Boolean Algebra Table

Given Below is the Expression for the Boolean Algebra

Operation Symbol Definition

AND Operation ⋅ or ∧ Returns true only if both inputs are true.

OR Operation + or ∨ Returns true if at least one input is true.

NOT Operation ¬ or ∼ Reverses the input.

XOR Operation ⊕ Returns true if exactly one input is true.

NAND Operation ↓ Returns false only if both inputs are true.

NOR Operation ↑ Returns false if at least one input is true.

XNOR Operation ↔ Returns true if both inputs are equal.

Boolean Expression and Variables

Boolean expression is an expression that produces a Boolean value when evaluated, i.e. it
produces either a true value or a false value. Whereas boolean variables are variables that store
Boolean numbers.

P + Q = R is a Boolean phrase in which P, Q, and R are Boolean variables that can only store two
values: 0 and 1. The 0 and 1 are the synonyms for false and True and are used in Boolean
Algebra, sometimes we also use “Yes” in place of True and “No” in place of False.

Thus, we can say that statements using Boolean variables and operating on Boolean operations
are Boolean Expressions. Some examples of Boolean expressions are,

 A + B = True
  A.B = True

 (A)’ = False

Check: Axioms of Boolean Algebra

Boolean Algebra Terminologies

There are various terminologies related to Boolean Algebra, which are used to explain various
parameters of Boolean Algebra. That includes,

 Boolean Variables

 Boolean Function

 Literal

 Complement

 Truth Table

Now, we will discuss the important terminologies of Boolean algebra in the article below,

Boolean Variables

Variables used in Boolean algebra that store the logical value of 0 and 1 are called the boolean
variables. They are used to store either true or false values. Boolean variables are fundamental in
representing logical states or propositions in Boolean expressions and functions.

Boolean Function

A function of the Boolean Algebra that is formed by the use of Boolean variables and Boolean
operators is called the Boolean function. It is formed by combining Boolean variables and logical
expressions such as AND, OR, and NOT. It is used to model logical relationships, conditions, or
operations.

Literal

A variable or the complement of the variable in Boolean Algebra is called the Literal. Literals are
the basic building blocks of the boolean expressions and functions. They represent the operands
in logical operations.

Complement

The inverse of the Boolean variable is called the complement of the variable. The complement of
0 is 1 and the complement of 1 is 0. It is represented by ‘ or (¬) over the variable. Complements
are used to represent logical negations in Boolean expressions and functions.
Truth Table

Table containing all the possible values of the logical variables and the combination of the
variable along with the given operation is called the truth table. The number of rows in the truth
table depends on the total Boolean variables used in that function. It is given by using the
formula,

Number of Rows in Truth Table = 2n

where “n” is the number of Boolean variables used.

Check:

 Set Theory

 Statistics

Truth Tables in Boolean Algebra

A truth table represents all the combinations of input values and outputs in a tabular manner. All
the possibilities of the input and output are shown in it and hence the name truth table. In logic
problems, truth tables are commonly used to represent various cases. T or 1 denotes ‘True’ & F
or 0 denotes ‘False’ in the truth table.

Example: Draw the truth table of the conditions A + B and A.B where A and b are boolean
variables.

Solution:

The required Truth Table is,

A B X=A+B Y = A.B

T T T T

T F T F

F T T F

F F F F
A B X=A+B Y = A.B

Boolean Algebra Rules

In Boolean Algebra there are different fundamental rules for logical expression.

 Binary Representation: In Boolean Algebra the variables can have only two values either
0 or 1 where 0 represents Low and 1 represents high. These variables represents logical
states of the system.

 Complement Representation: The complement of the variables is represented by (¬) or (‘)

over the variable. This indicates logical negation or inversion of the variable’s value. So
Complement of variable A can be represented by A‾A,if the value of A=0 then its
complement is 1.

 OR Operation: The OR operation is represented by (+) between the Variables. OR

operation returns true if at least one of the operands is true. For Examples let us take three
variables A,B,C the OR operation can be represented as A + B + C.

 AND Operation: The AND Operation is denoted by (.) between the Variables. AND
operation returns true only if all the operands are true. For Examples let us take three
variables A,B,C the AND operation can be represented A.B.C or ABC.

