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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
Chemical Changes
¨ Green Chemistry
Green chemistry metrics: E is the Environmental factor for Waste in chemical Reactions. For quantitative
analysis of chemical processes green chemistry has introduced some different metrics. One of them is the factor
E. The amount of waste released in the nature for per kilogram of product obtained is the factor E.
Factor = Total waste ( kg )
Total product (kg )
Atom economy:
One of the principles of green chemistry `atom economy' is the proportion of reactant of reactant atoms that
end up in the desired product. The percent atom economy of any reaction (%AE) can be expressed as follows -
no.of moles of the desired product ´ molar mass of the product ´ 100
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%AE =
sum.of .no .moles ´ molar mass for all product
H H
C=C
1st Method: 2C6H6 (I) +902(g) ® 20 = C C = O(l) + 4H2O(l) + 4CO2(g)
O
H H
C=C
2nd Method: 2C4H10(I) +702(g) ® 20 = C C = O(l) + 8H2O(l)
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O
Here the efficiency of each of the methods is compared by the calculating the percent `atom economy'
For the 1st method, % atom economy = 2mol C 4 H 2 O3 ´ 100 = 2 ´ 98 g ´ 100
= 44.14%
( 2mol C 4 H 2 O3 + 4molH 2 O + 4molCO2 ) (2 ´ 98 g + 4 ´ 18 g + 4 ´ 44 g )
2mol C 4 H 2 O3 ´ 100 2 ´ 98 g ´ 100
For the 2nd method, % atom economy = = = 57.65%
( 2mol C 4 H 2 O3 + 8molH 2 O) ( 2 ´ 98 g + 8 ´ 18 g )
Chemical Equilibrium:
When the rate of a forward reaction is equal to that of the backward reaction, then the state is known as chemical
Equilibrium.
(a) A chemical reaction attains equilibrium when the rate of forward and the backward reaction are the same.
(b) In the starting of chemical reaction the concentration of the reactants are the maximum and the rate of
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forward reaction is the maximum. The concentration of the reactant decreases gradually and the concentration
of the products increases. That is the rate of the forward reaction decreases and that of the backward reaction
increase.
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(c) At equilibrium the rate of the forward and the backward reaction are the same. For consequent time the remains the
same.
(d) At equilibrium the concentration of the reactants and the products become constant. In this case
concentration of the reactants and that of the products are not necessarily the same.
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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
(e) Chemical equilibrium is a dynamic state. It is not a steady state.
D
Example: H2 (g) + I2 (g) 2HI (g)
After attaining equilibrium state small amount of radioactive Iodine 124 53 I 2 is added to the system as tracer, then
the equilibrium condition does not change, that is the amount of H2I2 & HI is non-radioactive but after adding
tracer the iodine in some of the HI becomes radioactive and after increasing gradually amount of molecules
becomes constant. It is blue understood that, the following reaction occurs after adding the radioactive Iodine.
H2 + I 2 ∆ 2HI* (I 2 represent radioactive isotope, in other word tracer)
* *

Since the total amount of HI remains the same (about 80%), so while producing radioactive HI* some amount
non-radioactive HI have been dissociated, 2HI ∆ H2 + I2
Thus it is proved that, the forward and the backward reaction goes on at the same rate even after attaining
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equilibrium state, but due to the same rate of the two reactions it is not apparent.
v Characteristics of chemical equilibrium:
a. Reversibility of reaction b. Stability of equilibrium c. Easy approachability from both
sides
d. Incompleteness of reaction e. Ineffectiveness of catalysts f. Closed system g. Dynamic
nature
v Condition for the chemical equilibrium:
(i) If the factors (temperature, pressure, concentration) of equilibrium remains the same then the equilibrium
always remains the same.
(ii) The equilibrium in a reversible reaction can be obtained from any direction. That is a reversible reaction is
A B. Now, weather it is A ® B or B® A, in both the cases the equilibrium state is the same.
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(iii) Position of equilibrium: From whichever direction a reversible reaction starts the equilibrium is obtained at
the same position:
450°C
Example: H2 + I2 2HI
colorless violet colorless
If hydrogen & deep violet colored iodine is kept at 450°C in a closed pot the hydrogen and iodine react to give
80% Hydrogen Iodine gas and the concentrations of H2 and I2 decrease to 20%. So the mixture attains a light
violet color. Again, if colorless HI is kept at 450°C at equilibrium the same amount of H2, I2 and HI (80% HI and
mixture of 20%. So the mixture attains a light violet color. Again, if colorless HI is kept at 450° C at equilibrium
the same amount of H2, I2 and HI (80% HI and mixture of 20% H2 and I2) is obtained and the color of the mixture
is again light violet.
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H2 + I2 2HI 2HI H2 + I2
Initially: 100% 100% 0% initially: 100% 0% 0%
Equilibrium: 20% 20% 80% equilibrium: 80% 20% 20%
(iv) Equilibrium cannot be obtained in open system. Open system is such a system in which outside substances can
interfere or the system from which products or reactants can leave. That is obtained is closed system only. A
system in which outside substance cannot interface or the system from which products or reactants cannot
leave is a closed system.
(v) Catalyst cannot change the equilibrium state. Only it helps to attain the equilibrium faster or slower.
(vi) Equilibrium constant does not depend on the initial concentration of the reactants.
(vii) Reversible reaction never ends completely. Because in equilibrium there are both reactants and products
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present. It can be understood from the equilibrium constant. If the reaction ends then the equilibrium
constant (Keq) is zero or infinite. Since the equilibrium constant can be small or very large, but never Zero or
infinite; therefore it can be said that a reversible reaction never ends.
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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
(viii) At equilibrium the pressure, concentration, color of all the substances in the reaction mixture becomes
constant. If it precipitate also is constant.

v Classification of Equilibrium:
On the basis of physical state of the reactants and products, chemical equilibrium is of two types-
(1) Homogeneous equilibrium: the chemical equilibrium in which all reactants and products are in the same
physical state is called homogeneous equilibrium. H2(g) + I2(g) Û 2HI(g)
(2) Heterogeneous equilibrium: the chemical equilibrium in which at least one reactant or product is in
different physical state (or phase) than the others is called a heterogeneous equilibrium.
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CaCO3(s) Û CaO(s) + CO2 (g)
Conversion of reversible reaction into irreversible
1. By removal of one of products from the system: the decomposition of limestone in a closed vessel is
reversible. But if the reaction is carried out in an open vessel it is irreversible.
CaCO3(s) Û CaO(s) + CO2 (g) [closed vessel] : Reversible
CaCO3(s) →CaO(s) + CO2 (g)↑ [open vessel] : Irreversible
2. By precipitating a product from solution: if silver nitrate is added to NaCl solution. AgCl is precipitated out
and it goes out from the solution. So the reaction becomes irreversible.
NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) = NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)↓
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3. By removal of a product by chemical reaction:- If one of the product is chemically replaced from the
reaction then the reaction becomes irreversible. CH3COOC2H5 + H2O ÛC2H5OH + CH3COOH
If NaOH is added in this solution then it immediately with the produced ethanoic acid producing sodium
ethanoate and so the backward reaction get stopped the whole reaction becomes,
CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O

(I) Saturated Equilibrium: The reversible reaction in which the physical state of the reactants and the products
450°C
are the same is saturated equilibrium. Example - H2 (g) +I2 (g) 2HI
(ii) Unsaturated Equilibrium: The reversible reaction in which the physical state of the reactants and the
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products are different in unsaturated equilibrium. Example - CaCO3 (s) CaO(s) + CO2 (g)
Besides these there is also an equilibrium state called Ionic Equilibrium. There is only one state in ionic
equilibrium but there are ions in the mixture. Example- NH4OH (aq) NH4+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
Law of mass action and equilibrium constant
At a constant temperature, the state of a chemical reaction at any instant is directly proportional to the
active masses (molar concentration, partial pressure) of the reactants at that instant taking part in the
reaction. For a solution the active mass is generally molar concentration and for gases it is particle pressure.
For example -
Let, the reaction is - aA(g) +bB(g) cC(g) dD (g) .......... (i)
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[C]c [D ] The product of the concentrat ion of the product

d

\ Molar constant, Kc = Þ Kc =
[A] [B]
A b
The prodcut of the molar concentrat ion of the reac tan t

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
Again if the partial pressure of A and B are PA and PB respectively and that of the products C and D are Pc
and PD respectively, the equilibrium constant at partial pressure,
c d
Kp = Pc a, PDb Þ Kp = The product of the partial of the product
PA PB The prodcut of the partial pressure of the reac tan t
¨ Reaction Quotient:
The ratio of the product of the active masses of the product of a reaction at any instant and that of the reactant
at any instant is called reaction quotient. It is expressed by Q.
The product of the molar concentration of the products at any ins tan t
QC =
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The prodcut of the molar concentration of the reac tan t at any ins tan t
The product of the partial pressure of the products at any ins tan t
QP =
The prodcut of the partial pressure of the reac tan ts at any ins tan t
The difference between KC (equilibrium constant) and QC (reaction quotient) is that the first one (KC) is
measured only at equilibrium; the second one (QC) can be measured at any constant of a reversible
reaction. Therefore, at equilibrium QC is KC.
If QC < KC or QP< KP then the reaction is moving in forward direction from equilibrium.
If QC > KC or QP> KP then the reaction is moving in forward direction from equilibrium.
If QC = KC or QP = KP the reaction is at equilibrium.
¨ Significance of Equilibrium constant:
(i) The expression for equilibrium constant is applicable only for reversible reaction.
(ii) For a particle reaction the value of the equilibrium constant at a particle temperature is constant.
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Though it changes with the change in temperature but it does not change with the change in concentration
pressure or volume. Catalyst has no effect on the equilibrium constant.
(iii) The equilibrium constant depends on how the chemical reaction is written.
3
N2 + 3H2 ® 2NH3 , 1 2 N2 + H2 ® NH3
2
Though the above reactions are the same but the value and unit of the equilibrium constant are
different due to the difference in the equation.
a2
Example: In the reaction PCl5(g) PCl3(g) if the dissociation constant of PCl5 is a ; KC = (1 - a )V .
Here if the volume V is increased KC does not change, rather to keep KC constant a will increase. In the same
way with
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the increase of P, Kp will not change rather to keep Kp constant the value of a will decrease.
(iv) Equilibrium constant gives idea about the extent of the reaction. If the equilibrium constant is
larger than the amount of products is more than that of the reactants and vice versa.
Here, [P] = concentration of the product; [R] = concentration of the reactant.
P
If KC > 1 then > 1 that is [P] > [R]. So at equilibrium the amount of product is more than that of the
R
reactants. So the reaction proceeds nearly to completion.
Reaction: R P
Initially: 100% 0%
Equilibrium: 30% 70%
Equilibrium
[P]
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At equilibrium, [P]>R
[R]
concentration

Time

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
[ P]
Again if, KC < 1 then < 1 that is [P] < [R]. So in equilibrium the amount of reactant is more. In other words
[R]
the reaction is called small extent reaction.
Reaction: R P
Initially: 100% 0%
Equilibrium: 60% 40%
Equilibrium
[R ]

At equilibrium, [R]>P
[P ]
concentration
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Time

If KC = 1 then [P] = [R] . That is there is equal amount of reactant and product in equilibrium.
Reaction: R P
Initially: 100% 0%
Equilibrium: 50% 50%
Equilibrium

[R ]
[ At equilibrium, [R] =[P]
[P ]
concentration
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Time

*** In all the three different types of values of KC the rate of forward and backward reaction are equal. But the
concentration of the reaction and products are not necessarily equal.
(v) Equilibrium constant gives idea about the extent of the reaction but not about the rate of reaction. Actually
the extent of a reaction are two independent quantities. They do not depend on each other. Example -at 450° C
the production of sulphur-tri-oxide from oxygen and sulphur -di-oxide is a very slow process but is complete
almost fully. On the other hand, at the same temperature the production of nitrogen-di-oxide from oxygen and
nitric-oxide is a first process but it complete partially. Equilibrium constant does not change with the change in
concentration of the products and reactants, pressure and the pressure and the presence of catalyst.
Equilibrium constant changes only with the change in temperature.
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(vi) Value of equilibrium constant can never be zero or infinite.
¨ Formula - 02: Relation between, KP and KC: KP = KC (RT)Dn
Here, Dn = no of moles gaseous products – no. of moles of gaseous reactants.
Let, a reaction is = A (s) + C (g) + 3D (g) E(g) +2f (l) +4G(g)
\ Here Dn = (1+4) – (1+3) = 1; [A & F are not gasses. So, the no. moles is not considered]
Special Case: If Dn = O, for example, in the case of H2 + I2 2HI, Dn = 2–(1+1) = 0
KP = KC (RT) Dn Þ KP = KC (RT)° Þ KP = KC
Since in most of the cases the unit of pressure is atm and the unit of concentration is mol/ L or mol/ L or mol/ dm3 is
used so here the value of R to be used is 0.0821 L atm mol–1K–1 . Sl unit cannot be used. Because, atm, L are not Sl
units.
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That is, for the reaction where,Dn = 0, their value of KP and KC are equal.
Similarly, the relation between QP and QC is, QP = QC (RT)Dn, where Dn = no. of moles gaseous products of moles
of gaseous reactants .
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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
-1 –3
Unit of concentration: moIL or moldm
Unit of pressure: atm (1atm = 101.325KPa); bar (1 bar = 100 kPa); mm; torr; Pa or, Nm–2; kPa; Jm–3; kjm –3etc.
Sl unit is Nm–2 (or Pa)
In a reversible reaction if there is at least one reactant or product that is gas then while determining the value KP
and KC the active masses of both the solid and liquid substance are taken as 1. Here the active masses of the
liquids must be considered.
[*** It must be noted that if there is a solution in the reaction then this mathematical equation is applicable. If
there is pure liquid then it can be applicable but if there are dissolved substance (like NaCl(aq), KNO3(aq), CaSO4(aq),
etc) then the equation cannot be applied.]
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¨ Units of Kp and KC in different reactions:
If the question is asked in the reaction A B + 2C what are the units of KP and KC.
2 2
PB.P (atm)(atm)
The answer is, KP = =c
= atm2
PA (atm)
[B ][C ]2 (moiL-1 )(moiL-1 ) 2
KC = = = (mol.L–1)2 = mol2.L–2
[A] (moiL-1 )
These type of questions are important for objective type questions. There is a technical way for these type of
questions.
They are unit of KP = (atm)Dn or (kPa)Dn that is ( unit of pressure)Dn & unit of KC = (mol.L–1) Dn
that is,
Dn
(concentration)
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PpCl3 Pcl2 atm.atm
Alternatively, KC = = = atm
PpCL 5 atm
For example: For the reaction
(i) PCl5 PCl3 + Cl2, Dn = (1+1)– 1 = 1
\ unit of KC = (mol.L–1) = mol.L–1; unit of KP = (atm)1 = atm
(ii) 2SO2 + O2 2SO3 Dn = 2–( 2+ 1) = – 1
\unit of KC = (mol.L–1) –1 = L.mol–1;unit of KP = (atm)–1 = atm–1
(iii) N2 + 3H2 2NH3, Dn = 2 (1+1) = 0
\ unit of KC = (mol.L–1)0 = 1 ( That is, it has no units) ; unit of KP = (atm)0 = 1 ( That is, it has no units)
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[Notice at the end of Formula -2 `special case' was discussed]
wSpecial Discussion - 01:
[B][C ] PB. PC
Let a reaction A B + C has KC = [A] ; KP = PA
[A] PA
Now, if the reaction is reversed - B + C A has KC* = [B ][C ] ; Kp* = P .P
B C

[For the reverse reaction KP, KC are written as KP* and KC*]
1 1
Now, notice, KC* = ; similarly, KP* = K
KC P

Do you get it? It means, if it is asked to find the value of KP, KC for the reaction, 2NH3 N2 + 3H2 you just cannot
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rearrange the equation (N2 +3H2 2NH3) however you want. I repeat, you have to solve the problem however
it is given in the question. Because, KC for the reaction 2NH3 N2 + 3H2 and KC (which we cell KC *) for the
reaction
N2 + 3H2 2NH3 are different . One is inverse to the other.

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
w Special Discussion 02:
Let, a reaction 2A 4B +3C has KC = KC1 and KP = KP1
[B ]4 [C ]3 PB4 PC3
\ KC1 = and KP1 =
[A]2 PA2
3
Now, if we divide the reaction by 2, A 2B + 2 C.
3

and KP = K P then, K c = [B] [C ]2 and

3
2
If the new reaction has KC = K C 2 P2P 2
K P2 = B C
2
[A] 2
PA

( ) ( ) ( ) Þ Kp2 = (K P1 )2
1
K c1 = kc 2 \= K C1 2 \Similarly, K P1 = K P2
1 2
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That means, Kp, KC for the reaction 2A 4B +3C and KPKC for the reaction A 2B + 3 C are not the same. Did
2
1

you notice how different they are? KC for the letter equation = (KC for the former equation) . Isn't it surprising? 2

1 3
Therefore, if in the questions it is asked to determine the values of KP, KC, for the reaction N 2 + H2 2NH3
2 2
for your convenience. This way dividing the equation however you want will change the values of KP, KC. So you
have to solve the problem just as the equation is given.
Therefore from the above discussion we understand that, if the equation of a reaction is multiplie4d by n and for
the former equation the value of molar constant is KC and that of the partial pressure constant is KP, for the new

equation KC1 = ( KC ) and K P1 =

n
(K P )n . In the above example it was multiplied by
1
so the exponent
2
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1
was .
2
v Van't Hoff's equation:
- DH 1 DH 1
In KP = ´ + constant. ( Or, logKP = – ´ + constant) which is a equation of the form y = mx + c
R T 2.303R T
where , DH = – ve \ the value of m = - DH is positive. \ Slope is + ve that is a upward straight line will be
R
obtained.

