefore, losses must be compensated for by
an amplifying device.

2. The overall phase shift (from input to output and back to

the input) must be zero.

• Three common types of sine wave oscillators are phase-

shift, twin T , and Wien-bridge oscillators. Here we
consider only the Wien-bridge oscillator.

• The Wien-bridge oscillator is

widely used for generating
sinusoids in the frequency range
below 1 MHz.

• It is an RC op amp circuit with only

a few components, easily tunable
and easy to design.

• As shown in Fig. 10.42, the

oscillator essentially consists of a
noninverting amplifier with two
feedback paths: the positive
feedback path to the noninverting
input creates oscillations, while the
negative feedback path to the
inverting input controls the gain.

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• If we define the impedances of

the RC series and parallel
combinations as Zs and Zp,
then

• The feedback ratio is

With Zs and Zp, (1)

• To satisfy the second Barkhausen criterion, must be in

phase with , which implies that the ratio in Eq. (1) must
be purely real.
• Hence, the imaginary part must be zero. Setting the
imaginary part equal to zero gives the oscillation
frequency as

• In most practical applications, R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 =

C, so that

(2) (3)

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• Substituting Eq. (2) and R1 = R2 = R, C1 = C2 = C into

Eq. (1) yields

• Thus in order to satisfy the first Barkhausen criterion, the

op amp must compensate by providing a gain of 3 or
greater so that the overall gain is at least 1 or unity. We
recall that for a noninverting amplifier,

• Due to the inherent delay caused by the op amp,Wien-

bridge oscillators are limited to operating in the frequency
range of 1 MHz or less.

Example 3.14:
• Design a Wien-bridge circuit to oscillate at 100 kHz.

• Solution:
• Using Eq. (3), we obtain the time constant of the circuit as

• If we select R = 10 kΩ, then we can select C = 159 pF.

• Since the gain must be 3, Rf /Rg = 2. We could select

Rf = 20 k Ω while Rg = 10 k Ω.

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Summary
1. We apply nodal and mesh analysis to ac circuits by applying
KCL and KVL to the phasor form of the circuits.

2. In solving for the steady-state response of a circuit that has

independent sources with different frequencies, each
independent source must be considered separately. The
most natural approach to analyzing such circuits is to apply
the superposition theorem. A separate phasor circuit for each
frequency must be solved independently, and the
corresponding response should be obtained in the time
domain. The overall response is the sum of the time-domain
responses of all the individual phasor circuits.

3. The concept of source transformation is also applicable in

the frequency domain.

Summary
4. The Thevenin equivalent of an ac circuit consists of a voltage
source in series with the Thevenin impedance .

5. The Norton equivalent of an ac circuit consists of a current

source in parallel with the Norton impedance (= ).

6. PSpice is a simple and powerful tool for solving ac circuit

problems. It relieves us of the tedious task of working with
the complex numbers involved in steady-state analysis.

7. The capacitance multiplier and the ac oscillator provide two

typical applications for the concepts presented in this
chapter. A capacitance multiplier is an op amp circuit used in
producing a multiple of a physical capacitance. An oscillator
is a device that uses a dc input to generate an ac output.

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9.1. INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER

 The instantaneous power is the power at any instant of

time. It is the rate at which an element absorbs energy.

 Let the voltage and current at the terminals of the circuit

be;

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9.1. INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER

 are the amplitudes (or peak) values, and
are the phase angles of the voltage and current.

 The instantantaneous power absorbed by the circuit is;

9.1. INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER

 This shows us that the instantaneous power has two parts.

 The first part is constant or time independent. İts value

depends on the phase on difference between the voltage
and the current.

 The second part is a sinusoidal function whose frequency

is 2ω, which is twice the angular frequency of the voltage
or current.

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9.1. INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER

 In figure; 2 / is the period of voltage or current.

 p(t) is periodic. and has a period of

 We also observe that p(t) is positive for some part of each cycle and negative
for the rest of cycle

 When p(t) is positive, power is absorbed by the circuit.

 When p(t) is negative power is absorbed by the source; thar is power is

transferred from the circuit to the source. This is possible because of the
storage elements in the circuit.

9.1. INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER

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9.1. INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER

9.1. INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER

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9.1. INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER

Example 9.1:
For given voltage and current, find the intantaneous power
and the average power absorbed by the passive linear
network.