Laws for Boolean Algebra

The basic laws of the Boolean Algebra are added in the table added below,

Law OR form AND form

Identity Law P+0=P P.1 = P

Idempotent Law P+P=P P.P = P

Commutative
P+Q=Q+P P.Q = Q.P
Law
Law OR form AND form

Associative Law P + (Q + R) = (P + Q) + R P.(Q.R) = (P.Q).R

Distributive Law P + QR = (P + Q).(P + R) P.(Q + R) = P.Q + P.R

Inversion Law (A’)’ = A (A’)’ = A

De Morgan’s Law (P + Q)’ = (P)’.(Q)’ (P.Q)’ = (P)’ + (Q)’

Let’s learn about these laws in detail.

Identity Law

In the Boolean Algebra, we have identity elements for both AND(.) and OR(+) operations. The
identity law state that in boolean algebra we have such variables that on operating with AND and
OR operation we get the same result, i.e.

 A+0=A

 A.1 = A

Commutative Law

Binary variables in Boolean Algebra follow the commutative law. This law states that operating
boolean variables A and B is similar to operating boolean variables B and A. That is,

 A. B = B. A

 A+B=B+A

Associative Law

Associative law state that the order of performing Boolean operator is illogical as their result is
always the same. This can be understood as,

 (A.B).C=A.(B.C)

 ( A + B ) + C = A + ( B + C)

Distributive Law
Boolean Variables also follow the distributive law and the expression for Distributive law is
given as:

 A . ( B + C) = (A . B) + (A . C)

Inversion Law

Inversion law is the unique law of Boolean algebra this law states that, the complement of the
complement of any number is the number itself.

 (A’)’ = A

Apart from these other laws are mentioned below:

AND Law

AND law of the Boolean algebra uses AND operator and the AND law is,

 A.0=0

 A.1=A

 A.A=A

OR Law

OR law of the Boolean algebra uses OR operator and the OR law is,

 A+0=A

 A+1=1

 A+A=A

De Morgan’s Laws are also called De morgan’s Theorem. They are the most important laws
in Boolean Algebra and these are added below under the heading Boolean Algebra Theorem

Boolean Algebra Theorems

There are two basic theorems of great importance in Boolean Algebra, which are De Morgan’s
First Laws, and De Morgan’s Second Laws. These are also called De Morgan’s Theorems. Now
let’s learn about both in detail.

De Morgan’s First laws

De Morgan’s Law states that the complement of the product (AND) of two Boolean variables (or
expressions) is equal to the sum (OR) of the complement of each Boolean variable (or
expression).
(P.Q)’ = (P)’ + (Q)’

The truth table for the same is given below:

(P.Q)
P Q (P)’ (Q)’ ’ (P)’ + (Q)’

T T F F F F

T F F T T T

F T T F T T

F F T T T T

We can clearly see that truth values for (P.Q)’ are equal to truth values for (P)’ + (Q)’,
corresponding to the same input. Thus, De Morgan’s First Law is true.

De Morgan’s Second laws

Statement: The Complement of the sum (OR) of two Boolean variables (or expressions) is equal
to the product(AND) of the complement of each Boolean variable (or expression).

(P + Q)’ = (P)’.(Q)’

Proof:

The truth table for the same is given below:

 (P +
P Q (P)’ (Q)’ Q)’ (P)’.(Q)’

T T F F F F

T F F T F F

F T T F F F

F F T T T T

We can clearly see that truth values for (P + Q)’ are equal to truth values for (P)’.(Q)’,
corresponding to the same input. Thus, De Morgan’s Second Law is true.

Articles related to Boolean Algebra:

 Properties of Boolean Algebra

 Principle of Mathematical Induction

 Logic Gates

Solved Examples on Boolean Algebra

Draw Truth Table for P + P.Q = P

Solution:

The truth table for P + P.Q = P

P.
P Q Q P + P.Q

T T T T

T F F T
 P.
P Q Q P + P.Q

F T F F

F F F F

In the truth table, we can see that the truth values for P + P.Q is exactly the same as P.

Draw Truth Table for P.Q + P + Q

Solution:

The truth table for P.Q + P + Q

P Q P.Q P.Q + P + Q

T T T T

T F F T

F T F T

F F F F

Solve A‾+B⋅CA+B⋅C

Solution:

Using De Morgan’s Law

A‾+B.C=A‾.(B+C)A+B.C=A.(B+C)

Using Distributive Law

A‾.(B+C)=A‾.B+A‾.CA.(B+C)=A.B+A.C
So, the simplified expression for the given equation A‾.(B+C)=A‾.B+A‾.CA.(B+C)=A.B+A.C

Where is Boolean Algebra Used?