In KP DH * To the show difference

slope = – log KP DH between logKP and In KP
R slope = –
2 . 303 R two graphs are shown.
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1
1
T
T
Figure: Graph for the Van't Hoff's equation for exothermic reaction.
In endothermic reaction, DH = +ve \ the value of m = - DH is – ve \ slope is –ve3 that is a downward straight
R
line will be obtained.

In KP DH
slope = – log KP DH
R slope = –
2.303R

1
1
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T
T
Figure: Graph for the Van't Hoff's equation for exothermic reaction.

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
From the graph we see that, equilibrium constant for a endothermic reaction increase with the increase of
1
temperature (decrease of ) but for the exothermic reaction it decreases. For decrease in temperature the
T
opposite happens.
The value of KP, KC depend on only temperature (T). Pressure, concentration, catalyst do not have role in the
change of KP, KC.
v Required formulas:
cC ;+dD ; KC = [C ] a [D ]b
C d
01. aA +bB
[A] [B]
Dn
02. KP = Kc (RT ) | KP equilibrium constant.
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03. QP = QC(RT )Dn | QP reaction constant
04. KC = 1 | KC is the equilibrium constant for the forward reaction; K c* is the equilibrium constant for
kC
the backward reaction .
05. InkP = - DH 1 + constant ( Van't Hoff's equation)
R T
06. Dn = nP – nr | nA = no. of moles of A p; ntotal = total no. of moles of the products ; nr ; Sum of the number of
mole reactants.
nA
07. XA = | nA = no. moles of A; ntotal = total no. of moles in the mixture ; XA = mole fraction of A
ntotal
08. PA = P total XA | PA = particle pressure of A ; XA = mole fraction of A
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x
09. a = | a = degree of dissociation ; x = no. of moles dissociated ; a = initial no. of moles of the substance
a
whose a is given.
w
10. n = | W = given mass; M = molecular mass ; n = no. of moles
M
n
11. Concentration = | n no. of moles ; V = volume
V
Effect of temperature on equilibrium constants:
On changing the temperature the value of equilibrium constant also change. The effect of temperature on
equilibrium constant is well understood from the equation of Vant Hoff.
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DH
log Kp = – 2.303 RT + constant
From the graph, it is seen that with the increase in temperature (decrease of 1/T) the equilibrium constant of
endothermic reaction increases, but for exothermic reaction equilibrium constant decreases.

endothermic
log KP

log KP

exothermic

(a) 1 (b) 1
T T
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Le-Chatelier Principle
If a change occurs in one of the controlling factors, such as temperature, pressure, concentration etc under
which a system is in equilibrium, the system will tend to adjust itself in such a way so as to reduce the effect of
that change.

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
Table: equilibrium at industrial production of different products:
Name of the
product Reaction temperature pressure Catalyst
process
0
Haber-Bosch NH3 N2 + 3H2 Û 2NH3 ; ∆H=-92kj 450-550 C 200atm Fe3O4;catalyst
promoter
Mo/Al2O3
0
Contact H2SO4 2SO2 +O2Û 2SO3; ∆H=- 400-500 C 1atm V2O5 / Pt
process 192kj
0
Birkland and HNO3 N2 + O2 Û 2NO; ∆H=-180kj 3000 C - -
Eyde
Kp and KC :
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4a2
(i) N2O4 2NO2 [ Kp= , = ..........]
1–a2
a2 a2
(ii) PCl5 PCl3 +Cl2 [Kp = . p, K c = ]
1–a2 (1–a)2
4x2
(iii) H2+I2 2HI [ Kp=Kc = (a–x) (b–x) ]

4x2(a+b–2x)2 4x2v2
(iv) N2+3H2 2NH3 [Kp = , K c = ]
(a–x)(b–3x)3p2 (a–x) (b–3x)3
1 3 4x(a+b–x)
(v) 2 N2 + 2 H2 NH3 [Kp = ]
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(2a–x)1/2 (2b–3x)3/2 p

Types based problems and solutions.

Type -01: Related to the multiplication of the equation and change in value of KP and KC
Example - 01: At 500K and pressure 2atm the reaction N2(g) +3H2(g) 2NH3(g)has KP = 3.55×10–2atm–2. Then
2 1
what is the value of KP at the temperature 500K and pressure 10atm NH3(g) H2(g) + N2(g) ?
3 3
Sol: KP does not change with the change in pressure, so at temperature 500k and pressure 10atm the reaction
N2(g) has KP + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) has KP = 3.55× 10–2 atm–2. At that condition the reaction 2NH3(g) N2(g)
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1 2000
3H2(g) has KP = -2
atm2 = atm2
3.55 ´ 10 71
2 2
2 1 2000 atm 3 = 3.04269 atm 3
So KP for the reaction NH3(g) H2(g) + N2(g) = 3
3 3 71

Type - 02: Calculation related to Van't Hoff's equation

Example -02: For the reaction slope of InkP vs 1 graph is 21645.02K. Determine the value of DH for the reaction.
T

Sol: Slope for the InkP vs 1 graph, - DH = 21645.02

T R
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–1
\ DH = (21645.02×8.316)Jmole = – 179999.9863 J mole–1 = – 179.99999kJmole–1 (Ans)
(R is generally expressed in the unit Jmole–1K–1 and DH is expressed in the unit KJ mole–1. So you have to be
careful about the change between J and KJ)

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
– 1
Example -03: PCl5(g) PCI3(g); DH = +90kJ mole . The equilibrium constant for the reaction at O°C is
0.00564atm. What is value of KP for the reaction at temperature 27°C?
DH 1 DH 1 DH 1
Sol: InKP = ´ + constant \In K P1 = ´ + constant ............(i) \ In K P2 = – ´ + constant
R T R T1 R T1
....... (ii)
K DH æ 1 1 ö K P2 90000 æ 1 1 ö
(ii)∕(i) Þ\ In P = – 2
çç - ÷÷ Þ In = - ç - ÷ \KP2 = 0.1999atm
KP R è T1 T1 ø
1
0.00564 8.316 è 2 273 ø

Type - 03: KP = KC (RT)Dn [These are important for Objective type question]
Example -04. At temperature 448°C, 0.5mole H2 I2 reacts to give HI in a pot of volume 10.0dm3. If the equilibrium
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constant for the reaction is KC = 50 what is the value of KP?
Sol: H2(g)+I2(g) 2HI(g); Dn = 2–(1+1) = 0
Dn
KP = KC (RT) = KC(RT)0 = KC = 50 (Ans)

Type - 04: Problems related to the degree of dissociation

Example - 05: In a pot of volume 2L at pressure 4atm, 4mol A, 1mol E, 1mol E, 2 mol B reacts in the following way
-
2A+3B D +2E
If 25% of A is converted to product then find the value of KP, KC .
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Idea determination of KC
To determine KC all of the concentration at equilibrium have to be known. Since the volume of the pot has been
given if we can find the value of the no. of moles at equilibrium then we can divide the no. of moles by the
volume to find the concentration at equilibrium. Because, concentration = No. of moles
volume
[If the volume is not given then considered it as 1 L]

w To find the initial no. of moles: Now, the initial no. of moles of all the substance have to be known. If the
initial no. of mole of the reactants are not given then it is considered to be I and for the products it is considered
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0.
[If the concentration is not given instead of no. of moles then it is also considered in the same way]

w Determining the no. of moles at equilibrium: To find the no. of moles at equilibrium from the initial no. of
moles it is required to know the amount of reactant dissociated and amount product produced. Subtracting the
amount of dissociated reactants from the initial no. of mole of the reactants and adding the amount of product
produced to the initial no. of moles of the products the no. of mole at equilibrium can be obtained.

w Finding the amount of reactants dissociated (x): The amount of reactants dissociated can be found from the
degree of dissociation (a).
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No . of moles dissociated ( x)
Degree of dissociation, a =
initial no.moles of the sub tan ce whose whose a given (a )

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
Degree of dissociation is sometimes expressed in percentage by multiplying with 100. For example, if after
heating 4mol A 1mol is dissociated, then the amount dissociated is 1 mol. On the other hand, degree of
dissociation = 1 = 0.25 or 0.25× 100 = 25%
4
Actually a is given to find x.
So, you have to start solving the problem finding the number of dissociated(x). But, in the given problem a for
only A is given. That is you can only find the value of x of A. To find other x you have to use unitary method.
2A + 3B D + 2E
From the reaction we get,
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2 mol A reacts with 3 mol B
3x
\ mol A " '' mol B ''
2
3x
\ Amount B dissociation is mol.
2
Again, from 2 mol A amount of D produced is 1 mol
x
x mol A '' '' mol
2
x
\Amount of D produced mol.
2
Again from 2 mol A amount of E produced is 2 mol
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x-mol A '' '' x mol
\ Amount of E produced x mol.
Sol: Degree of dissociation of A (a) = 25%
Initial no. of moles (a) = 4 mol
x
\a = Þ x = aa \ a = 4 ´ 25% = 1mol
a
\ amount of B dissociated is 1 mol
3x 3
\ amount of B dissociated is or (x = 1) mol
2 2
x 1
\ amount of D produced or mol Using unitary method.
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2 2
\ amount of E produced x or 1 mol

2A + 3B D + 2E
Initial no. of moles: 4 mol 2mol 0 mol 1mol [0 mol is not given. So it moles was
assumed]
no. of moles Dissociated
1mol [Reactants decrease so (-) ve sign and
1
& Produced: –1 mol – 3 mol mol
2 2 product increase so (+) ve sign]
no. of moles at 3mol 0.5mol 0.5mol 2mol
equilibrium :
concentration æç n ö÷ : 1.5M 0.25M 0.25M 1M [Dividing by volume 2L]
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èvø
KC = [D ][2 E ] 2
2
(0.25)(1) 2 = 7.11 L2/mol2
=
[A] [B] (1.5) 2 (0.25) 2

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
Idea KP Determination:
To find KP the partial pressure of all the substance at equilibrium have to be determined. We know,
Partial pressure = Total pressure × Mole fraction
Mole fraction = no. of moles of the subs tan ce
total no. of moles in the mixture
Example: In the given problem the total no. of moles at equilibrium is (3+0.5+0.5+2) = 6 mol. Amount of A is 3
mol.
nA 3
\ mole fraction of A, XA = = = 0.5 [Mole fraction has no unit]
n 6
Since, total pressure is given finding the mole fraction will be enough to find the partial pressure.
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To find the mole fraction the no. of moles of the substance at equilibrium is found out following the above
method.
2A + 3B D + 2E
no. of moles at equilibrium: 3 0.5 0.5 2
6 0.5 2
Mole equilibrium: 0.5 [Dividing the mole no. by the
3 6 6 6
total no. of moles]
3 0.5 0.5 2
Partial pressure: ´4 ´4 ´4 ´4 [Dividing. by the mole fraction by
6 6 6 6
= 2 atm 0.33atm 0.33atm 1.33 atm the total pressure 4 atm]
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2 2
= (0.332 )(1.33)3 = 4.06 atm–2
PP P
\ KP = E
PA PBE (2) (0.33)
This way any problem can be solved.
Example - 06: At temperature 330°C, 35% HI is dissociated . Find the KP and KC for the reaction .
Sol: Here, a = 35% , a = 1.0mol,
Þ x = 0.35
2HI (g) H2(g) + I2(g)
initial no. of moles : 1 0 0
0.35 0.35
at equilibrium : ( 1 – 0.35)
2 2
[H 2 ][I 2 ]
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0.175 2
\ KC = = = 0.0725
[H ]2 0.652 2
\ KP = KC = 0.0725 (Ans.)
Example -07: At temperature 30°C and pressure 1.5 atm 15.6% is dissociated. Find the KP for the dissociation?
Sol : Here, total pressure , P = 1.5 atm
PCl5 PCl3 + Cl2
initial no. of moles : 100 0 0
at equilibrium : 100 –x x x
According to the condition, x = 15.6 mol.
At equilibrium the total no. of moles = ( 100– x +x +x) = ( 100+x). mol
æ x öæ x ö
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Ppcl 3 ´ Pcl2 ç .P ÷ç .P ÷ æ 15.6 öæ 15.6 ö

ç ´ 1.5 ÷ç ´ 1.5 ÷
\ KP = = è 100 + x øè 100 + x ø = è 115.6 øè 115 .6 –2
ø = 3.7×10 atm (Ans)
PPCl5 æ 100 - x ö æ 100 - 15.6 ö
ç .P ÷ ç ´ 1.5 ÷
è 100 + x ø è 115.6 ø

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
Dn
[In this reaction,Dn = 1; unit of KP = (atm) = atm]
Example - 08: In a pot of 1 L, 5 mol N2O4 is heated . At equilibrium 30% N2O4 is dissociated . What is the KC for
the reaction? Here, degree of dissociation of N O is 30% 2 4

Sol : N2O4 2NO2 \ a = 30 = 0.3

100
initially : 5 0
Again, a = x Þ 0.3= x Þx = 5×0.3 = 1.5 mol
at equilibrium : 5 – x 2x a 5
\ x = 1.5 mol or, alternatively -
\ KC =
[NO2 ]2 = (2 x) 2 = (2 ´ 1.5)2 = 9 From 100 mol N2O4 amount dissociated is 30 mol
[N 2O4 ] (5 - x)V (5 - 1.5) ´ 1 3.5 \from 1 mol N2O4 amount of dissociated 30 mol
[unit of KC = ( moiL–1)Dn = moiL–1] 100
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\ from 5 mol N2O4 amount dissociated
30 ´ 5 = 1.5mol
100
\ x = 1.5 mol
Example - 09: At temperature 727° C the reversible reaction 2SO2(g) + O2 (g) 2SO3(g) has KP = 3.50 atm–1. If
the total pressure is 3 atm and at equilibrium partial pressure of O2 is 0.10 atm then find the partial pressure of
SO2 & SO3.
Sol: Here, Total pressure at equilibrium, P = 3atm . Partial pressure of O2 Po2 = 0.1 atm
Let, partial pressure of SO2, Pso2 = x atm
Now, in the equilibrium mixture, there are three gases (SO2, O2 and SO3). The summation of their partial pressure
gives the total pressure of the system. [Dalton's law of partial pressure]
\ P = Po2 + Pso2 + Pso3 \ Pso3 = ( 3 – 0.1– x ) Þ Pso3 = ( 2.9 – x) atm .
Þ 3.5 = (2.29 - x)
2
the reaction is, 2SO2 + O2 2SO3 . \ KP = ( Pso3 ) 2
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( Pso3 ) 2 ´ Po2 x ´ 0.1
Þ 0.35x2 = 8.41 – 5.8x + x2 Þ 0.65x2 – 5.8x + 8.41 = 0
\ x = 1.822 or , 7.1 ( Unacceptable , the total pressure of the system is 3 atm . Therefore, PSO2 must be less than 3.)
\ partial pressure of SO2, Pso2 = 1.822 atm ( Ans)
Then the partial pressure of SO3, PSO3 = 2.9 – x = ( 2.9 – 1.822) atm = 1.078 atm (Ans)
Example - 10: In a 1 L pot 2 mol N2 and 4 mol H2 is heated 20% N2 is converted to NH3. What is the equilibrium
constant for the reaction ? Here, dissociation constant of N2 is 20%
x
Sol: N2 + 3H2 2NH3 \a = 20 = 0.2; a =
100 a
initially 2 4 0
Þ x = aa = ( 0.2×2) \ x = 0.4mol
at equilibrium 2 –x 4 – 3x 2x alternatively
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From 100 mol N2 amount dissociated 20 mol
\ x = 0.4 mol
\ from 1 mol N2 amount dissociated 20 mol
\ KC = [NH 3 ]2 =
(2 x) 2 ´ V 2 100
[N 2 ][H 2 ]3 ( 2 - x)( 4 - 3 x) 3 \ from 2 mol N2 amount dissociated ´ 2 mol
10
100
( 2 ´ 0.4) 2 ´ 12 (0.8) 2 = 0.4mol \ x = 0.4 mol
= = = 0.018 L2mol–2
( 2 - 0.4)(4 - 3 ´ 0.4) 3
1.6 ´ ( 2.8) 3

[ Here, Dn = 2– (3+1) = –2 ]
Type - 05: Determining KP, KC, QP, QC from experimental values and direction of reaction
Example - 11: In a closed pot of 3L, 8.25 mol H2 and 6.55 mole I2 is heated at temperature 740 k to give 11.50
mole HI. What is the equilibrium constant for the reaction ?
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Sol : H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)

initially 8.25 6.25 0
at equilibrium: 8.25–x 6.55– x 2x

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2

According to the condition, 2x = 11.25 –x \ x = 11.25 ; x = 5.75 mol

2
2
æ 2x ö
ç ÷ (11.5) 2
KC = [HI ]2 = è 3 ø = = 66.125 (Ans) [Unit less because, Dn = 0]
[H 2 ][I 2 ] æç 8.25 - x ö÷æç 6.55 - x ö÷ (8.25 - 5.75)(6.55 - 5.75)
è 3 øè 3 ø
Example - 12 : At a particular temperature, to find the equilibrium constant of the equation. N2 +3H2 2NH3
in a pot of 2L, 0.326 mol N2 and 0.439 mol H2 is mixed . At equilibrium the total number of mole in the system is
0.657 mol. Find the equilibrium constant.
Sol: N2 + 3H2 2NH3
initially: 0.326 0.439 0
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at equilibrium 0.326– x 0.439 – 3x 2x
Now, total moles at equilibrium = { ( 0.326– x) + ( 0.439 – 3x) + 2x} = 0.765 – 2x
According to the condition, 0.765 – 2x = 0.657 \ x = 0.054
2
æ 2 ´ 0.054 ö
2
æ 2x ö
ç ÷ ç ÷
\ Kc = [ NH 3 ] =
2
= è 2 ø è 2 ø
[N 2 ][H 2 ]3 æ 0.326 - x öæ 0.439 - 3 x ö
3
æ 0.326 - 0.054 öæ 0.439 - 3 ´ 0.054 ö
ç ÷ç ÷ ç ÷ç ÷
è 2 øè 2 ø è 2 øè 2 ø
= 8 .07 mol–2.L2 [Ans]
Example - 13: If 10.5g H2 and 1605.75g I2 is heated to give 1130.5g HI. What is the equilibrium constant for the
reaction ? [ Pressure of the system = 1.5 atm ]
10.5
Sol: No. of moles of H2, = = 5.25 mol No. of moles of I2, = 1650.75 = 6.5mol
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2 254
No. of moles of HI , = 1130.5 = 8.832 mol
128
Here, total pressure of the system, P = 14.5 atm
H2 + I2 2HI
initially: 5.25 6.5 0
at equilibrium: 5.25 – x 6.5 – x 2x
According to the condition, 2x = 8.832 mol \ x = 4.416 mol
Again, total no. of moles at equilibrium at equilibrium = ( 5.25 – x) + ( 6.5 – x) + 2x = 11.75
æ 2 ´ 4.416
2 2
æ 2x ö ö
ç ´ P÷ ç ´ 1.5 ÷
\
KP =
( PHI )
2
= è 11.75 ø = è 11.75 ø
PH 2 . p12 æ 5.25 - x ö æ 5.25 - x öæ 6.5 - 4.416 ö
ç ´ P÷ ç ´ 1.5 ÷ç ´ 1.5 ÷
è 11 . 75 ø è 11. 75 øè 11.75 ø
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\ KP = 44.88. KC = KP (Ans.) [Or it can be found directly using KP = KC = 4x2 ]
(a - x)(b - x)

Example - 14: In a liter pot 3mol NOCl (Nitrosyl Chloride) is heated at temperature 25°C to achieve equilibrium. If
at equilibrium the concentration of NO is 0.66 moiL–1, then find the equilibrium constant KC .
Sol: 2NOCl 2NO + Cl2
initially : 3 O O
at equilibrium: 3– 2x 2x x
According to the condition, 2x = 0.66 Þ x = 0.66 \ x = 0.33 mol
2
\ KP = [NO ] [Cl2 ] = (2 x) ( x) = (2 ´ 0.33) ´ (0.33) = 0.026moiL–1 [ Ans.] [ For the reaction Dn = 1]
2 2 2
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[Nocl ]2 (3 - 2 x) 2 v (3 - 2 ´ 0.33)2 ´ 1
Example - 15: At temperature 873k red hot iron and steam reacts to reach equilibrium. At equilibrium the partial
pressure of hydrogen and steam are 3.2kPa and 2.4 kPa respectively . What is the KP for the reaction ?