Solution:

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Example 9.1:

Example 9.2:

Solution:

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Example 9.3:
For the circuit in Figure find the average
power supplied by the source and the
average power absorbed by the resistor.

Solution:

Example 9.3:

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Example 9.4:
Determine the power generated by
each source and the average power
absorbed by each passive element in
the circuit of figure.

Solution:

Example 9.4:

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This average power absorbed by the source, in view of the direction and
the polarity of the voltage source. That is the circuit delivering average
power to the voltage source.

Example 9.4:

9
 25.11.2013

Example 9.4:

9.2. Maximum Average Power Transfer

10
 25.11.2013

9.2. Maximum Average Power Transfer

Our objective is to adjust the load parameters and so

that P is maximum.

For maximum average power transfer, must be selected

so that and

9.2. Maximum Average Power Transfer

In a situation in whcih the load is purely real, the condition for the
maximum power transfer is obtained by setting, 0.

11
 25.11.2013

Example 9.5:
Determine the load impedance that
maximizes the average power drawn
from the circuit of Figure. What is the
maximum average power?

Solution:

Example 9.5:

12
 25.11.2013

Example 9.6:

Solution:

Example 9.6:

13
 11/25/2012

Part II.

4.3. Effective or RMS Value

The average power absorbed by the resistor in the

ac circuit is;

The power absorbed by the resistor in the dc circuit

is

1
 11/25/2012

4.3. Effective or RMS Value

Equating these equations;

The effective value of the

voltage is found in the same
way as current;
This indicates that the effective value is the (square) root of the mean (or
average) of the square of the periodic signal. Thus, the effective value is
often known as the root-mean-square value, or rms value for short; and
we write

4.3. Effective or RMS Value

To find rms value of x(t), we first find its square and
then find the mean of that.

2
 11/25/2012

4.3. Effective or RMS Value

 The average power can be written in terms of the rms values;

 Similarly, the average power by a resistor R in;

Example 4.7.
Determine the rms value of the current waveform
in figure. If the current is passed through a 2 Ω
resistor, find the average power absorbed by the
resistor.

Solution:

3
 11/25/2012

Example 4.7.

Example 4.8.
The waveform shown in figure is a half-wave
rectified sine wave. Find the rms value and the
amount of average power dissipated in a 10Ω
resistor.

Solution:

4
 11/25/2012

Example 4.8.

Example 4.8.

5
 11/25/2012

4.4. Apparent Power and Power Factor

İf the voltage and current at the terminals of a circuit
are;

4.4. Apparent Power and Power Factor

The power factor is;

The power factor angle;

6
 11/25/2012

4.4. Apparent Power and Power Factor

 The value of pf ranges between zero to unity.

 For a purely resistive load, the voltage and current are in phase, so
that 0 and pf=1. This implies that apparent power is equal
to the average power.

 For a purely reactive load, 90 and pf=0.

 In this case the average power is zero.

 In between these two extreme cases pf is said to be leading or

lagging.

 Leading power factor means that current leads voltage, which

implies a capacitive load.

 Lagging power factor means that current lags voltage, implying an

inductive current.

Example 4.9.

Solution:

7
 11/25/2012

Example 4.9.

Example 4.10.
Determine the power factor of
the entire circuit of Figure as
seen by the source. Calculate
the average power delivered by
the source.
Solution:

8
 11/25/2012

Example 4.10.

9
 01.12.2014

Part III.

9.6. COMPLEX POWER

 Considerable effort has been expended over the years to express
power relations as simply as possible.
 Power engineers have coined the term of complex power, which
they use to find the total effect of parallel loads.
 Complex power is important in power analysis because it contains all
the information pertaining to the power absorbed by given load.

The complex power S absorbed by the ac load is product

of the voltage and the complex conjugate of current,

1
 01.12.2014

9.6. COMPLEX POWER

9.6. COMPLEX POWER

2
 01.12.2014

9.6. COMPLEX POWER

Notice that;

İşe yaramayan ancak kaynaktan çekilen kör güçtür Diğer bir ifadeyle, endüktif yüklü
devrelerde, manyetik devrenin uyartımı için gereken güçtür .Bu güç endüktif yük
üzerinde harcanmaz, sadece depo edilir ve tekrar kaynağa gönderilir Dolayısıyla,
kaynakla endüktif yük arasında sürekli olarak reaktif güç alışverişi yapılır Bu durum
ise, sistemdeki iletkenlerden geçen akımın artmasına sebep olur.