Boolean Algebra finds applications in many other fields of science related to digital logic design,
computer science, telecommunications, etc. It will equip you with the basics of designing and
analyzing digital circuits; therefore, this is an introduction to the backbone of modern digital
electronics. Boolean Algebra also forms a framework of logical expressions essential in
simplification and optimization while programming and designing algorithms.

Digital Logic Design:

Boolean Algebra acts as the backbone of digital logic design, being the most important element
in the creation and analysis of digital circuits used in computers, smartphones, and all other
electronic devices. It helps simplify the logic gates and circuits so that in the design of digital
systems, they can be effectively designed and optimized.

Computer Science:

In computer science, Boolean Algebra is utilized in the design and study of algorithms,
particularly in fields that require decision-making processes. It’s vital in database query
optimization, where Boolean logic is utilized to filter and obtain specific data based on
circumstances.

Telecommunications:

Boolean Algebra finds application in the design and analysis of communication systems in
telecommunication. More specifically, it is used in error detection and correction mechanisms. It
is also used in the modulation and encoding of signals so that data is efficiently and accurately
transmitted over networks.

Artificial Intelligence (AI):

Boolean Algebra is vital in AI, notably in the construction of decision-making algorithms and
neural networks. It’s used to model logical thinking and decision trees, which are crucial in
machine learning and expert systems.

Electrical Engineering:

In electrical engineering, Boolean Algebra is employed to analyze and design switching circuits,
which are important in the operation of electrical networks and systems.It aids in the
optimization of these circuits, ensuring minimal energy loss and effective functioning.

Advantages, Disadvantages, and Applications

Advantages
  Simplifies the design and analysis of digital circuits.

 Reduces the complexity of logical expressions and functions.

 Enhances efficiency in digital logic design and computer programming.

Disadvantages

 Limited to binary values, which may not always represent real-world complexities.

 Requires a strong understanding of logical operators and rules.

Applications

 Digital electronics and circuit design.

 Computer programming and algorithm optimization.

 Telecommunications for logical signal processing.

 Set theory and mathematical logic.

Realization of Logic Gate Using Universal gates

In Boolean Algebra, the NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates because any
digital circuit can be implemented by using any one of these two i.e. any logic gate can be
created using NAND or NOR gates only.

Every logic gate has a representation symbol. The below image shows a graphical representation
of all logic gates.
 Graphical representation of logic gates.

Implementation of AND Gate using Universal Gates

Gaining proficiency in the use of universal gates is essential for tackling digital logic design
problems, especially for GATE CS. If you’re aiming to master this concept and excel in GATE,
the GATE CS Self-Paced Course is a great resource. It provides focused materials on digital
electronics and other core subjects to help you confidently approach your GATE exam.

Implementation using NAND Gates

The AND gate is developed using two NAND gates wherein the outputs are combined in such a
way that only when both of the inputs are HIGH will the output be HIGH. The first NAND
gate performs a standard NAND functions, the second NAND gate has both inputs tied to the
output of the initial NAND gate as shown below. This particular configuration flips the output
thus emulating the behaviors of an AND gate.

The AND gate can be implemented by using two NAND gates in the below fashion:

Implementation using NOR Gates

AND gate is developed from three NOR gates and the settings of this Gate is referred to as 111.
The inputs are then transformed with the use of a NOR gate and then they are negated one more
time by using two more NOR gates. Together, these create the AND function, meaning that all of
the conditions set have to be met in order to pass.

Implementation of AND gate using only NOR gates as shown below

Implementation of OR Gate using Universal Gates

Implementation Using NAND Gates

It is implemented using three NAND gates. The inputs are first inverted using two NAND gates
having their inputs probed in parallel and then the inverted outputs are connected with the input
of third NAND gate. The last NAND gate effectively performs the inverted signals to give the
required OR gate function.

The OR gate can be implemented using the NAND gate as below

Implementation using NOR Gates

The OR gate is created by using an inverse of the output of the NOR operation. An inverted form
of the inputs is provided directly into the NOR gate while the output is provided in NOR gate
using fixed inputs. This inversion gives the OR gate logic as shown below.