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
Sol : The reaction is : 3Fe(s) + 4HZO(g) Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
Now, at equilibrium, H2 has partial pressure, PH 2 = 3.2 kPa
and H2O has partial pressure, PH 2 O = 2.4kPa

\ kP = (PH 2 )4 [In solid state partial pressure is 1 so it was not considered]

4

(PH 2 )
Þ KP = (3.2 )4 \ KP = 3.16 (Ans.) [Unit less because, Dn = 4–4 = 0]
4

(2.4 )
Example - 16: While extracting iron from iron ore the redox reaction of FeO(s) and CO gas given iron and CO2 gas.
FeO(s) +CO(g) Fe(s) +CO2(g)
At temperature 1000k for the reaction, equilibrium constant kP = 0.259. At the reaction temperature the initial
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partial pressure of all the substance are PCO = 1.0 atm and PCO2 = 0.5 atm. Find at reaction temperature, the
partial pressure of CO and CO2 at equilibrium.
P
Sol: QP = CO = 0.5 = 0.5, which is greater than KP . Therefore the reaction is moving forward.
2

PCO 1
FeO(s) + CO(g) Fe(s) + CO2(g)
initially : 1 0.5
at equilibrium : (1+x) ( 0.5–x)
\ KP : 0 .5 - x \ x = 0.1914atm
= 0.259
1+ x
\ At equilibrium the partial pressure of CO = 1+x = 1.1914 atm (Ans.)
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CO2 partial pressure = 0.5–x = 0.3086 atm(Ans.)
(\ The total pressure at equilibrium = 1+x+0.5 –x = 1.5 atm, which is the initial pressure. Because the gaseous
no. of moles of the reactants and the products are equal )
Type -06: Finding concentration at equilibrium and the initial amount of product is not zero – type problems
Example -17. CO2(g) + H2(g) CO(g) +H2O(g) . The reaction has KC = 0.137 . Initially there are 5mol CO2,
6molH2, 1 mol CO and 1 mol H2O in the system. Find the concentration at equilibrium . [ Volume of the reaction
pot = 2L ]
Sol: Qc =
[CO ][H 2O ] = 1 ´ 1 = 0.0333< KC
[CO2 ][H 2 ] 5 ´ 6
\ The reaction will move forward
CO2 + H2 CO + H2O
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Initially: 5 6 1 1
at equilibrium: ( 5–x) (6–x) (1+ x) (1+x)
æ 1 + x öæ 1 + x ö
ç ÷ç
\ KC = [CO ][H 2O ] = è 2 øè 2 ø Þ 0.137 =
÷ (1 + x )2 Þ 01.137(30–5x–6x+x2) = 1+2x+x2
[CO2 ][H 2 ] æ 5 - x öæ 6 - x ö (5 - x )(6 - x)
ç ÷ç ÷
è 2 øè 2 ø
Þ 0.863x3 + 3.507x – 3.11 = 0 \ x = 0.7488 or – 4.8125( Unacceptable)
at equilibrium the concentration : [ CO2] = 5 - x = 5 - 0.7488 = 2.1256 moiL–1 (Ans.)
2 2
æ
[H2] = ç 6 - x ö 6 - 0 .7488 –1
÷ = = 2.6256molL (Ans.)
è 2 ø 2
[CO] = æç 1 + x ö÷ = 1 + 0.7488 = 0.8744molL–1(Ans.)
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è 2 ø 2
[H2O] = æç 1 + x ö÷ = 1 + 0.7488 = 0.8744molL–1(Ans.)
è 2 ø 2

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
Example - 18. At a particular temperature the reaction SO2(g) + NO2(g) SO3(g)+NO(g)
has equilibrium constant = 16. If initially in a pot of 1 dm3 the no. of moles of every substance taken is 1.0 mol
then find the concentration at equilibrium of NO2 and NO ?
Sol: SO2 + NO2 SO3 + NO
Initially: 1 1 1 1
at equilibrium: (1–x) (1–x) (1+x) (1+x)
\ KC = [SO 3 ][ NO ] Þ 16 = (1 + x )(1 + x ) 2
Þ (1–x) × 16 = (1+x) 2

[SO2 ][NO2 ] (1 - x)(1 - x)

Þ ( 1– 2x+x2)16 = 1+2x+x2 Þ 15x2 – 34x +15= 0 Þ x = 0.6 or l.67 [ Unacceptable ]
Because, x is the amount of dissociation . Initially the amount of both SO2 and NO2 is 1 mol. 1.67 mol cannot be
dissociated from 1 mol so it is not acceptable .
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at equilibrium concentration : [NO2 ] = 1 - x = 1 - 0.6 = 0.4molL –1 (Ans) [NO ] = 1 + x = 1 + 0.6 = 1.6molL–1
1 1 1 1
(Ans)
Type - 07: mole percentage related calculation.
Example -19: At temperature 700k and pressure 20 atm the reaction 2NH3 N2 is 21% mole; NH3 is 16% mole
.
\ amount of H2 l = ( 100 – 21–16)% mole = 63% mole
Let, the no. of moles of N2 , H2 and NH3 = 100 mole. \ PN2 = nN ´ P = 21 ´ 20 \ PN = 4.2 atm.
2

ntotal 100 2

63 16
Similarly, PH 2 = ´ 20 = 12.6 atm and PNH 3 = ´ 20 = 3.2atm.
100 100
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PN 2 ´ ( PH 2 )3 4.2 ´ (12.6)3 = 820. 47 atm–2 [ Ans ]
\ KP = =
( PNH 3 ) ( 3 .2 ) 2
Example -20: At temperature 427° C and pressure 20 atm the reaction 1 N2 + 3 H2 NH3 has 16% mole NH3 at
2 2
equilibrium. Find the Kp of the reaction.
Sol: at a gas mixture of 100 mole amount of NH3 is 16mole
\ amount of N2 and H2 = ( 100 –16) mol = 84 mol
If amount of N2 is x mol then the amount of H2 is 3x mol
\ x + 3x = 84 \ x = 21
\ PN 2 = mole fraction of N2 × total pressure = æç 21 ´ 20 ö÷ atm = 4.2 atm
è 100 ø
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\ PH 2 = æç 3 ´ 21 ´ 20 ö÷ atm = 12.6 atm
è 100 ø
æ ö
\ PNH 3 = ç ´ 20 ÷ atm = 3.2 atm
16
è 100 ø
\ KP = ( PNH 3 )
=
3.2 = 3.49× 10–2 atm–1 (Ans.)
1 3 1 3
( PN 2 ) 2 ´ ( PH 2 ) 2 ( 4.2) 2 ´ (12.6) 2
Type – 08: Problems related to degree of dissociation, total pressure and PV = nRT
Example – 21: In a pot of 1L, 0.1 mole PCl5 is heated at temperature 150°C and the total pressure at equilibrium
is 4.38×105Nm–2 . Find the degree of dissociation of PCl5 and equilibrium .
Sol: PCl5 PCl3 + Cl2
initially: 0.1 0 0
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at equilibrium: 0.1 –x x x
\ at equilibrium total no. of moles, n = ( 0.12 –x) + x+x = ( 0.1+x) mol.
Now, at equilibrium total pressure, P = 4.38× 105Nm–2 ;
Total no. of moles , n = ( 0.1 +x) mol; total volume , v = 1L = 103–m3
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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
Temperature, T = ( 150 +273) k = 423 k
For the equilibrium mixture, PV = nRT Þ 4.38× 105× 10–3 = ( 0.1+x)× 8.316× 423Þx = 0.02451 mol.
\ degree of dissociation PCl5, a = amount of dissociati on ´ 100 = 0.02451 × 100 = 2451% (Ans)
initial amount 0.1
ì x üì x ü ì 0.02451
2
´ P ýí ´ Pý 5ü
í í ´ 4. 38 ´ 10 ý
Again, KP = î (0.1 + x) þî (0.1 + x) + x þ Þ K î 0.12451 4
þ \KP = 2.799×10 Pa (Ans)
ì 0.1 - x ü
P
´ Pý ì 0.07549 ü
í í ´ 4.38 ´ 105 ý
î 0.1 + x þ î 0.12451 þ
Example - 22: 25 mol H2 and 18 mol I2 is heated at temperature 440°C at equilibrium to give 30mol HI. What is
the degree of dissociation of HI at that temperature?
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Sol: H2 + I2 2HI
initially: 25 18 0
at equilibrium: (25–a) (18–a) 2a
\ 2a = 30 \ a = 15 \ KC (30)2
= 30 \ 2HI H2 + I2 has KC = 1
(25 - 15)(18 - 15) 30
Now, 2HI H2 + I2
2 0 0
2(1–a1) a1 a1 [Taking the dissociation constant of HI as a1]
1 a12
\ KC = = Þ 26a 1 + 8a1 – 4 = 0 \ a1 = 0.267449, – 0.575 (Not acceptable)
2

30 4(1 - a1 ) 2

\ the degree of dissociation of HI is 26.7479% (Ans)

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ACID BASE EQUILIBRIUM
Arhenius Concept:
Acid: Donates H+ in aqueous solution Base: Donates OH– in aqueous solution.
So according to the following reactions, HCl is an acid and NaOH is a base.
HCl(g)→ H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) NaOH→ Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
¨ Limitation:
01. Though Arrhenius' concept is applicable for aqueous solution it solvents. That is it cannot explain acid-base
properties in absence of water.
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02. According to this theory all the salts should be neutral. But FeSO4, AlCl3 etc. are acidic in aqueous solution
and Na2CO3, K3PO4 etc. are basic in aqueous solution. This theory cannot explain these phenomena.
03. The acid-base properties of compounds in gaseous state cannot be explained with this theory.
NH3(g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl
Base Acid Salt
¨ Application
01. Non-metal oxide, for example [CO2, SO2, N2O5, etc. are acids. Because they donate H+ in aqueous solution.
SO2 + H2O H2SO3 2H+, SO32 -
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02. Metal oxides, for example CaO, Na2O and substance like NH3 are bases. Because they donate OH– in aqueous
solution.
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ + 20H–

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
Bronsted-Lowry Concept:
Acid: A compound or ion that donates H+ Base: A compound or ion that accept H+
† In this theory the presence of water is not necessary. There is also no restriction on the physical state.
Example of Bronsted acid:
Acid Base Conjugate acid Conjugate base
+
HCI + H2O H3O + Cl–
HNO3 + H2O H3O + NO 3-
HCO 3- + H2O H2O + CO 32 -
H2O + H2O H3O + OH–
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Conjugate pair:
If IH+ is released from any acid then the remaining product is the conjugate base of that Acid.
Example :
HCl ––––––® H+ + Cl–
Conjugate base of HCl
+
H2SO4––––––® H+ + HSO 4
Conjugate base of H2SO4
That is HCI and Cl– are mutually conjugate pairs
- 2-
Similarly H2SO4 and HSO 4 are mutually conjugate pairs, but H2SO4 and SO4 are not conjugate pairs.
† If 1 H+ added to any base then product obtained is the conjugate acid of that base
+
Example : NH3 + H+ ––––––® NH 4
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Conjugate acid of NH3
+ -
HSO4 + H ––––––® H2SO4 Conjugate acid of HSO4
Let us now see an overall example -
Conjugate pair

HCI + NH3 –––––––® NH +4 + Cl–

Acid Base Conjugate acid of NH3 Conjugate base of HCI

Conjugate pair
The stronger an acid is the less strong its conjugate base. On the other hand, the more strong a base is the strong
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its conjugate acid.
Similarly, the conjugate base of weak acids are strong and the conjugate acid of weak bases are strong.
¨ Some example of amphoteric substance:
– H+
CO 32- ( Conjugate acid of HCO 3- )
(a) HCO 3-
H2CO3 ( Conjugate acid of HCO 3- )
+H+
– H+
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OH– ( eg.H2O+NH3 NH +4 +OH–)

(b) H2O
H3O+ ( eg.H2O + HCI Cl– + H3O+)
+
+H

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
**** But it is also important to consider if the acid can still donate H after donating 1 or 2H+ before coming
+

-
conclusion about the amphoteric substance . For example: HSO 4 produced from H2SO4 is amphoteric because its
can donate another H+. But H3PO2 is a monoprotic acid though it has 3 H.

The main role in the donation of H+ of the above substance is played by the electronegative oxygen in the O – H
bond. Due to the difference in electronegativity the H in bond with the oxygen is easily released as H+ Since H3
PO4 has three 0- H bond it can donate three H+. On the other hand since the P – H bond is not polar H3PO3 can
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donate 2 and H3PO2 can donate only one H+.
Therefore, all the H present in the molecule might not be acidic. Generally H boned with more electronegative
atoms inhibits acid properly.
-
So after removing 1H+ from H3PO2 the produced H2PO 2 ion cannot donate any more H+. That is why even after
having hydrogen it is not acidic.
In H3 PO3 there are 2 acidic protons so the same applies to HPO 32 -
¨ Limitation of the Bronsted -Lowery concept:
(i) The acidic properties of non-metal oxides like CO2, SO2, NO2, cannot be explained with this concept. Similarly
the basic properties of metal oxides like Na2O, CaO, BaO cannot be explained with this theory.
(ii) With this theory the acidic properties of compounds like BF3, CaO, BaO cannot be explained.
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(iii) In this concept the acid-base reaction is limited to the donation and acceptance of proton. But in reality there
are such acid-base reactions in which no transactions of protons take place. This theory cannot explain such
reactions.
(iv) Though the theory is applicable in protic solvents (e.g: CH3COOH, liquid NH3 etc.) it is not applicable in
aprotic solvents ( e.g P: Benzene, Di-oxane etc.) [Protic Solvent: The solvents that can donate or accept protons]
An acid is any species (molecule, cation or anion) which is capable of donating one or more protons to any other
species. A base is any species (molecule, cation or anion) which is capable of accepting one or more protons to
any other species. HCl (acid) + H2O(base) → H3O+ + Cl-
Lewis Concept:
Acid: e– pair acceptor
Base: e– pair donor
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In the compounds like BF3, BeCl2, Alcl3 octet contraction is observed. [In their outer shell there are less than 8 e–].
This compounds can take part in coordinate covalent bond formation as acceptors -
AlF3 + 3F–3® AlF 36-
H3N: + BF3 ® H3N – B F3
e– donor(base) e–acceptor (acid)
¨Limitations of Lewis concept:
(i) According to this theory protonic acids like HCl, HNO3, H2SO4 cannot be directly identified as acids. Though
they are in reality acids. Because these molecules cannot directly engage in coordinate covalent bond formation.
(ii) Acids and bases cannot be lilted according to their relative strength according to this theory. Because when
the same Lewis acid adds with different Lewis bases then that acid has different strength.
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(iii) In some reactions H+ ion acts as catalyst. This phenomenon cannot explained with this theory.
(iv) Though acid base reaction is a fast process Lewis acid base reaction is a very slow process.
(v) According this theory coordinate covalent bond is created by the union of acid and base. But that is not always the
case.

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
¨ Ionic product of water:
At temperature 25°C KW = [ H+] [ OH–] = 10-14 mol2/L2. If temperature is increased the value of KW increase that
is dissociation of water increases, because the ionization of water is a endothermic reaction.
pH = –log[ H+] or pH = log[H3O+]
H3O+ is the same as H+ . Because, H2O forms H3O+ by the coordinate covalent bond with H+.