9.6. COMPLEX POWER

3
 01.12.2014

9.6. COMPLEX POWER

Example 4.11.

Solution:

4
 01.12.2014

Example 4.11.

Example 4.11.

5
 01.12.2014

Example 4.12.

Solution:

Example 4.12.

6
 01.12.2014

Example 4.12.

9.7. CONSERVATION OF AC POWER

7
 01.12.2014

9.7. CONSERVATION OF AC POWER

Example 4.13.
Figure shows a load being fed by a voltage source through a transmission
line. The impedance of the line is presented by the ( 4 2 Ω impedance
and the return path. Find the real power and reactive power absorbed by:
(a) the source, (b) the line, and (c) the load.

Solution:

8
01.12.2014

9
 01.12.2014

9.8. POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

10
 01.12.2014

9.8. POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

9.8. POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

İf we desire to increase the power factor

from cos to cos without altering the real
power, then the new reactive power is;

The reduction in reactive power is caused by

the shunt capacitor;

11
 01.12.2014

9.8. POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Example 4.14.

Solution:

12
 01.12.2014

Example 4.14.

13
 12/3/2014

FREQUENCY RESPONSE

Part 1.
05.12.2011

5.1. INTRODUCTıON

1
 12/3/2014

5.2. TRANSFER FUNCTıON

5.2. TRANSFER FUNCTıON

 Since the input and output can be either voltage or current at any
place in the circuit, there are four possible transfer functions;

2
 12/3/2014

5.2. TRANSFER FUNCTıON

 The transfer function H(ω) can be expressed in terms of its

numerator polynomial N(ω) and denominator polynomial D(ω) as;

EXAMPLE 5.1.

Solution:

3
 12/3/2014

EXAMPLE 5.1.

EXAMPLE 5.2.

Solution:

4
 12/3/2014

EXAMPLE 5.2.

5.3. THE DECIBEL SCALE

5
 12/3/2014

5.3. THE DECIBEL SCALE

5.3. THE DECIBEL SCALE

6
 12/3/2014

5.3. THE DECIBEL SCALE

5.3. THE DECIBEL SCALE

7
 12/3/2014

5.3. THE DECIBEL SCALE

5.3. THE DECIBEL SCALE

8
 12/3/2014

5.3. THE DECIBEL SCALE

5.3. THE DECIBEL SCALE

9
 12/3/2014

5.3. THE DECIBEL SCALE

5.3. THE DECIBEL SCALE

10
 12/3/2014

5.3. THE DECIBEL SCALE

5.3. THE DECIBEL SCALE

11
 12/3/2014

5.3. THE DECIBEL SCALE

5.4. BODE PLOTS

12
 12/3/2014

5.4. BODE PLOTS

5.4. BODE PLOTS

13
 12/3/2014

5.4. BODE PLOTS

14
 09.12.2013

5.4. BODE PLOTS

5.4. BODE PLOTS

1
 09.12.2013

5.4. BODE PLOTS

5.4. BODE PLOTS

2
 09.12.2013

EXAMPLE 5.3.

Solution:

1
20
1
20

EXAMPLE 5.3.

3
 09.12.2013

EXAMPLE 5.3.

EXAMPLE 5.3.

4
 09.12.2013

EXAMPLE 5.4.

Solution:

1
10
1
25

EXAMPLE 5.4.

5
 09.12.2013

EXAMPLE 5.4.

EXAMPLE 5.5.

Solution:

6
 09.12.2013

EXAMPLE 5.5.

EXAMPLE 5.5.

7
 09.12.2013

EXAMPLE 5.6.

Solution:

8
 09.12.2013

5.5. SERIES RESONANCE

9
 09.12.2013

5.5. SERIES RESONANCE

5.5. SERIES RESONANCE

10
 09.12.2013

5.5. SERIES RESONANCE

5.5. SERIES RESONANCE

11
 09.12.2013

5.5. SERIES RESONANCE

5.5. SERIES RESONANCE

12
 09.12.2013

EXAMPLE 5.7.

Solution:

EXAMPLE 5.7.

13
 09.12.2013

EXAMPLE 5.7.

EXAMPLE 5.7.

14
 09.12.2013

5.6. PARALLEL RESONANCE

5.6. PARALLEL RESONANCE

15
 09.12.2013

5.6. PARALLEL RESONANCE

EXAMPLE 5.8.