Implementation of OR gate using two NOR gates as shown in the picture below:
Implementation of NOT Gate using Universal gates.

Implementation using NAND Gates

A single NAND gate with ‘a’ and ‘b’ inputs connected respond to a NOT gate. The NOT gate
function is achieved as the result of NAND operation because the input signal is inverted.

Implementation of NOT gate using a single NAND gate as shown in the picture below:

Implementation Using NOR Gates

A single NOR gate with joining of both inputs perform the function of NOT gate. The input is
negated and the output thus obtained is the inversion that is characteristic of an NOT gate.

Implementation of NOT gate using a single NOR gate as shown in the picture below:
Implementation of XOR Gate using Universal gates.

Implementation using NAND Gates

XOR gate can be implemented using four NAND gates as illustrated below. All these input
signals are mixed in a way that first recognizes the disparities between the two inputs and grinds
them to create the XOR output.

Implementation of XOR gate using four NAND gate as shown in the picture below

Implementation Using NOR Gates

The XOR gate is implemented by five gates and these gates are the NOR gates. The inputs are
then passed through a number of NOR gates to remove all the non-exclusive conditions before
the XOR is applied to them.
Implementation of XOR gate using five NOR gate as shown in the picture below:

Implementation of XNOR Gate using Universal Gates

Implementation Using NAND Gate

XNOR gate is implemented by five NAND gates to make the circuit. The XOR logic is first
obtained, and then the outgoing XOR signal is passed through a NAND gate that negates it to
obtain the XNOR function.

Implementation of XNOR gate using five NAND gate as shown in the picture below:

Implementation Using NOR Gate

The XNOR gate can be implemented using four NOR gates. The XOR logic is then allowed to
pass through a NOR gate, and the logic of output obtained will be the XNOR.

Implementation of XNOR gate using four NOR gate as shown in the picture below:
Implementation of NOR Gate using NAND Gates

NOR gate is formed by using four NAND gates. The first two gates perform the operation of
inversion of inputs while the subsequent two gates perform the normal NOR operation.

Implementation of NOR gate using four NAND gate as shown in the picture below:

Implementation of NAND Gate using NOR Gates

The NAND gate is made using four NOR gates. The first two gates invert the inputs, and next
two gates perform the operations equivalent to NAND operation by these inverted signals.

Implementation of NAND gate using four NOR gate as shown in the picture below
Advantages of Using Universal Gates

 1) Simplicity: These are gates that can be used for all forms of logical operations hence
can help reduce the number of components in a circuit.

 2) Cost-Effective: Less part are required when developing one type of gate only thus
lowering costs of manufacturing.

 3) Flexibility: Universal gates can perform any digital logic function which makes it
convenient to design any type of circuit.

 4) Reliability: The dependence of a small number of various gates can result in increased
reliability in digital circuits.

 5) Ease of Integration: Universal gates can be readily incorporated into existing systems
to suit even complex designs.

Disadvantages of Using Universal Gates

 1) Increased Gate Count: Complex logic functions are more difficult to construct using
only NAND or NOR gates in that they take up more gates than other basic gates.

 2) Higher Power Consumption: Additional gates can cause more power consumption and
this is experienced in complex circuits.

 3) Slower Speed: Extra gates can also bring in more propagation delay, and hence lower
the speed of the circuit.

 4) Complex Design: The circuit design becomes more complicated because of a high
number of universal gates the functions contain.
  5) Limited Optimization: The use of only one type of gate may offer fewer optimization
possibilities and therefore result in less efficient designs.

Applications of Universal Gates

 1) Basic Digital Circuits: Universal gates are employed widely in elementary digital
circuits for carrying out simple logical operations.

 2) Memory Units: NAND and NOR gates are used in memory storage elements such
as SRAM and DRAM among others in the manufacture of devices that are used in the
modern world.

 3) Arithmetic Logic Units (ALUs): The universal gates are used in ALUs to transform
constant and variable, arithmetic and logical operations with the aid of processors.

 4) Signal Processing: In filter design and other communication processing systems

popularly known as modulation techniques, universal gates are employed.

 5) Embedded Systems: Universal gates play a significant role in the construction of small
scale circuits to be used in the embedded systems applications.