H2O: + H+ ® H3O

H2O being neutral H3O+ and H+ can be considered equivalent.

\ [H+] = 10–pH
If pH = 7 the solution is neutral (H+ = [ OH-] )
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If pH < 7 the solution is acidic ( [H+] > [ OH–] )
If pH > 7 the solution is basic ( [H+] < [OH–] )
¨ No solution can have pH less than 0 or greater than 14.
¨ Strength of acid and base:
The degree of dissociation of an acid or base and their strength depends on some fraction. The effect of these
factors are discussed below:
¨ Nature of the solvent:
The dissociation constant of acid and base are respectively Ka and Kb depend on the nature of the solvent. If the
basicity of the solution increases then the the value of Ka of the acid that is its strength increases and the value of
Kb of the base that is its strength decreases. If the acidity of the solvent increases the reverse happens.
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Example: In the water CH3COOH is a weak acid. In a solvent more basic than water, liquid NH3 it is a strong acid.
¨ Strength of acid: Based on the structure Acids are of two types -
(i) Hydracids (HF, HCI.......) (ii) Oxo-acid (H2SO4, HNO3.....)
The faster an acid can donate H+ the stronger the acid.
Therefore the larger the value of Ka or the smaller the value of pKa the stronger the acid.
1. Hydracids:- hydracids are those acids, which contain only hydrogen and some other element. e. g. – HCl,
HBr etc
The strength of hydracids depends mainly on the size of the anion or conjugate base. The larger is a
conjugate base, the weaker base it is and hence the stronger is the acid. HI > HBr > HCl
2. Oxo-acids:- Oxo-acids are those acids which contain hydrogen, oxygen & some other element. e.g. H2SO4, HClO4
etc.
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The strength of oxo-acids depend mainly on two factors- (a) oxidation state of the central element and (b)
electronegativity of the central element. The higher is the oxidation state, the stronger is the acid. For
example the strength of the following acids are as follows:
+7 +6 +5 +4 +3 +1
HClO4 > H2SO4 > HNO3 > H2SO3 > HNO2 > HClO
When the oxidation states of the central elements are same, only then the electronegativity of the central
element determine the comparative strength. The higher is the electronegativity, the stronger is the acid.
Or it can be said that the lower is the size of the cation the stronger is the acid. For example, in HNO3 and
H3PO4 the oxidation state of both N and P are +5. Since nitrogen is more electronegative then
phosphorous HNO3 is stronger than H3PO4. +5 +5
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HNO3 > H3PO4

3. The higher the value of Ka (lower the value of Pka) the stronger the acid.
N.B.: - Fluorine has no oxyacid (HFO4) and oxonium salt (NaFO4)
¨ In case of hydracids, the larger the value of Kb or the smaller the value of pKb the stronger the base.
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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
¨ Size the metal:
Metals associates with OH– ion to give metal hydroxide. In this case if the size of the metal is larger than
attraction of the metal on the electron of OH– decrease and OH–ion is freed more readily. For example -if the
hydroxide of the alkaline metals are observed then it is seen that due to the smaller size of lithium LiOH is the
weakest base, on the other hand due to the larger size of the Cs atom CsOH is the stronger base.
¨ Degree of dissociation of acids and base (a):
Let, HA is an acid which dissociates as follows:
HA ® H+ + A–
Initial: a 0 0
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at equilibrium: a–x x x
So the degree of dissociation of HA acid a = amount dissociated
initial amount
x
a = [In the chemical equilibrium portion the same thing was discussed]
a
Similarly, if MOH is a base, MOH ® M+ + OH–
Initial: a 0 0
At equilibrium: a–x x x
Here the degree of dissociation of MOH, a = x
a
¨ Ostwald's dilution law:
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At a particular temperature is a dilute solution weak electrolytes like a weak acid or weak base has degree of
dissociation inversely proportional to the square root of the concentration of the solution.
Mathematical formula of dilution law: let, Ha is a weak acid. The molar concentration of the acid is C and degree
of dissociation is a.
HA(aq) H+(aq) + A–(aq)
Initial: C 0 0
at equilibrium: (1–a)C aC aC
According to the law of mass action, the dissociation constant of Ha acid is, Ka = [ H ] ´ [A ] = aC ´ aC = a C
+ - 2

[HA] (1 - a ) (1 - a )
2
[Similarly, for weak bases Kb = a c ]
1- a
For weak acids like ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) the value of a is very small and so taking the value of a negligible
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with respect to 1 (one) in the above equation ( 1–a ) can be written as I. Then, Ka = a2C or ,
ka 1
a= = ka .
C C
Similarly, for a weak base like NH3 or CH3NH2 the value of a is very small. In that case Kb = a2C and a = Kb , 1
C
is found . That is a a 1
C
¨ Applicability:
(i) This law can be applied to the solution of weak acid, weak base and weak electrolytes. The degree of
dissociation of these substance increases with the dilution of the solution.
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(ii) For infinite dilution weak acid or weak base dissociates completely. Strong acid or strong base dissociates.
completely for any concentration. So the dilution law cannot be applied to them because they have no
equilibrium state.

Sunrise – 22
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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
¨ Titration:
The process on which the unknown concentration of a solution is determined with the help of another solution
of known concentration (Standard solution) is called titration.
Let, we are given a solution of NaOH of unknown concentration. To find its concentration we take 0.1M H2SO4 in
the burette. Now let us pour H2SO4 from the burette in the 10ml solution of NaOH slowly. After a time when the
indicator changes its color then it understood the reaction has ended. Now let us find the volume of H2SO4 used.
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\ H2SO4 used = (10– 0) ml = 10ml
2NaOH + H2SO4 ® Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Here, 2 mol NaOH º 1 mol H2SO4
Þ 2× Vb × Sb º 1× Va× Sa
Here, Vb = volume of the base, Va = volume of the acid, Sb = concentration of the base, Sa =
concentration of the acid.
[It is to be remembered that mole number n = SV]
Now, Vb = 10mL (In the conical flask), Va = 10 mL ( obtained from titration),
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Sb = unknown, sa = 0.1M (Standard solution)
\ 2VbSb = VaSa \ Sb = Va S a = 10 ´ 0.1 = 0.5M Therefore, concentration of NaOH is 0.05 M .
2Vb 2 ´ 10
¨ Endpoint:
The point of titration in which there are equivalent amount of acid and base present in the solution is called the end
point.
For example - for the neutralization of the reaction 2NaOH + H2SO4 ® Na2SO4 + 2H2O there is 1 mol acid for each
2mol base. The point of titration in which the ration acid: base =1: 2 is the end point.
¨ Indicator:
To identify the end point of titration such a compound is added to the reaction system which changes its clearly
visible physical property such as color or precipitation. This compound that indicates the endpoint o titration is
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called an indicator. For example: Methyl orange, Phenolphthalein etc.
In acid base titration the indicators shows different color in acidic and basic solution. Such indicators are methyl
orange, phenolphthalein, litmus etc.
The conditions for using any compound as indicators are as follows:
(i) The color of the indicator must be stable and bright and there should be enough difference in the color of the
compound in basic and acidic media. It is better if it has opposite colors in different solution.
(ii) The indicator should change its color abruptly. That is the extent for which the compound changes its color
should be small.
(iii) The reaction for which the indicator is being used, the indicator must change its color at the endpoint of acid
-base titration.
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¨ Mechanism of indicator: Chemically the indicators are weak acid (methyl orange) or weak base
(phenolphthalein) . Here, the mechanism of an acidic indicator is discussed:
Let, HA is an acidic indicator
HA H+ + A–
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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
–
The aqueous solution of HA being ionized gives A ion. The color of HA is red. But, the color of its conjugate base
(A–) is blue. Now, the precedence of HA or A- in the solution depends on the pH of the solution and determines
the color of the solution .
¨ In acidic solution ( pH < 7):
Since there are excess amount of H+ in the solution the dissociation of HA decreases. That is, due to the excess of
HA the color of the solution is red.
¨ In basic solution ( pH> 7):
The excess OH– from the dissociation of HA reacts with H+ of the solution to produce H2O.
H+ (from the dissociation of the indicator) + OH– (obtained from the basic solution) ® H2O.
Since the H+ ion is spent due to the reaction HA H+ + A– according to the Le chatelier's principle the
equilibrium proceeds to the right . As a result, the amount of A– ion increases with time and the solution takes
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the color of the A– ion(blue) . So, the indicator HA shows blue color in basic solution.
The most remarkable characteristic of the HA indicator is that its conjugate pairs are of opposite colors.
¨ The curve obtained by plotting the volume of the reagent added from the burette against the pH of the
solution during acid-base titration is called the neutralization curve. The nature of the curve depends on the
nature of the acid-base titration. To determine the indicator of the titration reaction this kind of curve is used.
The values of different points of such curve can be found by doing theoretical calculation.
¨ Neutralization curve and determining the indicator:
To determine the indicator it is important to know the different values of pH during titration; neutralization curve is
used to easily do it and the indicator should be selected based on the neutralization curve. In the following discussion
the neutralization curve for different titration reaction and the indicator that can be used in that particular pH extent
is shown.
(a) Titration of strong acid with strong base: The salt that is obtained by the titration of strong acid with strong
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base
(for example HCI and NaOH) is not hydrolyzed in solution so its pH = 7. So if even a small amount of acid or base
is added to the solution then the pH changes hugely. In this case for a 0.1M solution the change pH from 3.1 to
9.7. So the above mentioned indicators like Methyl orange (pH extent 3.1 – 4.4) or Phenolphthalein (pH extent
8.3 – 10.0) can be used as the indicator.
14
12
10
phenolphthalein
pH 8
6
4
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Methyl orange Sudden change of
colour at 25mL alkaline
soln
2
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Volume of the added 0.1M NaOH solution
The neutralization curve for the titration of 0.1M NaOH by 0.1M HCl
(b) Titration of weak acid with strong base: The salt that is obtained by the titration of weak acid with strong
base is hydrolyzed in solution & produce weak acid strong base. So the endpoint is slightly basic that the pH is
greater than 7.
For example : For the titration of 0.1M acetic acid with 0.1M NaOH the pH at the end point is 8.7 . During
crossing the endpoint the value of pH changes abruptly from 6.0 to 11. Then 25mL of 0.1M NaOH solution is
added. In these types of titration (pH extent 3.1 – 4.4) changes color before the end point after just adding 5mL
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NaOH, so the titration is

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2

14
12
phenolphthalein
10
pH 8
6
4
Methyl orange Sudden change of
colour at 25mL alkaline
2 soln
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Volume of 0.1M NaOH used (mL)
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The neutralization curve for the titration of 0.1M acetic acid with 0.1M NaOH
(c) Titration of strong acid with weak base: The salt that is obtained by the titration of strong acid with weak
base is partially hydrolyzed in solution. As a result there are small amount of weak base and strong acid in the
solution and the end point is slightly acidic that is the value of pH is smaller than 7 .
For example, for the titration of 0.1M NH4 OH by 0.1M by 0.1 M HCI the pH at the end point is about 5. While
crossing the endpoint the value of pH change suddenly from 3.5 to 7.0. Therefore Methyl red (pH extent 4.2–6.3)
or Methyl orange (pH extent 3.1 – 4.4) are the suitable indicators. On the other hand indicators like
phenolphthalein (pH extent 8.3– 10.0) gives erroneous titration.
14
12
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10
phenolphthalein
pH 8
6
4
Methyl orange

2
Sudden change of colour at 25mL
0 alkaline soln
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Volume of used 0.1M NH4OH (mL)
The neutralization curve for the titration of 0.1M NH4OH with 0.1M HCI
(d) Titration of weak acid with weak base: Since the acid and the base taking part in the reaction are both weak the
produced salt is also neutral. Because, weak acid are dissociates slightly in solution. In this case the pH changes very
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slowly. So the extent through which pH changes is very small. So even after adding a small amount of acid or base the
pH does not changes much at the end point. Since the extent of pH is small no indicator is suitable for this type of
titration.
14
12
10
phenolphthalein
pH 8
6
4
Methyl orange

2
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0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Volume of 0.1M NH4OH used (mL)
The neutralization curve for the titration of 0.01M CH3 with 1M NH4OH

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
Summary of the curves Strong base

7
weak acid
pH

Strong acid
0
Volume of base added ®

Indicators suitable for different titration

Acid and base used in titration Suitable indicator for the titration Extent of change of
pH at the end point
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(i) Strong acid and strong base example- Any indicator example -Methyl orange 3.1 – 9.7
HCI solution & NaOH solution.
(ii) Weak acid and strong base example - Phenolphthalein 6-11
CH3COOH and NaOH solution
(iii) Strong acid and weak base example - Metyl Orange, Metyl red 3.5~7
CH3COOH and NH4OH solution.
(iv) Weak acid and weak base example - no indicator is suitable pH changes very
CH3COOH and NH4OH solution . slowly extent pH 0
¨ Hydrolysis of salt:
Most of the salts like NaCl, KCI, NaNO3 forms dissolving in water. The aqueous solution of some of the salts are
acidic or basic. The cations or anions of these salts reacts with water. These type of reaction are called hydrolysis
of salts. Two types of hydrolysis are shown below.
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(a) The salts that are obtained from weak base and strong acid, they hydrolyze in aqueous solution to give acidic
solution. For example -
Example - 1: Copper sulphate (CuSO4) is the salt of weak base Cu (OH)2 and strong acid H2SO4 . It breaks into ions
in aqueous solution . Later the Cu2+ ion reacts with water to give hydronium ion (H3O+) in the following way -
2-
CuSO4 (s) + aq ® Cu2+ (aq) + SO4 (aq)
Cu2+(aq) +4H2O(l)
+
Cu (OH)2(aq) + 2H3O (aq)
As a result the pH of the solution becomes less than 7, that is the aqueous solution of CuSO4 is acidic . This type
hydrolysis is called cationic hydrolysis . ( Trick : to remember H+ or H3O+ cation )
(b) The salts that are obtained from strong base and weak acid, they hydrolyze in aqueous solution to give basic
solution. example ,
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Example - 2: Na2CO3 is the salt of from weak acid H2CO3 and strong base NaOH.
First in aqueous solution sodium carbonate dissociates to give sodium ion and carbonate ion. Beside small
amount of water also dissociates to give hydrogen ion and hydroxyl ion.
Na2CO3(aq) ® 2Na+ + CO 32-
2H2O ® 2H+ + 2OH –
Na2CO3 + 2H2O = 2NaOH + H2CO3
NaOH and H2CO3 us produced from the reaction of these four ions. Among them NaOH is a strong base it
dissociates in aqueous solution to give hydroxyl ions. But carbonic acid is a weak acid . So it dissociates slightly .
So even after the neutralization of H+ ions by the OH– there remains a large amount of ion in the solution . So the
aqueous solution of Na2CO3 is basic. [Example 2 can be explained the same way as example 1]
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¨ Buffer solution:
The solution whose pH does not change after adding a small amount of acid or base is called a buffer solution.
The pH of buffer solution does not change after of solution.

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
Importance of pH control and Buffer solution
1. Different liquid components of human and animal bodies maintain pH at definite ranges. For example
blood is a good buffer, its pH is 7.4 under normal condition. It may vary from 7 to 7.8. If it goes outside
the range, the life becomes critical. In blood phosphate ion, bicarbonate ion and proteins participate in
buffer action. Many medicines are injected in patient’s body for treatment. These injections are
prepared in such a way that they can easily reach equilibrium with the blood and do not change its pH.
2. The control of pH of soil is very important in agriculture. The range of optimum pH depends on the plant
and tree, but it is never below 3 or higher than 9.5.
To increase the pH of acidic soil lime and dolomite are added. While different nitrate fertilizers like KNO3,
NH4NO3 and phosphate fertilizers like TSP decreases the pH of basic soil.
Buffer solution can be both acidic or basic:
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Buffer solution are usually the mixture of weak acid and the salt of that acid with a strong base. It is to be noted
that, the weak acid must have a conjugate base a conjugate base pair. Example: the solution of CH3COOH and
CH3COONa, HCN(aq) + NaCN (aq) , H2S (aq) + NaHS(aq), HOCl (aq) + NaOCI(aq) + NaOCI(aq) etc.
¨ The H2S(aq) + Na2S(aq) is not a buffer solution, because HS– ; S2 – are not conjugate bases of H2S. Similarly ,
H2CO3(aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) , H3PO4 (aq) + Na3PO4, (aq) etc. are not buffer solution.
¨ Some acidic salts also acts as weak acids, because they can donate H+ . Example :
Na2HPO4, NaH2PO4 , NaHCO3 etc . So Na2HPO4(aq) + NaH2PO4(aq), Na2HPO4(aq), Na3PO4(aq), NaHCO3(aq) +
Na2CO3(aq), NaHS (aq) + Na2S(aq) etc. are buffer solution.
¨ If it is considered as ions then acidic buffer solution are mainly the solution of weak acid and its conjugate
-
base. Example: CH3COOH(aq) + CH3COO– (aq), H2P 4 (aq), HCO 3- (aq) + CO 32- (aq) etc.
That is why NaHCO3(aq) + CaCO3(aq), NaH2PO4(aq) + MgHPO4(aq) – are also buffer solutions, though the
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positive ion here is different.
Basic buffer solution are generally the mixture of weak base and its salt with strong acid. Example : the solution
of NH4OH and NH4Cl. It is to be noted that, that salt have a conjugate acid pair. If it is considered as ions then
+
basic buffer solutions are mainly the mixture of weak base and its conjugate acid. Example: NH3(aq) + NH 4 (aq) [
In aqueous solution NH3 is converted to NH4OH] .
¨ Buffer capacity:
The amount of strong base needed to change the pH of the buffer solution by unity is called the buffer capacity.
Buffer capacity = Volume of strong base added
change in pH
¨ Calculation of pH of buffer solution - Henderson - Hasselbalch equation :
For acidic buffer solution - Here, nA = initial no. of moles of the conjugates base
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[ or, pH = pKa + log [A -] nAcid = initial no. of moles of the acid
n A-
pH = pKa + log
n Acid [Acid ]
For basic buffer solution -