Solution:

16
09.12.2013

17
 10.12.2013

5.6. PARALLEL RESONANCE

5.6. PARALLEL RESONANCE

1
 10.12.2013

5.6. PARALLEL RESONANCE

EXAMPLE 5.8.

Solution:

2
 10.12.2013

5.7. PASIF FıLTERS

3
 10.12.2013

5.7. PASIF FıLTERS

1) Low Pass Filters 2) High Pass Filters

3) Band Pass Filters 4) Band Stop Filters

5.7.1. LOW PASS FILTERS

Transfer
Function

Low Pass Circuit

Half‐power Frequencies;

4
 10.12.2013

5.7.1. LOW PASS FILTERS

5.7.2. HIGH PASS FILTERS

Transfer
Function

High Pass Circuit

Half‐power Frequencies;

5
 10.12.2013

5.7.2. HIGH PASS FILTERS

5.7.3. BAND PASS FILTERS

Transfer
Function

Band pass Circuit

Center Frequency

6
 10.12.2013

5.7.3. BAND PASS FILTERS

5.7.4. BAND STOP FILTERS

Transfer
Function

Band stop circuit

Merkez frekansı;

7
 10.12.2013

5.7.4. BAND STOP FILTERS

EXAMPLE 5.10.
R=2 KΩ, L=2H, C=2μF ise,
a) Determine type of filter.
b) Calculate corner frequency

Solution: Transfer Function;

At ω=0 ; H=1,
ω=∞ da; H=0, then, it works as
LPF .

8
 10.12.2013

Magnitude of H(ω);

noktabe
Must bulunmalıdır.
fined.

ωc= 0.742 krad/s

EXAMPLE 5.11.

Solution:

9
 10.12.2013

5.12. APPLıCATıONS
5.12.1. Radio Reciever

10
 12/17/2012

5.8.ACTIVE FILTERS

5.8.1. LOW PASS ACTIVE FILTERS

Zf Transfer
Zi Function

1
 12/17/2012

5.8.2. HIGH PASS ACTIVE FILTERS

5.8.3. BAND PASS ACTIVE FILTERS

2
 12/17/2012

5.8.3. BAND PASS ACTIVE FILTERS

5.8.3. BAND PASS ACTIVE FILTERS

LPF HPF
(LPF)

(HPF)

3
 12/17/2012

5.8.3. BAND STOP ACTIVE FILTERS

5.8.3. BAND STOP ACTIVE FILTERS

4
 12/17/2012

EXAMPLE 5.11.

Solution:

EXAMPLE 5.11.

5
 12/17/2012

EXAMPLE 5.12.

Solution:

EXAMPLE 5.12.

6
 12/17/2012

5.9. SCALLING

• In designing and analyzing filters and resonant circuits or in

circuit analysis in general, it is sometimes convenient to work
with element values of 1 &, 1 H, or 1 F, and then transform the
values to realistic values by scaling.

• There are two ways of scaling a circuit: magnitude or

impedance scaling, and frequency scaling. Both are useful in
scaling responses and circuit elements to values within the
practical ranges.

• While magnitude scaling leaves the frequency response of a

circuit unaltered, frequency scaling shifts the frequency
response up or down the frequency spectrum.

7
 12/17/2012

5.9. MAGNITUDE SCALLıNG

In magnitude scaling, we multiply the impedance of each circuit element by a

factor Km and let the frequency remain constant. This gives the new impedances
as

5.9. MAGNITUDE SCALLıNG

The resonant frequency;

8
 12/17/2012

5.10. FREQUENCY SCALLıNG

We achieve frequency scaling by multiplying the frequency by a

factor Kf while keeping the impedance the same.

5.10. FREQUENCY SCALLıNG

Again, if we consider the series or parallel RLC circuit, for the
resonant frequency;

for the bandwidth

but the quality factor remains the same

9
 12/17/2012

5.11. MAGNıTUDE AND FREQUENCY SCALLıNG

If a circuit is scaled in magnitude and frequency at the same time,

EXAMPLE

Solution:

the frequency scale factor is

10
 12/17/2012

EXAMPLE
Also, if each 1Ω resistor is to be replaced by a 10‐k& resistor, then
the magnitude scale factor must be

11
 12/17/2012

PART 1

6.2. Defination of Laplace Transform

1
 12/17/2012

6.2. Defination of Laplace Transform

a)

b)

c)

2
 12/17/2012

Example 6.2.

Solution:

6.3. Properties of Laplace Transform

1. Linearity

Hence;

3
 12/17/2012

6.3. Properties of Laplace Transform

2. Scalling

3. Time Shift

4
 12/17/2012

6.3. Properties of Laplace Transform

6.3. Properties of Laplace Transform

5
 12/17/2012

6.3. Properties of Laplace Transform

4. Frequency Shift

6.3. Properties of Laplace Transform

5. Time Differantiation

6
 12/17/2012

6.3. Proporties of Laplace Transform

6.3. Properties of Laplace Transform

7
 12/17/2012

6.3. Properties of Laplace Transform

6. Time Integration

6.3. Properties of Laplace Transform

8
 12/17/2012

6.3. Properties of Laplace Transform

6. Frequency Differantiation

7. Time Periodicity

9
 12/17/2012

Taking Laplace transform of each term;

8. Initial and Final Values

For initial values;

For an example;

Then;

10
 12/17/2012

For Final Value;

For Example;

As another example;

This is incorrect !!!!

11
 12/18/2012

Example 6.3.

Solution:

Example 6.4.

Solution:

1
 12/18/2012

Example 6.5.

Solution:

Example 6.5.

The transform of periodic function;

2
 12/18/2012

Example 6.5.

Using this property;

Example 6.6.

For initial value;

3
 12/18/2012

Example 6.6.

The Inverse Laplace

Transform

4
 12/18/2012

6.4. The Inverse Laplace Transform

6.4.1. Simple Poles

poles

Assuming that the degree

of N(s) less than the
degree of D(s);

For finding
constant at
first pole;

5
 12/18/2012

6.4.1. Simple Poles

For ݇ଵ

In general

The inverse laplace transform of F(s) ;

6.4.2. Repeated Poles

For ݇௡

For ݇௡ିଵ

For ݇௡ି௠

6
 12/18/2012

6.4.2. Repeated Poles

6.4.3. Complex Poles

Containing complex No complex part

poles

 Kompleks kutbu olmayan kısmı için basit veya tekrarlanan

kutuplardaki gibi işlem yapılır;
 Kompleks kutbu olanlar için ise kendi kutup değeri haricinde özel
değerler verilerek bulunur.

7
 12/18/2012

6.7. Examples

Solution:

6.8. Examples

8
 12/18/2012

6.8. Examples

6.8. Examples

9
 12/18/2012

6.8. Examples

6.9. Examples

10
12/18/2012

11
 12/18/2012

6.10. Examples

No complex Complex part

Although B and C can be obtained using the method of residue, we will not do so, to
avoid complex algebra. Rather, we can substitute two specific values of s [s=0,1 which
are not poles of F(s)] into equation. This will give us two simultaneous equations from
which to find B and C;

12
 12/18/2012

Taking inverse laplace transform,

13
Part 3
6.5. Devre Uygulamaları
Laplace dönüşümünü devrelere uygulamak için;
1. Devre zaman düzleminden s- düzlemine çevrilir.
2. Devre uygun bir devre analiz yöntemi ile çözülür (Düğüm gerilimleri,
K.A.K, süperpozisyon v.b.)
3. Çıkan sonuç ters laplace dönüşümü yapılarak zaman düzlemine
çevrilir.

Devre elemanları nasıl s-düzlemine çevrilir?

Zaman düzleminde direnç için akım-gerilim ilişkisi;

Laplace dön. alındığında;
Endüktör için;
Laplace dön. alındığında;

veya

Kapasite için;
Laplace dön. alındığında;

veya
Eğer başlangıç değerleri sıfır kabul edilirse;

ÖRNEK: Şekildeki devre için başlangıç koşullarının sıfır olduğu kabul edilerek (t)
gerilimini bulunuz.
ÖRNEK: Şekildeki devre için ise (t) gerilimini bulunuz.
 K.A.K. uygulanırsa;
Denklem düzenlenip 10 ile
çarpılırsa;

Denklemi kutuplarına göre çarpanlarına ayıralım;

ÖRNEK: Şekildeki devrede anahtar a
konumundan b konumuna t=0’da
geçmektedir. t>0 için i(t) ifadesini bulunuz.

Endüktörün başlangıç akım

değeri

Çevre analizini yaparsak;

 Kutuplarına göre çarpanlarına ayrılır.