[ or, pOH = pKb + log [B ] ]

nB + +
pOH = pKb + log
nBase [Base]
-
Here in place of the ratio [ A -] ,
nA
can be used. Because, acid and salt are both present in the same
[Acid ] nacid
solution in the same pot . So their volumes are equal . Now, concentration = no. of moles
volume
-
n
[A ] n A-
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A
-
\ = V = [Since they both have the same volume]
[Acid ] nacid nacid
V
To make a buffer solution of certain pH an acid of pKa close to the pH of the solution and its salt is taken

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
-
n
¨ It is better of the ratio A
is 1. Then the buffer capacity is the maximum . In such case pH = pka.
nacid
¨ The closer the value of pH to that of pKa, the better the buffer capacity of that solution. But it is better to keep
the ratio between 10 and 0.1 . That is the value of pH is kept between pKa + 1 and pKa – 1 that is the within a
limit of 2pH.
nB+
For basic buffer solution the values of pOH, PKb and should be same.
nbase
For the buffer solution made from CO2, pH = pKa + log [HCO3 ] or, pH = pKa + log HCO3
- n -
¨
[CO2 ] nCO2
Where ka is the first dissociation constant of H2CO3.
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* In textbooks nsalt is written is place of nA – or nB+. Which is applicable only for salts with equivalent number 1 .
In the other cases like Ca(OOCCH3)2 or ( NH3)2SO4 nsalt cannot be applied.
¨ Change in pH of buffer solution due to the addition of H+/ OH–:
n A-
pH = pKa + log [ Here, nsalt is the initial mole no. of the salt nacid is the initial mole no. of the acid ]
n Acid
Let, CH3COOH and CH3 COONa forms the acidic buffer solution.
CH3COOH and CH3COONa forms the acidic buffer solution .
CH3COOH CH3COO– + H+ [ Weak acid dissociates slightly ]
CH3COONa ® CH3COO– + Na+ [ Ionic salts dissociates completely ]
Here, at equilibrium the concentration of CH3COOH is almost equal to the initial one. Because, CH3COOH is
dissociated slightly being a weak acid.
Again, at equilibrium the concentration of CH3COO– is equal to the initial one . Because, almost all salts is
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dissociated. [ CH3COO – is obtained by the dissociation of acid is small ]
¨ Change due to the addition of H+:
Now, if H+ is added to the solution then the dissociation of CH3COOH decreases. So, at equilibrium the
amount of acid increases. If n mole H+ is added then at equilibrium there will be nacid.
Again, H+ and CH3 COO– reacts to give CH3, COOH. So, the no. of moles of the ion of the salt CH3COO– decreases
at equilibrium . With the addition of n mole H+ the no. of moles of the salt decreases to nsalt – n.
nsalt -n
with the addition of n mole H+ the new pH is - pH = pKa + log
n acid + n
¨ Change due to the addition of OH+:
If n mole OH– is added it reacts with H+ to give H2O.
H+ ( obtained from the dissociation of the acid) + OH– ( Obtained from the addition of the base ) ® H2O So,
due to the decrease of H+ the dissociation of accid increases and at equilibrium the amount of acid decreases.
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Due to the addition of n mole OH– the changed amount of acid is nacid – n.
Again, due to the increase in the dissociation of acid its conjugate base CH3COO– increase . Therefore the no. of
mole of salt increases to nsalt + nmole .
nsalt + n
Due to the addition of nb mole OH– the new pH is - pH = pKa + log
nacid -n
**** To apply the above formula the condition nacid/salt >> n must be satisfied.
Required formulas :
01. For any solution, [ H+] [ OH–] = Kw ( Ionic product of water), at temp. 25° C [ H+] [OH–] = 10–14 = Kw
for acidic solution [ H+]> [ OH–]
for basic solution [ H+] < [ OH–]
02.
For any solution, pH + pOH = pKw, at temp. 25°C pH + pOH= 14 = pKW
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03. pH = –log [ H+] \ [H+] = 10–pH

pOH = log [ OH ] \ [OH ] = 10–pOH
– –

pKa = – logKa
pKb = logKb
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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2

04. For weak acids, Ka = a C Þ Ka = a2C [ Because for weak acid a is very small ]
2

1-a
For weak bases, Kb = a c Kb = a2C [ Because fore weak bases a is very small ]
2

1-a
[Where a is the degree of dissociation of the acid or base and C is the initial mole number of the acid or base]
k a or b
That is , for the both cases, a = .............(1)
C
\ In weak acid solution [ H+ ] = aC = K a ´ C , in weak basic solution [ OH– ] = aC = K b ´ C
That is form (1), aµ K a or b [At a particular concentration]
Therefore, for acids with same concentration relative strength = a1
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K a1
=
a2 K a2
[Where, a1 and a2 are respectively the degree of dissociation constant for the 1st and 2nd acid and ka1 and
K a2 are respectively the dissociation constant for the 1st and the 2nd acid ]
05. Henderson - Hasselobach equation : For acidic buffer solution pH = pKa + log nsalt
n Acid
n
For basic buffer solution, pOH = pKb + log salt
nacid
[ When nsalt , nAcid and nBase are the no . of moles of the salt, acid and base respectively ]
06. For conjugate acid-base pairs : Ka × Kb = Kw = 10–14 ( at temp. 25°C)
taking logarithm to both sides pKa + pkb = pkw = 14 ( at temp. 25°C )
Ka, Kb are respectively the dissociation constant for the conjugate acid and base.
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07. For acid HA , Ka = [H ][A ] ; For base MOH, Kb = [M ][OH ]
+ - + -

[HA] [MOH ]
08. New pH due to the addition of strong acid or base to the buffer solution :
(a) If n mole strong acid is added to the buffer solution and initial no. of moles of salt, base and acid are
respectively nsalt, nBase, nAcid -
nsalt -n
(i) For acidic buffer solution new pH = pKa + log ( Here, if n ³ nsalt then the buffer capacity of the
n Acid + n
solution is destroyed and this equation cannot be applied.)
nsalt +n
(ii) For basic buffer solution new pH = pKb + log
nBase-n
(b) If n mole strong base is added to the buffer solution -
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nsalt + n
(i) For acidic buffer solution new pH = pKa + log
n Acid - n
n -n
(ii) For basic buffer solution new pH = pKb + log salt
nBase + n
Here to calculate the new pH there is no need to know the Ka or PKa. For example : (a) for (i) the change in pH =
new pH - initial pH .
nsalt - n n n -n n
= pKa + log – pKa – log salt = log salt – log salt
n Acoid + n n Acid n Acid + n n Acid
Type based problems and solutions
Type - 01: Related to the determine of pH, pOH, [ H+] [OH–] of strong acid and base
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Example -01: What is the pH of 0.02M H2SO4 solution ?

2-
Sol: H2SO4 ® 2H+ + SO 4
0.022× 0.02
\ pH = – log [ H+ ] = – log ( 2×0.02) = 1.398 ( Ans)
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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
M
Example - 02: What is the pH of Barium Hydroxide solution?
7
Sol : Formula of Barium Hydroxide Ba ( OH)2
Ba(OH)2® Ba2+ + 2OH–
\ pOH = – log [OH– ] = – log ( 2× 1 )
7
pOH = 0.544 \ pH = 14 – pOH = 14 – 0.544 = 13.456 (Ans.)
Exmple - 03: What is the pH of 2.5% NaOH solution ?
Sol : NaOH ® Na+ + OH – [ x% Molarity s = 10 x ]
M
0.625 0.625
\ pOH = – log [ OH– ] = – log (0.625) = 0.204 \ pH = 14 – 0.204 = 13.796 (Ans.)
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Example 04 : The pH of SO3 solution is found to be 3. What is the concentration of H+ ion in that solution ?
Sol: SO3 solution : SO3 + H2O ® H2SO4 ( Which is an acidic solution )
2-
Again, H2SO4 ® 2H + + SO 4
\ pH = – log [ H ] Þ 3 = – log [ H+ ] = 10–3M (Ans.)
+

Example - 05: 1.35g HCI solution of volume 3L. What is the pH of the solution ?
Concentration of HCL solution , S = W = 1.35 = 0.0123M
MV 36.5 ´ 3
HCI ® H+ + Cl–
0.0123 0.0123
+
\ pH = – log [ H ] = – log ( 0.0123)
\ pH = 1.191 (Ans)
Example - 06 : If the pH of sulphuric acid solution is pH = 1.05 , then find the [ H2SO4 ] for that solution .
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2-
Sol : H2SO4 ® 2H+ + SO 4
pH = log [ H+ ] Þ 1.05 = log [ H+ ]
1
Now, from the reaction, no . of mole of H2SO4 in the solution = × ( no of mole of H+ ion)
2
\ Molarity of H2SO4 = 1 ×( molarity of H2 ion )
2
1
= [ H+ ] = æ1 ö
ç ´ 0.089 ÷ M \ [ H2SO4 ] = 0.0445 ( Ans)
2 è2 ø
Type - 02: Determine of pH, pOH , a, Ka , Kb of weak acid base
Caser - 01 .Monoprotic acid or base
Here ka = a C ( Or Ka = a2C) and kb = a c ( Or Kb = a2C )
2 2
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1-a 1-a
[ H ] = aC = K a ´ C [OH ] = aC = K b ´ C
+ –

Example - 07 : What is the pH of 0.01M NH4OH ? [ Kb = 1.8×10–5]

Sol : NH4OH is weak base whose Kb = 1.8×10–5 . For weak base, Kb = a2C
-5
Þa = Kb = 1.8 ´ 10 \ a = 0.042426 \ pOH = – log [OH– ] = – log (aC) = – log( 0.42426× 0.01) =
C 0.01
3.3724
\ pH = 14 – pOH Þ pH = 14 – 3.3724 \ pH = 10.6276 ( Ans)
-5
Alternative: pH = 14– pOH = 14+ log [ OH– ] = 14 + log K b ´ C = 14 +log 1.8 ´ 10 ´ 0.01 = 10.6276(Ans)
+
Example - 08: If at the starting of the reaction NH4OH NH 4 + OH – there is 25 mol NH4OH and only 5 mol
is ionized from here. Then what is the degree of dissociation of NH4 OH ? If the concentration is 0.01 mol/ dm3
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then what is the value of Kb then what is the value of Kb?

Sol : Amount of dissociation of NH4OH = 5 mol
\ for the dissociation of NH4OH a = amount dissocaited = 5 = 0.2 or, 20% (Ans.)
initial amount 25
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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
3 2 2 –4
Again, concentration c = 0.01 mol / dm \ kb = a C = ( 0.2) × 0.01 = 4×10 mol /L (Ans.)
Case - 02 : Diprotic or polyprotic acid or base **
Example - 09: What is the pH of 0.75M H3PO4 aqueous solution ? ( pKa = 2.2 ; Ka is the complete dissociations
constant of the acid)
3-
Sol : H3PO4 3H+ + PO 4
initial : C 0 0
at equilibrium : (1-a) C 3aC aC
\Ka = [H ] [PO4 ] = (3ac) ´ aC = 27a C
+ 3- 3 3 4 3

[ H 3 PO4 ] (1 - a )C 1-a

If a << 1, Ka = 27a4C3 \ a = ka 10 -2.2 = 0.153413

4 =4
27 ´ (0.75) 3
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3
27C
\pH = – log [ H+] = – log (3aC) = –log (3×0.153413×0.75) = 0.461955 (Ans)
Type - 03 : Determination of pH and pOH for concentrated solution
Example - 10: What are the pH and pOH of 1.5M H2SO4 solution ?
2-
Sol: H2SO4 ® 2H+ + SO 4
1.5 2x1.5
\ pH = log(1.5×2) = – 0.477 \ pOH = 14 + 0.477 [ Ans : pH = – 0.477, pOH = 14477 ]
It is to be noted that, pH scale has been established for dilute solutions of Acid or Base . But in some cases
where the concentration of [ H+ ] or [ OH– ] is very large, the value of pH or pOH can be negative or greater
than 14.1 At excess concentration the dissociation of strong acids decreases and the common ion effect is
observed . So the pH of solution with concentration greater than cannot be determined correctly . In these cases
it is better not to use pH and these type of Math problems are not our concern.
Type - 0 4: Determination of pH or pOH of acids and bases of very small concentration
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When the pH of acid solution is equal to or greater than 7 then 10–7 is added to the concentration of [H+] . If the
pH of basic solutions is equal to or less than 7 then 10–7 is added to the concentration of [ OH–] . ( It is to be
noted that, this 10–7 is the concentration of H+ or OH– produced from the dissociation of water ).
If the pH of 1.5× 10–9M HCK is determined -
\ The real pH of the solution = – log ( 1.56× 10–9 + 10–7) = 6.99 ( which is less than 7)
Example 11 : What is the pH for 10-8N H2SO4 solution ?
Sol : pH = – log [ (2×10–8) + 10–7 ] = 6.9208 (Ans.)
In reality 10–7 can be added to all the cases . But when the concentration of acid or basic solution is >> 10–
5
M, then the difference between the pH obtained by adding 10–7 and the pH obtained by normal calculation is
very small.
If the given concentration is equal to or less than 10–5 M then 10–7 is added to find the pH .
Type - 05 : Determination of the relative strength of two acids or two bases :
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Example - 12 : The dissociation constant for formic acid and acetic acid are respectively 21.4×10–5.
Find their relative strength .
Strength of HCOOH
Sol: Strength of CH COOH = K HCOOH = 21.4 ´ 10 -5 = 3.438
3
K CH 3COOH 1.81 ´ 10 - 5
That is formic acid is 3.438 times stronger than acetic acid. (Ans.)
Type - 06: Determination of pH and pOH of mixed solution [ Here if the remaining acid/ base is weak then
buffer solution is obtained . In that case problems related to buffer solution is to be studied ]
Example - 13: What is the pH of the mixture of 20mL 0.075M NaOH and 10mL 0.1HCl ?
Sol: 20 mL 0.075 M NaOH = ( 0.01×0.1) mol HCI = 10–3mol HCI
\ 10–3 mol HCl reacts with 10–3 mol NaOH to give 10–3mol HCl
or 5×10–4 mol NaOH remains .
-4
Total volume of the solution = 30mL \ pH = 14 – pOH = 14 +log [OH– ] = 14+log 5 ´ 10 = 12.2218 (Ans.)
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0.03
Example - 14: In a solution of volume 1000cm3 there are 4.6 g HCOOH and 6g CH3 COOH . Find the pH neglecting
the common ion effect ion effect. [ K CH 3COOH = 1.8 ´ 10-5 , K HCOOH = 1.8 ´ 10-4 ]

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
Sol : nHCOOH = 4.6 = 0.1mol, CHCOOH = 0.1mol \ L and, n CH =
6
= 0 . 1mol , C CH 3 COOH = 0 . 1mol / . L
3 COOH
46 60
pH = – log [ The summation of the concentration of H+ ion ]
= – log { K HCOOH ´ C HCOOH + K CH 3COOH ´ CCH 3 COOH }
= –log { 1.8 ´ 10-4 ´ 0.1 + 1.8 ´ 10-5 ´ 0.1 } = – log ( 5.58×10–3) = 2.25 (Ans)

Type - 07: Related to the Buffer Solution

no . of moles = mass (W ) = morality (S) × volume (V) .
molecular mass ( M )
Example = 15 : How much mole sodium propionate needs to be added to make a buffer solution of of 4.75 pH
in a container having 0.02mol sodium propanoic acid and volume 2dm3 ? ( K C 2 H 5 = 1.8×10–5)
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Sol : pH = pKa + log nsalt Þ 14 – 10 = – log ( 1.8×10–4) + log Vsalt ´ Csalt
nAcid VAcid ´ C Acid
Þ 0.255 = log Vsalt ´ 0.1 \ Vsalt = 45cm3
50 ´ 0.05
Example - 17 : What is the ratio of the concentration of NH4OH and NH4Cl to keep the pH of a basic buffer
solution constant at 9.03 ? [ pKb = 4.75 ]
nNH 4 cl
Sol : For basic buffer solution, pOH = pKb + log
nNH 4 OH
Þ 14 – 9.03 = 4.75 +log [NH 4 Cl ] [Because, for a particular volume no. of mole a molarity]
[NH 4 OH ]
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Þ 0.22 = log [NH 4 Cl ] Þ [NH 4 Cl ] = 100.22 Þ [NH 4 Cl ] = 0.6 (Ans.)
[NH 4 OH ] [NH 4 OH ] [NH 4 OH ]
3
Example - 18: What is the pH of 150cm 0.1M NaOH solution ? ( KCH COOH = 1.8 ´ 10-5 ) 3

Sol: 90cm3 0.1 NaOH reacts with 90cm3 0.1M CH3 COOH to give 99cm3 0.1 M CH3COONa
\ CH3COOH remaining = 60cm3 0.1M CH3COOH . Here acidic buffer solution is obtained .
nsalt
\ pH = pKa + log = log (1.8 ×10–5) + log 0.09 ´ 0.1 = 4.9208 ( Ans.)
nNH 4OH 0.06 ´ 0.1
Example - 19: For HPO3, NaH2PO4 and Na2HPO4 the value of pKa is respectively 2.3, 7.21 and 12.35 . A buffer
solution with 7.00 pH is to be made using two of them.
(a) Which two of the compounds are used? Why? (b) What is the value of [ salt ] for the buffer solution?
[ acid ]
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Sol: (a) Since the pH of the buffer solution should be close to the pKa of the acid of the buffer solution ( if pH =
pKa then buffer capacity is maximum) the acid for the buffer solution is NaH2PO4.
The salt is the conjugate base of the acid that is Na2HPO4
Ans. NaH2PO4 (acid) and Na2HPO4 (salt)
Sol: (b) pH = pka log [salt ] Þ 7.0 = 7.21 + log [salt ] Þ – 0.21 \ [salt ] = 10–0.21 = 0.617 (Ans.)
[acid ] [acid ] [acid ]
Type - 08 : Change in pH and pH after adding strong acid or base to the buffer solution
Example - 20 . A buffer solution is obtained by adding 500cm3 0.01M CH3COOH and 200cm3 0.01M CH3 COONa.
If in that solution 50cm3 0.02M HCI is added then what is the pH of the buffer solution ? [ pKa = 4.38 ]
nsalt
Sol: pH = pKa + log
n Acid
CH3COONa + HCI ® CH3COOH + NaCl
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\nsalt = (200×0.01 – 50×0.02) ¸ 1000 = 21 mole and nAcid = = ( 500×0.01 + 50×0.02) ¸ 1000 = 6 mole
1000 1000
pH = 4.38 + log 1/1000 = 3.60 (Ans.)
6 / 1000
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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
Type - 09: Related to the conjugate acid or base and Kw
+
Example - 21. If the dissociation constant for NH 4 ion is 5.8× 10–10. what is the dissociation constant for NH3 ?
+
Sol: NH3 + H+ ® NH 4 (Conjugate acid of NH3)
+
Therefore, according to the condition, the dissociation constant of NH 4 is, Ka = 5.8×10–10
Let, the dissociation constant of NH3 = Kb ; for conjugate pairs Kb = 1.72× 10–5 (Ans)
10 -14
Þ 5.8×10–10 × Kb = 10–4 Þ Kb = Þ Kb = 1.72× 10–5 (Ans.)
5.8 ´ 10 -10
Example - 22 . For an unknown solution the concentration of [ H+] is 0.01molL–1. What is the concentration of
hydroxyl ion in that solution ? Is the solution acidic or basic ?
Sol : For any solution, [ OH– ] × [H+ ] = 10–14
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Þ [ OH– ] × 0.01 = 10–14 \ [ OH–1 ] = 010–12M (Ans.)
Since, for the solution [H+ ] > [ OH–], so the solution is acidic ( Ans.)

Transformation of energy in chemical reaction

r Introduction
Chemical reactions are nothing but formation of new bonds and cleavage of old bonds. During these
processes, energy change is observed which arise due to rearrangement of atoms in reactants to form
products. Generally, a chemical reaction is accompanied either by (i) absorption of heat or (ii) by evolution
of heat.
r Internal energy & Enthalpy
Internal energy: It is the sum of different form of energies stored in atoms or molecules such as transitional
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energy, rotational energy, vibrational energy, electronic energy etc. Different substances have different
internal energies and they depend upon the nature of constituent atoms, bonds, temperature etc. It is
represented by E.
Enthalpy: The summation of internal energy (E) and the multiplication of system pressure (P) and volume
(V) is called enthalpy. It is represented by H.
H = E + PV
r Exothermic and endothermic reactions
ΔH = Enthalpy of products – Enthalpy of reactants
= Hproducts – Hreactants
Ø The value of ΔH can be zero, negative or positive.
Ø When ΔH is zero, the enthalpies of the products and reactants are the same. Equal amount of heat is
evolved and absorbed.
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Ø If ΔH is negative, then it is called as exothermic reactions. Such reactions are accompanied by the evolution
of heat energy.
Here, Hproducts < Hreactants
Energy absorbed in bond breaking < energy evolved in bond forming.
Internal energy of reactant > Internal energy of products
Ø If ΔH is positive, then it is called as endothermic reactions. Such reactions are accompanied by absorption
of heat energy.
Here, Hproducts > Hreactants
Energy absorbed in bond breaking > energy evolved in bond forming.
Here, Internal energy of reactant < Internal energy of products.
r Law of conservation of energy
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Energy can neither be created nor destroyed although it can be converted from one form into another.
This is also known as the first law of thermodynamics.
r Thermo-chemical equations
The factors which affect the quantity of heat evolved or absorbed during a chemical transformation are:
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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
Ø Whether the change occurs in constant pressure or constant volume
Ø Amount of reactants and products
Ø Physical state of the reactants and products
Ø Temperature
Ø Pressure
An equation which represents the amount of heat change as well as chemical changes in the reactions or
process is called thermochemical equations.
1
H2 (g) + 2 O2 (g) = H2O (l); ΔH = – 286 kJ
1
H2 (g) + 2 O2 (g) = H2O (g); ΔH = – 241.6 kJ
r Heat of reaction/Enthalpy of a reaction
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Ø The enthalpy change accompanying the chemical reaction when the molar quantities of reactants and
products are the same as indicated in the balanced equation.
1
H2 (g) + 2 O2 (g) = H2O (l); ΔH0298K = –285.85 KJ mol–1
Ø The enthalpy of a reaction varies with temperature. A standard state of a substance is its most stable under
one atmospheric pressure and 298 K. In thermo-chemistry, 25 °C or 298 K temperature and 1 atm
pressure represent the standard state.
r Heat of formation
Ø The quantity of heat change during the formation of one mole of a substance from its constituent
elements.
C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g); ΔHf = – 393.5 kJ mol–1
1 1 –1
2 H2 (g) + 2 Cl2 (g) → HCl (g); ΔHf = – 92.3 kJ mol
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Ø When all the species of the chemical reaction are in their standard states, the enthalpy of formation is
called standard heat of formation and denoted by ΔH°f.
Ø By conventions, the standard enthalpies of free elements are taken to be zero.
r Heat of reaction at constant pressure
From 1st law of thermodynamics,
Applied heat = Increase of internal energy + work done for the expansion of volume of gas
Qp = ΔE + PΔV = E2 – E1 + P (V2 – V1)
= E2 – E1 + PV2 – PV1
= (E2 + PV2) – (E1 + PV1)
= H2 – H1
= ΔH
So at constant pressure, the quantity of heat applied will be equal to ΔH.
Heat of reaction at constant Volume
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r
Qv = ΔE + PΔV = ΔE + 0 [ΔV = 0, PΔV= 0] = ΔE
Therefore, the change of internal energy is the heat of reactions at constant volume.
r Relation between Qp and Qv
Qp = ΔE + PΔV
Qp = ΔH
ΔH = ΔE + PΔV = ΔE + P (V2– V1) = ΔE + PV2– PV1 = ΔE + n2RT – n1RT = ΔE + RT (n2 – n1) = ΔE + ΔnRT
As we know, Qp= ΔH & Qv = ΔE
Qp= Qv + ΔnRT
r Heat of decomposition
Ø Amount of heat required to decompose 1 mole of a substance to its constituent elements.
1
H2O (l) = H2(g) + 2O2(g); ΔH = +285.85 kJmol–1
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Ø The bonds of elements in the molecule are broken down and for this, heat is always absorbed. The reaction
is always endothermic.

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
r Heat of combustion
Ø Amount of heat evolved when 1 mole of a substance is burnt completely in oxygen at a given temperature
and 1 atm pressure.
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) = CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l); D Hc = – 890 kJ mol–1
This means when 1 mol of methane is completely burnt in oxygen then 890 kJ heat is evolved.
Similarly, C2H5OH (l)+3O2(g) = 2CO2 (g)+3H2O(l); D H0c = – 1368 kJ mol–1
C(s) + O2 (g) = CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l); D H0c = – 393.5 kJ mol–1
Ø The heat of combustion is always exothermic.
r Heat of neutralization
Ø Amount of heat changed accompanying the complete neutralization of one gram of equivalent of an acid by
an equivalent amount of base or vice versa in dilute aqueous solution.
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NaOH(aq) +HCl(aq) ® NaCl(aq) +H2O(l); D H= – 57.3 kJ
Ø The heat of neutralization of all strong acids and strong bases is always constant and the value of 57.3 kJ.
The strong acids and bases are almost completely ionized in dilute aqueous solutions. They simply involve
the combination of H+ (from acid) and OH– (From base) to form water molecules and 57.3 kJ energy is
released.
H+(aq) + OH–(aq) ® H2O (l); D H= – 57.3 kJ
Hence, the value of neutralization of strong acid or strong base is constant.
Ø If either acid or base is weak, then its ionization is not complete in solution. Therefore, a part of energy
liberated during combination of H+ and OH– is utilized for the ionization of un–dissociated molecules of
weak acid or base.
CH3COOH (aq) + NaOH (aq) ® CH3COONa (aq) + H2O (l) ; D H= – 55.2 kJ
HCl (aq) + NH4OH (aq) ® NH4Cl (aq) +H2O (l); D H= – 51.5 kJ
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On the other hand, the heat of neutralization of strong base:
HF (aq) +NaOH (aq) ® NaF (aq) +H2O (l); D H= – 68.6 kJ
It is much higher than expected value for strong acid and strong base. The reason is that the product NaF
ionizes to Na+ and F– and strong solvation of the small ion F– will evolve much heat. So, the total amount of
heat will be higher than –57.3 kJ.
r Heat of solution
Amount of heat change when one mole of a solid substance is dissolved in so much amount of solvent that
on further addition of solvent there is no heat change observed.
Heat of solution of H2SO4 = 84.52 kJ
r Heat of fusion
Quantity of enthalpy change accompanying the conversion of 1 mole of a solid substance into the liquid
state at its melting point.
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H2O (s) ® H2O (l); ΔH0fusion= +6.0 kJmol–1
r Heat of vaporization
Amount of heat which is required to convert 1 mole of a liquid substance of a particular pressure into
vapor at the boiling point.
H2O (l) → H2O (vap); ΔH0vap= + 40.7 kJ mol–1
r Heat of sublimation
The amount of heat required to coNvert 1 mole of a solid volatile substance directly into vapor.
C (graphite) ® C (g); ΔH = +717.02 kJmol–1
r Heat of ionization
The amount of heat required to covert 1 mole gaseous atom to fully convert into a single charged ion.
Na (g) ® Na+ + e-; ΔH = +496 kJmol–1
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r Heat of precipitation
The change in enthalpy for the formation of one mole of precipitate of a substance in a chemical reaction.
NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) = NaNO3 (aq) + AgCl (s) ¯
The heat released for the formation of 1 mol of AgCl is the heat of precipitation.

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
r Heat of atomization
Ø The amount of heat required to convert 1 mole of an element from its normal state at 298K and 1 atm
pressure into a mole of free atom.
1 –1
2 F2 (g) = F (g); Δ = +79.1 kJmol
Ø ΔH°fatom is always positive and its value of measured from spectroscopic measurement.
r Laws of thermo-chemistry
1. Law of Lavoisier and Laplace
2. Hess’s law of constant heat summation
r Law of Lavoisier and Laplace
The heat change accompanying a chemical reaction is one direction is exactly equal in magnitude, but
opposite in sign, to that associated with the same reaction in the reverse direction.
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1 1
H2 (g) + 2 O2 (g) = H2O (l), ΔH = –285.85 kJ mol–1H2O (l) = H2 (g) + 2 O2 (g), ΔH = +285.85 kJ mol–1
r Hess’s law
The enthalpy change in a chemical process is the same whether the process is carried out in one step or in
several steps. If the reaction takes place in more than one step, the enthalpy of the reaction is equal to the
algebraic sum of enthalpies of various steps of the reaction.
r Illustration of Hess’s law
Let us consider the formation of carbon dioxide from carbon and oxygen. There are two ways by which the
change can be brought about.
(a) Conversion of carbon to carbon dioxide directly.
C(s) + O2(g) ¾¾® CO2(g); ΔH = -393.5 kJ
(b) Conversion of carbon to carbon monoxide and subsequent oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon
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dioxide.
1
C(s) + 2 O2 (g) ¾¾® CO (g); ΔH1 = -110.5 kJ
1
CO (g) + 2 O2 (g) ¾¾® CO2 (g); ΔH2 = -283.0 Kj
The two paths by which carbon can be converted into carbon dioxide have been shown in Figure
CO(g
1 1
+ 2 O2 + 2O2
 ΔH 
¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾®
C(s) + O2 CO2(g)
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Figure: Two different paths of conversion of carbon to carbon dioxide.
As is clear, ΔH = ΔH1+ΔH2
-393.5 kJ = -110.5 + (–283.0) = –393.5 kJ
Hess’s law allows us to carry out thermo–chemical calculations to predict the enthalpies of different
reactions whose direct measurement is not possible.
r Bond energy & Bond dissociation energy
The bond energy is defined as the average energy required breaking all bonds of a particular type present in
one mole of the substance. The bond energy of H–H is 433 kJmol–1. This amount of energy is required to
break all bonds in one mole of H2.
The bond energies of some common bonds are listed below:
Bond Bond Energy
Cl-Cl 243 kJ mol-1
O=O 499.0 kJ mol-1
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C-H 414.0 kJ mol-1

O-H 460.0 kJ mol-1
Bond dissociation energy is defined as the amount of energy which is required to break 1.0 mole of a
particular bond present in one mole of a substance
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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
r ΔH as the criteria for spontaneity of reaction
Usually, the exothermic reactions are spontaneous. So it can be concluded that negative value of ΔH is the
criteria for spontaneity of a reaction. Some examples of exothermic processes which are spontaneous are
given below:
1
H2(g) + 2O2 (g) ¾¾® H2O(l); ΔH = -286kJ
C(s) + O2(g) ¾¾® CO2(g); ΔH = -39kJ
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ¾¾® 2NH3(g); ΔH = –92kJ
But it is not the only criteria for reaction spontaneity. The reasons are stated below:
1. Many endothermic reactions with positive ΔH are also spontaneous. A few examples of spontaneous
endothermic reactions are given below:
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2HgO (s) ¾¾® 2Hg(l) + O2(g); ΔH = + 90.3kJ
+
NH4Cl(s) ¾¾® NH4(aq) + Cl-(aq); ΔH = +15kJ
2. Many of the spontaneous exothermic reactions when carried out in a closed vessel do not go to completion
and proceed only up to a state of equilibrium.
3. There are many reactions in which forward and backward reactions take place simultaneously.
exothermic
2HI(g) H2(g) + I2(g)
Endothermic
MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS
r Type 1 (Calculation of heat of reaction)
Example-1: The standard formation enthalpy of CH4(g), CO2(g), H2O(l) are –74.89, –393.3 and –285.34 kJ mol–
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1
. Calculate the heat of combustion of methane.
Solve: CH4(g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l); D H = x kJ mol–1
\ x = [–393.3 + 2 × (–285.34) – (–74.89 + 0)] = –889.80 kJ mol–1
\ The heat of combustion of methane is – 889.80 kJmol–1. (Ans.)
r Problems to solve
1. The standard heat of formation of C2H6 (g), CO2(g) & H2O(l) are -88.28 kJ, 393.71 kJ & –285.85 kJ
respectively. Determine the standard heat of combustion of C2H6 (g). [Ans. -1556.69 kJmol-1]
2. Determine ∆H of the following reactions using the given enthalpies.
CH4(g)+3Cl2(g) → CHCl3 (l)+3HCl(g). [Ans. – 336.62 kJmol-1 ]
∆Hf(HCl) = –92.31 kJ mol–1; ∆Hf(CHCl3) = –134.5 kJmol–1; ∆Hf(CH4) = –74.81 kJmol–1
3. The combustion reaction of C6H6 is as follows,
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7
C6H6 (l) + 2 O2(g) ¾® 3H2O(l) + 6CO2(g)
If the heat of formation of C6H6(l), H2O(l) & CO2(g) are –205, –286 & –393 kJ mol-1 respectively, then find
the heat evolved from 1.0gm C6H6 ? [Ans. 38.6 kJ]
4. The standard heat of formation of CCl4(g), H2O(g), CO2(g) and HCl(g) at 298K are -106.69, –241.83, –393.7
and –92.46 kJmol1 respectively. Find out the heat of reaction of the following reaction according to the
above data. CCl4(g) + 2H2O(g) = CO2(g) + 4HCl(g). [Ans. –173.19kJ]
r Type 2: (Heat of formation)
Example-1: When 2 moles of ethane is completely burnt, 3129 kJ heat is liberated. Calculate the heat of
formation of C2H6. ΔHf for CO2 (g) and H2O(l) are –393.5 and –286 kJ respectively.
Solve: 2 C2H6(g)+ 7O2(g) →4CO2 (g)+ 6H2O(l); ΔH = –3129 kJ
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Here, 3129 = [4 × (–393.5) + 6 × (–286)] – [2x + 0]

Þ 2x = –1574 – 1716 + 3129
Þ x = – 80.5 kJmol1 (Ans.)