Son değeri;
• Şekilde verilen devrede kondansatör uçlarındaki gerilimin değerini
bulunuz. (t) V olarak verildiğinde ve anında
indüktörden geçen akımın −1A ve kondansatör uçlarındaki gerilimin
5V olduğunu kabul ediniz. için indüktörden geçen akımı
bulunuz.
= = +
6.6. Transfer Fonksiyonu

Eğer;

veya

Bu durumdaki cevaba birim dürtü cevabı denir;

ÖRNEK: Devrenin çıkışı;
Girişi;
Sistemin transfer fonksiyonunu ve birim dürtü yanıtını bulunuz.

ÇÖZÜM: Önce x(t) ve y(t) ifadelerinin Laplace dönüşümleri bulunur.

h(t)’yi elde
edebilmek için bir
takım değişiklikler
yapılır.
ÖRNEK: Yandaki devrenin transfer
fonksiyonunu H(s)= bulunuz.

1. YOL: Akım bölmeden;

2. YOL: Ladder (merdiven) yöntemi uygulanabilir.
=1V olarak kabul edelim. Bu durumda ;

2+1/2s empedansının üzerindeki gerilim;

gerilimi s+4 empedansı üzerindeki gerilimle aynıdır.

ÖRNEKLER
ÖRNEK: ?

ÖRNEK: ?
ÖRNEK:
?

ÖRNEK: Şekildeki grafiği sağlayan fonksiyonun Laplace

nedir?
State Variable Method
Introduction
 So far we have considered techniques for analyzing systems with only one input and only
one output. Many engineering systems have many inputs and many outputs, as shown in
figure.
 The state variable method is a very important tool in analyzing systems and understanding
such highly complex systems. Thus, the state variable model is more general than the
single-input, single-output model, such as a transfer function.
 In the state variable model, we specify a collection of variables that describe the internal
behavior of the system.
 These variables are known as the state variables of the system. They are the variables that
determine the future behavior of a system when the present state of the system and the
input signals are known.
 In other words, they are those variables which, if known, allow all other system parameters
to be determined by using only algebraic equations.

A state variable is a physical property that characterizes the state of a

system, regardless of how the system got to that state.

 In an electric circuit, the state variables are the inductor current and capacitor voltage since
they collectively describe the energy state of the system.
 The standard way to represent the state equations is to arrange them as a set of first-order
differential equations:

the dot represents the first derivative with respect to time

 A and B are respectively n×n and n×m matrices. In addition to the state equation , we need
the output equation. The complete state model or state space is

 C and D are, respectively, p×n and p×m matrices. For the special case of single-input
single-output, n=m=p=1.
 Assuming zero initial conditions, the transfer function of the system is found by taking the
Laplace transform

 Taking the Laplace transform of

 In most cases, D=0 so the degree of the numerator of H(s), is less than that of the
denominator. Thus,

Steps to Apply the State Variable Method to Circuit Analysis:

1. Select the inductor current i and capacitor voltage v as the state variables, making sure they
are consistent with the passive sign convention.
2. Apply KCL and KVL to the circuit and obtain circuit variables (voltages and currents) in
terms of the state variables. This should lead to a set of first-order differential equations
necessary and sufficient to determine all state variables.
3. Obtain the output equation and put the final result in state-space representation.
Example

We select the inductor current i and capacitor voltage v as the state variables.
  Applying KCL at node 1 gives

 Applying KVL around the outer loop yields. ix as the output.

Putting Eqs. the standard for leads to

 If R=1, C=1/4 and L=1/2 we obtain the matrices

Taking the inverse of this gives

 the transfer function

 which is the same thing we would get by directly Laplace transforming the circuit and
( )
obtaining ( )

 The real advantage of the state variable approach comes with multiple inputs and multiple
outputs. In this case, we have one input and one output.
Review :Inverse Matrix
Example
 we have two inputs 𝑣 and 𝑣 and two outputs 𝑣 and 𝑖 . we select the inductor current i
and capacitor voltage v as the state variables.

 Applying KVL around the left-hand loop

 We need to eliminate 𝑖 . Applying KVL around the loop containing 𝑣 ,1Ώ , 2Ώ and 1/3F.

 Node1 KCL
State Equation

State Equation
 Putting equations together in the standard form leads to the state model for the circuit,
namely,
Example
Example