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
r Problems to solve:
1. The heat of formation of C6H6(l), H2O(l) and CO2(g)are –205,–286 and –393 kJmol–1 respectively. Calculate
the amount of heat that will be produced if 18.0 g benzene is combusted. [Ans. 694.8 kJ]
2. From the following reactions find out the value of heat of formation of ethanol at 27°C.
C(s) + O2(g) ¾® CO2(g); ΔH = –394 kJ
1
H2(g) + O2(g) ¾® H2O(l); ΔH = –285 kJ
2
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) = 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l); ΔH = –1367 kJ [Ans. –276 kJmol-1]

r Type 3 (Comparison of fuels)

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Example-1: The standard enthalpy of formation of CH4(g), C2H6(g), CO2(g), H2O(g) are –74.89, –84.52,–393.3 and
–220.9 kJ mol–1 respectively. Compare ethane and methane as fuels.
Solve: The combustion reaction of methane: CH4(g)+ 2O2(g) = CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
\DH=DH° f ( CO2 ) +2DH° f ( H 2O ) –DH° f ( CH 4 ) –2DH° f (O2 )
= –393.3+2´(–220.9)–(–74.89)–2´0=–760.21 kJ mol–1
\ 16 g methane produces 760.21 kJ heat
\ 1 g methane produces 760.21 kJ Þ 47.51 kJ
16
7
The combustion reaction of ethane: C2H6(g) + O2(g) = 2CO2(g) +3H2O(g)
2
7
\DH=2DH° f ( CO2 ) +3DH° f ( H 2O ) –DH° f ( C2 H6 ) – DH° f (O2 )
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2
7
=2´(–393.3) + 3´(–220.9)–(–84.52) – ´0 =–1364.78 kJmol–1
2
\30g ethane produces 1364.78 kJ heat
\1g ethane produces 1364.78 kJ Þ 45.49 kJ heat
30
\As 1g methane produces more heat than 1g ethane so methane is preferable than ethane.
r Type 4 (Heat of combustion)
Example-1: 2 kg of water can be heated to 26°C from 24°C by burning 0.5 g carbon. Determine the heat of
combustion of carbon.
Solve: The amount of heat require to do the duty, Q = msΔθ = 2×4200×2 = 16.8 kJ
0.5 g of carbon produces 16.8 kJ heat
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16.8´12
\12 g of carbon produces 0.5 kJ heat = 403.2 kJ [Ans.]
r Problems to solve
1. How much oxygen is required to produce 1600 kJ heat, when the heat of combustion of methane is –
490.3kJ mol-1. [Ans. 208.85g]
r Type 5
Example-1: At STP, the heat of combustion of C2H2(g), H2(g)and C2H4(g) are –1299, –286.18 and –1411kJmol1
respectively. Calculate the heat of hydrogenation of acetylene.
Solve:
5
(i) C2H2(g) + 2 O2(g) = 2CO2(g) + H2O(l); ΔH = –1299 kJ
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1
(ii) H2 (g) + 2O2(g) = H2O (l) ; ΔH = –285.85 kJ
(iii) C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) = 2CO2 +2H2O; ΔH = –1411 kJ
(iv) C2H2(g) + H2 (g) = C2H4(g); ΔH = ?

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
Add equation (i) & (ii) and then subtract it from equation (iii)
5
C2H2(g) + 2 O2(g) = 2CO2(g) + H2O(l); ΔH = –1299 kJ
1
(+)H2 (g) + 2O2(g) = H2O (l) ; ΔH = –285.85 kJ
C2H2(g) + 3O2(g)+H2 (g) = 2CO2(g)+H2O (l); ΔH = -1585.18 kJ
(-) C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) = 2CO2 + 2H2O; ΔH = -1411 kJ
C2H2(g) + H2 (g) = C2H4(g); ΔH = -174.18 kJ
Ans. The hydrogenation enthalpy of acetylene is -174.18 kJ.

Problems to solve:
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r
1. The enthalpy of combustion of C, H2 and C2H5OH are –394, –285 and –1367 kJmol–1. Calculate the enthalpy
of formation of ethanol.
2. From the following data, calculate the enthalpy of formation of N2O5:
i) N2(g)+O2(g) = 2NO(g); ∆H = +180.5 kJ mol–1
ii) 4NO2(g)+O2(g) = 2N2O5; ∆H = –110.5 kJ mol–1
iii) 2NO (g)+O2(g) = 2NO2(g); ∆H = –114.1 kJmol–1
3. From the given data, determine the heat of formation of C2H2
(i) C(s) + O2(g) ¾® CO2(g); DH = –406 kJ
1
(ii) H2(g) + 2 O2(g) ¾® H2O(l); DH = -286 kJ
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5
(iii) C2H2(g) + 2O2(g) ¾® 2CO2(g) + H2(l); DH = –1304 kJ [Ans. 206kJ mol-1]
4. The heat of combustion of CS2, C & S are –1109.17, –394.55 & –297.39 kJmol-1respectively. Determine the
heat of formation of CS2.
5. The standard heat of combustion of CH3COOH, C & H2 are –871.5, –393.5 & –285.85 kJmol-1 respectively.
Determine the heat of formation of CH3COOH. [Ans. 487.19 kJmol-1]
6. The heat of combustion of methane is –902.83 kJmol-1. The heat of formation of CO2(g) and H2O(l) are –406.1
and –285.85 kJmol-1 respectively. Find the value of heat of formation of CH4. [Ans. 75 kJmol-1]
r Type 6 (Decomposition enthalpy)
Example-1: The enthalpies of neutralization of HCl with NaOH (conc) and NH4OH are –57.32 kJ and –51.46 kJ
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respectively. Calculate the dissociation enthalpy of NH4OH.
Solve: Given, (H++Cl–) + (Na++OH–) = (Na++Cl–) + H2O; DH=– 57.32 kJ
Þ H++OH– = H2O; DH=–57.32 kJ… … … (1)
Again,(H++Cl–)+ NH4OH = (NH4++Cl–)+H2O; DH= –51.46 kJ
Shortcut: Decomposition enthalpy =
ÞH++ NH4OH = NH4++ H2O; DH=–51.46kJ … … … (2) Given enthalpy – neutralization enthalpy
Subtracting eqn(2) from eqn (1)
NH4OH – OH– = NH4+; DH=–51.46 – (–57.32)
Þ NH4OH = NH4++ OH–;DH=5.86 kJ
\ The decomposition enthalpy of NH4OH is 5.86 kJmol–1 (Ans.)
r Problems to solve
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1. The neutralization enthalpy of HCN and NaOH is –12.134 kJmol–1. Calculate the decomposition enthalpy of
HCN. [Ans. 45.096 kJ mol–1]

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
r Type 7
Example-1: When 1.0 mole of methane is burned with oxygen at 25°C and at constant pressure of 101.325 kPa,
801.8 kJ heat is released. If the reaction was carried out at constant volume, what would be the amount of
heat energy released? Calculate the change in internal energy.
Solve: The combustion reaction of methane: CH4(g)+2O2(g)=CO2(g) + 2H2O (l) ; DH= – 801.8 kJ
DH=DE+DnRTÞDE=DH–DnRT Here, DH=–801.8 kJ
–3
ÞDE= – 801.8 – (–2) ´ 8.316´10 ´298 Dn= n CO - ( n O 2 + n CH 4 )=1–(2+1) = –2
ÞDE=–796.84 kJ 2

\At constant volume, heat of reaction is same equal as T=(25+273) K=298 K

change of internal energy. R=8.316 J mol–1 K–1
So at constant volume, the heat of reaction and change =8.316´10–3 kJ mol–1 K–1
in internal energy would be –796.84 kJ. [Ans.]
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r Problems to solve
1. The molar heat of formation of NH4NO3 is –367.54kJ and those of N2O(g) and H2O(l) are 81.46 and –285.78
kJmol1 respectively at 25°C and 1.0 atmospheric pressure. Calculate H and E for the reaction:
NH4NO3(s) ¾® N2O(g) + 2H2O(l)
[Ans. DH = –122.56 kJ; DE = –125.037 kJ]
r Type 8
1. Calculate the heat of reaction of the following reaction: C2H6+Cl2 = C2H5Cl+HCl.
Bond Bond energy (kJ)
C–H 410.03
Cl–Cl 238.49
C–Cl 326.35
H–Cl 426.77
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Solve: The reaction is: CH3–CH2– H + Cl–Cl®CH3–CH2–Cl + H–Cl
In this reaction one C–H and one Cl–Cl bond break down and one C–Cl and one H–Cl bond are formed.
\ The energy absorbed in breaking of bonds = (410.03+238.49) kJ=648.52 kJ
\ The energy evolved in formation of bonds = (326.35+426.77) kJ=753.12 kJ
\The heat of reaction, DH = (648.52–753.12) kJ mol–1= –104.6 kJ mol–1 (Ans.)
r Problem to solve
Calculate enthalpy of reaction of this reaction: CH4+Cl2®CH3Cl+HCl. The bond enthalpies of C–H, Cl–Cl, C–Cl, H–
Cl are 410.03, 238.49, 326.35 & 426.77 kJ respectively
Previous Years Question
2010. Ethanol is added to distilled water. The pH value of the mixture will be-
(a) more than 7.0 (b) less than 7.0 (c) 7.0 (d) None of the above
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2010. What is the pH value of 1.0M aqueous solution of table salt? (a) 6.5 (b) 7.0 (c) 4.5 (d) 8.5
2010. Which of the following is the ionic product of water at 298K? (a) 10–12M (b) 10–14 (c) 10–13M2 (d) 10–
14 2
M
2013. The value of Kp at 25°C for the following reaction is 1.9 ´ 103 atm-1. Calculate the value of Kc at the same

temperature. [RUET] 2NO(g) + Cl2(g) ⇌ 2NOCl(g)

Ö(A) 4.6 ´ 104 (B) 3.2 ´ 10-3 (C) 5.9 ´ 103 (D) 10.2 ´ 103 (E) None
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2013. In the reaction N2O4 ⇌ 2NO2, the partial pressure of N2O4 and NO2 are 0.75 atm and 0.25 atm respectively.

What will be the value of Kp and Kc of the reaction? [CUET] 3.4 ´ 10-3 molL-1 (Ans.)
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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
2013. The value of Dn is ½ of a reversible reaction. What will be the temperature in Kelvin of the reaction if the value
of Kp & Kc are 40.5 and 5.5 respectively? Given: R = 0.082 L atm K-1mol-1 [CUET]
(A) 179.60 K Ö(B) 661.26 K (C) 330.63 K (D) None of these
2013. Find out the pH values at the following different stages of the titration of 25 mL 0.1M HCl solution by
0.1M NaOH solution. (a) adding 24.99 mL of NaOH. (b) adding 25.1 mL of NaOH.
2013. The pH range of methyl orange is Ö(A) 3.1 - 4.4 (B) 4.2 - 6.3 (C) 6.0 - 7.6 (D) 8.3 - 10.0
2013. The neutralization reaction in which Arrhenius theory has been followed is
(A) NH3 (g) + HCl (g) = NH4Cl (g) (B) CaO (s) + CO2 (g) = CaCO3 (s)
Ö(C) NH4OH (aq) + HCl (aq) = NH4Cl (aq) + H2O (l) (D) FeO (s) + HCl (aq) = FeCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
2013. Agricultural production will fall drastically if pH of the soil reaches below 3.0, because at this condition
(A) Micro-organism of the soil will be destroyed (B) Nitrozen content in the soil will fall drastically
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(C) Soil structure will be weaken Ö(D) Soil component turns to be poisonous
2013. Identify the acid from the following [RUET]
(A) [Al](OH)(H2O)5]2+ Ö(B) [Al(H2O)6]3+ (C) [Fe(OH)2(H2O)4]+ (D) [Cu(OH)(H2O)3]1 (E) None
2013. Determine the pH of 0.020 M Ba(OH)2 solution. Ö(A) 12.60 (B) 5.36 (C) 8.12 (D) 11.24 (E)
None
2013. What is Buffer solution? How a buffer solution of 5.0 pH can be prepared from sodium acetate if pKa
value of acetic acid is 4.76 at 25°C? [CUET]
2014. In a reversible reaction if Δ n= 1 , then at what temperature in Celsius scale will the value of Kp be eight
2
times the value of Kc? Given, R=0.0821 L atm mol-1K-1. [BUET]
2014. Show that in case of a first order reaction, the time taken for 99.9% of the reaction to be completed is
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about 10 times the time required for half of the reaction to be completed. [BUET]
2014. The reaction H2+Br2 = 2HBr is carried out in a 0.250 L reaction vessel. The change in the amount of Br2 in
0.01s -0.001 mol. What is the rate of reaction? [BUET]
2014. How much time will be needed for the decrease of concentration of N2O5 by 1/3 in CCL4 medium at
35°C? At the temperature, K=1.35´10-4s-1. [RUET]
(A) 50 min 4 sec (B) 45 min 5 sec (C)40 min 5 sec (D) 50 min 40 sec Ö (E) None
2014. The temperature of 2.0 kg water is rises from 24°C to 26°C when 0.5g of Carbon is burned. Determine
the heat of combustion of carbon. [RUET]
(A) 301.664 kJ mol-1 Ö(B) 401.664 kJ mol-1 (C) 501.664 kJ mol-1 (D) 601.664 kJ mol-1 (E) None
2014. 15.6% PCl5 is separated a temperature 30°C and 1.5 atm pressure. Determine the value of Kp at the
temperature. (A) 0.374 atm (B) 1.374 atm Ö(C) 0.0374 atm (D) 2.357 atm (E) None
2014. The rate constant of basic hydrolysis of an ester 6.21´10-3dm3mol-1sec-1. How mass time is required to
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complete 90% of the reaction, if concentration of both ester and base is 0.05 mol. dm-3 [CUET]
Ö(a) 2.89´104s (b) 28.98´104s (c) 2898s (d) None of them
-2 -2 -1
2014. The rate constants of a chemical reaction are 2.5´10 and 7.10´10 min at temperature 25°C and 35°C
respectively. What is the activation energy of the reaction? (R=8.316JK-1mol-1) [CUET]
(a) 8771 J.mol-1 (b) 87.71 J.mol-1 Ö(c) 87.71 KJ.mol-1 (d) None of them
2014. The dissociation of cyclobutane (C4H8) at 500°C temperature is a first order reaction. The rate constant of
the reaction is 9.2´10-3s-1. What time will be required to dissociate 90% of a sample solution of 1.0M
[CUET]
(a) 100.82s (b) 200.53s Ö(c) 250.33s (d) 300.25s
2014. Identify buffer solution [RUET]
(A)0.2M 10mL. CH3COOH+0.2M 10 mL NaOH Ö(B) 0.2M 10mL. CH3COOH+0.1M 10 mL NaOH
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(C) 0.1M 10mL. CH3COOH+0.2M 10 mL NaOH (D) 0.2M 10mL. HCL+0.1M 10 mL NaOH (E) None
2014. 6 mL 0.15 M NaOH solution added in a 15 mL 0.15 M acetic acid solution. What will be the pH value of
the final solution? [RUET] (A) 2.584 (B) 3.584 (C) 5.584 Ö(D) 4.584 (E) None

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
2014. What types of fertilizer are used when the pH value of the land is reduced? [RUET]
(A) Na and Mn (B) Zn and Na Ö(C) Ca and Mg (D) K and Zn (E) None
+
2014. Conjugate acid of ammonia NH 4 have Ka=5.8´10-10. What will be the value of Kb for NH3 [CUET]
(a) 5.8´10-10 mol.L-1 (b) 5.8´10-4 mol.L-1 Ö(c) 1.72´10-5 mol.L-1 (d) 1.27´10-5 mol.L-1
2015. Standard formation enthalpy of CH4(g), C2H6(g), CO2(g), H2O are -74.89, -84.52, -393.30 and -220.20
KJmol-1.
Between CH4 & C2H6, which one is better fuel? [BUET]
2015. To get acidic buffer of pH = 4.6 ,find the ratio of salt and acid. Ka of CH3COOH is 1.8´10-5. [BUET]
2015. Rate constants of dissociation of nitrogen pentaoxide N2O5® N2O4 + O2 at 25° and 60°C are 3.46´10-5
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and 4.87´10-3 respectively. Find the activation energy. If the temp. is 85°C, What will be the rate constant?
1
2015. If Dn = 2 in a reversible reaction, at what temperature in degree Celsius will the value of Kp be eight times
the value of KC? Given that R = 0.0821 L atm mol-1K-1. [CUET]
2015. 65% dissociated PCl5 at 25°C temperature and 2.5 atm pressure produces PCl3 and Cl2. What is the value
of KC of this reaction? [CUET]
2015. The pKa of acitic acid is 4.76 at 25°C temperature. How butter solution of 5.0 pH is produced from sodium
acetate? [CUET]
2015. The combustion reaction for natural gas is as follows. What the amount of oxygen required in liter at STP
to produce 1500 KJ heat? CH4 + 2O2 ® CO2 + 2H2O; DH = -890 KJ [RUET]
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2015. (a) What is buffer solution? [RUET]

(b) Write down Henderson Hasselbach equation.

(c) A buffer solution contains 0.25 M NH3 and 0.40 M NH4Cl. Calculate the PH of the solution. Kb for
ammonia is 1.8´10-5.
2016. Write PH range of is substance [ BUET]
leather training (3.5 - 4.5)
water (6.8-7.2)
blood (7.35-7.45)
pottery (6-6.5)
bath soap (8.5-9.5)
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2016.Some fertilizer is dissolved in lake water. [ OH-] = 1011 is given. Find PH of lake. Can fishes
survive in this lake? [ BUET ]
OH -
Solve: P = [-log(OH) ] = 11
pH = 3 So the fish cannot live.
2016. Mango juice have concentration 0.1M I ka = 1.8´10-5 and orange juice have concentration 0.3M and
ka = 1.8 ´ 10-4. They are mixed . Find resultant pH. Is the mixed fruit juice drinkable ? [ BUET]
[H+] = ( 0.3´1.8´10-4 + .1´1.8´10-5) = 8.69´10-3
pH = [-log (H+)] = 2.06 The juice is undrinkable
2016. The rate of reaction is 2.25´10–5ms–1 and 3.15´10–5 ms–1 at the temperature of 45°C and 85°C
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i) Ea = ? ii) 120°C temperature k = ? [ BUET]

k2 Ea æT2-T1ö
logk = 2.303R ç T T ÷
1 è 1 2ø

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
-5
æ3.75´10 ö Ea æ 35 ö
log ç -5÷ = ç ÷
è2.25´10 ø 2.303 ´ 8.314 è393´358ø
Ea = 12.09 kJ mol-1
æ k ö 12089.57681 æ 35 ö
logç -5÷ = ç ÷
è3.75´10 ø 2.303´8.314 è393´358ø
k = 5.3839´10-5 s-1
2016. AB A++B- and AB + B- AB2- this two reaction create equilibrium together in a solution where
the equilibrium constant is k1 and k2 respectively. The ration of [A+] & [AB2-] in the solution will be:-
(A) Proportional to [B-] (B) disproportional to [B-] [ KUET]
-
(C) proportional to the square to [B ] (D) disproportional to the square to [B-]
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(E) not dependent on [B-]
Solve : AB A + + B–
–
AB + B AB2–
[A+] [B-]
\ K1 = [AB]
K1[AB]
or, [A+] = [B]
K1 [AB]
and K2 = [B–]
or, [AB2–] = K2[AB] [B– ]
[A+] K1
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\ [AB –] = K [B–]2
2 2
or, [AB2–] = K2[AB] [B–]
[A+] K1
\ [AB –] = K [B–]2
2 2
\ [B–] is not proportional/disproportional to the square
2016. The bond energy of O-H bond is 80 KCal. Calculate the heat of formation of water- [ KUET]
(A) 80 Kcal will be absorbed
(B) 80 Kcal will be emanated
(C) 160 Kcal will be absorbed
(D) 160 Kcal will be emanated
(E) 320 Kcal will be emanated
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Solve : H2O ¾® H – O – H
\ ( 80 ´ 2)
= 160 K Cal will be emanated
2016. 0.72g water and 3.08 g CO2 are produced in a combustion reaction of gaseous hydrocarbon. What is the
chemical formula of the hydrocarbon? [ KUET]
(A) C2H4 (B) C3H5 (C) C5H7 (D) C6H5 (E) C7H8
2
Solve : In 0.72 g water, the quantity of H2 = 18 ´ 0.72 = 0.08 g
12
In 3.08 g CO2 the quantity of C = 44 ´ 3.08 = 0.84 g
0.84 0.08
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C : H = 12 : 1
= 0.07 : 0.08
= 7:8
the chemical formula = C7H8
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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
2016. What will be the pH value of the resulting when 15 mL 1M H2SO4 solution is added to 15 mL 2M KOH
solution at 25°C? [ KUET]
(A) 4 (B) 5 (C) 6 (D) 7 (E) 8
Solve : Here,
nH2SO4 = ( 15 ´ 10–3 ´ 1) = 15 ´ 10–3 mole
nKOH = (15 ´ 10–3´2) = 30 ´ 10–3 mole
30 ´ 10–3 mole KOH reacted with 15 ´ 10–36 mol H2SO4 , that's why no acid or base remains .
2016. The rate constant of a reaction increases by five times when the temperature changes from 20°C to 45°C.
Calculate the energy of reaction of activation KJ? [KUET]
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(A) 29.87 (B) 39.87 (C) 49.87 (D) 59.87 (E) 69.87
k 2 Ea æ 1 1 ö
Solve : ln = ç - ÷
k1 R çè T1 T2 ÷ø
Ea æ 1 1 ö
or, ln(5) = 8.314 ç 293 – 318÷
è ø
or, Ea = 49869.95 J
= 49.87 kJ
2017.A certain volume of oxygen gas escapes through a small hole in 80 seconds. The time required to
escape the same volume of mixed gas containing 20% of an unknown component in oxygen under
the same condition i 85 seconds. Calculate the molecular mass of the unknown component ?
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t2 M2 85 M2
Þ 32 \ M2 = 36.125
Solve : t = = [BUET]
2 M1 80
M2 = Munx 0.2 + Mo2 ´ 0.8
ev, 36.125 = Mun ´0.2 + 32´0.8
\ Mun = 52.625
2017.Amonia reacts with oxygen in accordance with the following equation : 4NH3(g) + 502(g) + 6H2O (g)
At a particular moment the ammonia reacts at the rate of 0.24 mol L–1s–1. Write the rate equation
for the reaction and find the rate at which H2O(g) is formed. [BUET]
Solve : rate equation, r = k[NH3]x [O2]y, where x & y are reaction orders .
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1 1
rate of formation of H2O is, 6 DH2O = 4 DNH3
6
Or, DH2O = 4 ´ 0.24 = 0.36 molL–1
2017. 400 mL 0.1 M NaOH is added to 600 ml 0.2 M acetic acid to prepare a buffer solution. What is
the pH of the buffer solution? (for acetic acid pKa = 4.76) [BUET]
Solve :
NaOH + CH3COOH CH3COONa + H2O [salt]
pH = pKa + log [acid]
400 mL 0.1M NaOH reacts with 600 mL 0.2 M CH3COOH
or, 1200 mL 0.1M CH3OONa and remains (1200 - 400) or, = 4.76 + log 400
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800
800 mL 0.1 M CH3COOH
pH = 4.459

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
2017.200 mL of a sample of water required 5.0 mL of 0.025 M Na2CO3 solution for complete
precipitation of Ca2+ as CaCO3. Calculate the hardness in ppm of the water sample. [BUET ]
Solve : mol number of used Na2CO3 amount of CaCO3 = 1.25 ´10–4 mol
= 0.025 ´ 1000
5 = 1.25 ´ 10–2 g [M = 100]
= 12.5 mg
= 1.25 ´ 10–4 mol 12.5 ´ 1000
\ Hardness of sample = mgL–4
as we know, 1 mol Na2CO3 º 1 mol CaCO3 200
= 62.5 mg/L
= 62.5 ppm
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2017. Calculate the amount of distilled water required to convert one litre of H2SO4 of specific
gravity (sp. gr) 2.10 into H2SO4 of sp. gr . 1.40. [BUET ]
Solve : S1V1 = S2V2
2.10 ´ 1 = 1.40 ´ V2
V2 = 1.5 L
Amount of water required = 1.5 – 1 = 0.5 = 500L
2017. A mixture is prepared in the following way : 100 ml 0.05 M Na2CO3 solution +100 ml 0.10 N
H2SO4 solution + 50 ml 0.1 N NaOH solution + 50 ml 0.2N HCl solution. Calculate
the strength of the mixture. [BUET]
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Solve : 100 ´ 0.05 ´ 2 – 100 ´ 0.1 + 50 ´ 0.1 – 50 ´ 0.2 = S ´ (100 + 100 + 50 + 50)
S= – 0.0167 molL–1
solution is acidic and the strength is 0.0167 M
2017. Given that Cp(H2) = 6.90 cal mol–1 deg–1, Cp(O2) = 7.05 cal mole–1 deg–1 and Cp(H2O) = 18.0
cal mole–1 deg-1, calculate the heat of formation of H2O (i) at 60°C, if the heat of formation at
25°C i – 68370 cal. [BUET]
Solve : If the heat of formation of water at 25°C is 68370 cal then what is the value at 60°C ?
Given
Cp(H2) = 6.90 cal mol–1 deg–1, Cp(O2) = 7.05 cal mole–1 deg–1 and Cp(H2O) = 18.0 cal mole–1 deg-1 ]
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2017. Match Set I with set II [KUET]
Set - I Set - II
concentrated H2SO4 ,170°C
(a) C2H5OH ¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾® (concentrated H2So4 (1) methane
Ag (Power),D
(b) CHI3 ¾¾¾¾¾¾® (2) Ethiline
electrlysis
(c) CH3COONa (aq) ¾¾¾¾¾¾® (3) benzene
NaOH/CaO,D
(d) CH3COONa ¾¾¾¾¾¾® (4) asitilin
(5) ethane
(A) a -2, b - 4, c -5, d-1 (B) a -2, b-4, c 5, d - 3 (C) a -2, b -2, c -5, d-1
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(D) a-4, b-2, c-5, d-3 (E) a-2, b-2, c-4, d-1
Solve: (A)

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
2017. Establish the relationship between the reduction rate of A with the increase rate of B when the
1
reaction is, 2 A = 2B . [KUET]
d[A] d[B] d[A] 1 d[B] d[A] 1 d[B]
(A) – dt = 4 dt (B) – dt = 2 dt (C) – dt = 4 dt
d[A] d[B] d[A] d[B]
(D) – dt = dt (E) – dt = 2 dt
Solve: (C)
2017. What is the number of oxigen atoms of 252 miligram of grainular oxalic acid? [KUET]
(A) 4.8´1023 (B) 2.4´1021 (C) 4.8 ´ 1021 (D) 1.2´1021 (E) 7.21´1021
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Solve: (D)
2017. In 30°C and 55°C the soluability of a salute is 50 and 90 respectively. 50g solution is heated into
55°C from 30°C - How much gram extra solution will be needed to saturate the solution?
(A) 10.12g (B) 11.48g (C) 12.62 g (D) 13.33 g (E) 16.66 g [KUET]
Solve: (D)
2017. A reaction is occured at 600k temperature . If catalysts are used in that reaction then 500k
temperature is needed. The activation energy of the reaction is decreased by 30kj.mol-1 because
of the catalyst. then what is the activation energy of the reaction? [KUET]
-1 -1 -1
(A) 180kj.mol (B) 1500kj.mol (C) 180000kj.mol
-1
(D) 150kj.mol (E) 1.5kj.mol-1
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2017. Mn 2 O 7 ,CO 2 ,CrO 3 , V2 O5 and V2 O4 are some of the oxides. Which of the following is
equivalent ( acidic and alkalic) oxide? [KUET]
(A) M 2 O7 , , Cr2 O3 and V2 O5 (B) V2 O5 and V2 O4 (C) CrO3, Cr2 O3, V2O5 and V2O4 ,
(D) Cr2 O3 and V2 O5 (E) Mn2 O7, Cr2 O3, CrO3,V2 O5 and V2 O 4
Solve: (D)
2017. H 2 + Cl 2 +2H 2 O =2H 3 O + +2Cl reaction is K =10 46 . Determine the E° of the pt cell at 25° C
temperature, |HCl (aq)Cl. [KUET]
(A) 1.0V (B) 1.357V (C) 2.2V (D) 0.000V (E) 2.4V
Solve : hydrogen electrode potential
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2017. i) 8MnO 4 + 3S 2 O 32- + 2H + ® 8MnO 2 + 6SO 24- + H 2
ii) 2MnO -4 + 5C 2 O 32- + 4H + ® 2MnO 2+ + 10CO 2 + 2H 2 O +3O 2
iii) 2MnO -4 + 5NO 3- + 6H + ® 2Mn 2+ + 5NO 3- + 3H 2 O
iv) 2MnO -4 + I - + 3H 2 O ® IO 5- +2MnO 2 +2OH - +2H 2
v) 2MnO -4 + 10I - +16H + ® 2Mn 2+ + 5I 2 + 8H 2 O
Which of the following is the right answer? [KUET ]
(A) i,ii and iii (B) i ,ii and iv (C) iii,iv and v (D) iv and v (E) iii and v
2017. The combustion heat of ammonia and hydrogen is -90.6,-68.3 respectively . What is the heat os
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formation of ammonia in K.Cal/ male? [KUET]

(A) -11.85 (B) -158.9 (C) -22.3 (D) -253.35 (E) -238.35
Solve : heat of formation of amonia = – 90.6 – (–68.3) = – 22.3 Kcal mol

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
2017. The molarity of OH of sea water is 5.0 ´ 10 M .Then what is the the density of H 3 O + ion in the
- -6

sea water? [KUET]

(A) 1.0 ´ 10 -9 M (B) 2.0 ´ 10 -9 M (C) 3.0 ´ 10 -9 M (D) 4.0 ´ 10 -9 M
(E) 5.0 ´ 10 -9 M
+ –
Solve : [H 30 ] [ O H ] = 10–14
2017. If 877.5ppm NaCl is present in the underground water, then what will be the molarity of NaCl
at that water?] [KUET]
(A) 0.01M (B) 0.05M (C) 0.015M (D) 0.025M (E) 0.035M
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Solve: (C)
2017. The traditional method to respresent the light concentration solution is ppm or part per million.
Solve: ppm : What is the ppm? 0.4g NaOH is present at 10 mL solution. Express its density at
ppm unit? [RUET]
Solve: 1 ppm = 1mg/L = 1 mg/ml
ppm unit,
0.4 0.4 ´ 10+6
10 g/mL = ug/mL
10
= 4 ´ 104 mg/mL = 4 ´ 104 ppm
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2017. 49g H2SO4 sulphuric acid is dissolved in 500 mL H2SO4. What volume of NaOH is required to
neutralize 50 mL of that solution having 10% NaOH? [RUET]
1000 W 1000 ´ 49
Solve: S = MV = = 1M
98 ´ 500
H2SO4 + 2 NaOH ® Na2SO4 + 2H2O
10% NaOH Gi
10x 100
molarity, S = M = 40 = 2.5 M

50 ´ 1 ´ 2
VNaOH = = 40 mL (NaOH) (Ans)
2.5
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2017. (a) Mention the hazard symbol, danger or risk and security precaution of the following chemical
reagent. [RUET]
i. NaOH ii. CH3COCH3
(b) Write what happends with reaction.
i. when the mixture of concentrated HNO3 and P2O5 is heated.
ii. When Na2SO3 is added to the aquous solution of Iodine.
iii. When chloroform is heated with zinc blend and water
Chemical product Hazard symbol Risk danger precaution
1. NaOH C = corrosive effect in skin wear glooves, safety
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goggles and approon .

2. CH3COCH3 F= Flammable set fire keep away from heat
and flame.
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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
b.
(i) P2O5(s) + 2HNO3(conc) ¾¾® N2O5(5) + 2HPO3 (l)
+2 +4 –6 0 + – +2 +4 –6
(ii) Na2SO3 + I2 ¾¾¾® NaI + Na2SO4

2018. Glucose and Fructose are in equilibrium in aquous solution in the following way [BUET]
Fructose Glucose
A student prepare a fructose solution of 0.244 M. At 25°C its density decreases to 0.113M in
equlibrium.
(a) Show the structure of the reactant and product.
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(b) Find the equilibirum constant of reaction.
(c) Fill up the gap for the prepartion of Molt-vinegar.
Solve:

H2 – C – OH H (b) Fructose Glucose

| || Pr. 0.244 0
C= O C = OH
| | Eq. 2.44 – 0.113 0.113M
H – C – OH H – C – OH = 0.131 M
| | 0.113
H – C – OH H – C – OH KC = 0.131 = 0.8625
| |
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H – C – OH H – C – OH
| |
H2 – C – OH H – C – OH
|
Fructose
N
Glucose
(c) 0.244 m from 0.113 glucose
1m from = 0.4631
46.31% (Ans)
2018. Which of the solution in water have higher pH? [KUET]
M M M
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(A) 10 MgSO4 solution (B) 10 NaCl solution (C) 10 FeCl3 solution
M M
(D) 10 Na2 CO3 solution (E) 10 NH4Cl solution
Solve: (E)
2018. Value of Kc at 700 K of the reaction N2(g) +O2(g) 2NO(G) is 0.0625 . What is the value of
1 1
Kc for the reaction NO(g) 2 N2(g) + 2 O2(g) ? [KUET ]
(A) 0.03125 (B) 0.25 (C) 3.9´10-3 (D) 0.375 (E) 4
Solve: (E)
2018. The value of pOH of X and Y in an aquous solution are 8 and 11 respectively. What is the ratio of
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the concetration of H3O+ in X and Y solution? [KUET]

(A) 1:1.0´103 (B) 2:1 (C) 1.0´103:1 (D) 1:1.0´102 (E) 1.0´102:1
Solve: (A)

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
2019.4g NaOH was dissolved in a one litre solution containing one mole acetic acid and one mole
sodium acetate. Calculate the pH of the mixture produced. [dissociation constant of acetic acid =
1.8 × 10-5] [BUET]
Solve : 1 mol CH3COOH, 1 mol CH3COONa ® 1 L solution + 4g NaOH
CH3COOH dissociation constant, Ka = 1.8 ´ 10-5
4
nadded = 23 + 16 + 1 = 4.74 mol

æ nsalt + nadded ö
pHnew = pKa + log ç ÷
ènacid - naddedø
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æ1 + 4.74ö
= - log(1.8 ´ 10-5) + log ç ÷
è1 - 4.74ø
pHnew = 4.83
2019.50mL 0.5M HCl solution and 50mL 0.5M NaOH solution were mixed in a calorimeter. As a result,
the temperature of both the calorimeter and the solution increased from 25.4°C to 27.2°C. The heat
capacity of the calorimeter is 335 J/°C. If the density and the specific heat of the solution are 0.597
g/mL and 4.184 J/g°C respectively, find the value of the enthalpy of neutralization. [BUET]
Sovle : 100mL, r = 0.597 g/mL, s = 4.184 J/g°C, qf = 27.2°C, qi = 25.4°C
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HCl + NaOH ® NaCl + H2O; DHneut = ?
nH2O = 50 ´ 10-3 ´ 0.5 = 0.025 mol
Calculation :
335 ´ (27.2 - 25.4) = DHneut + [100 ´ 0.597 ´ 4.184 ´ (27.2 - 25.4)]
153.39
DHneut = 0.025 = 6135.5 J/mol

2019.When 0.1mol PCl5 was heated in a vessel of volume 1L, the total pressure of the equilibrium
mixture was 4.38 × 105 Nm-2. Determine the value of Kp at temperature T = 450K.] [BUET]
Total mole no. in equilibrium = (0.1 + a) mol
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Solve : PCl5 PCl3 + Cl2
0.1 0 0 PV = nRT
0.1 - a a a 4.38 ´ 105 ´ 10-3 = (0.1 + a) ´ 9.314 ´ 450
0.1 - 0.017 0.017 0.017 a = 0.017
0.083 0.017 0.017
0.117 P 0.117 P 0.117 P Total mole = 0.117 mol
0.017 0.017
0.117P ´ 0.117P
Kp = 0.083
0.117P
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Kp = 13035.9 Nm-2

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
dCHI 2
2019.The rate of decomposition of HI is given by - dt kCHI where k = 4 ´ 10-6 litre. mole-1.sec-1 at
327°C. How many molecules would be decomposed per second and per cm3 volume, at
atmospheric pressure? [KUET]
Solve :
1 x Again, We know),
k = t × a(a – x)
22.4 L - contains, 6.024 × 1023 molecule
\ x = 251 cm3/mole 251 L " " 6.75 × 1024 " (Ans)
2019.Calculate the dissociation constant of water; Given kw = 1 ´ 10-14 at 25°C. [KUET]
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Solve :
ka + kb = kw
2ka = kw [ water ka = kb ]
kw
\ ka = 2 = 5 × 10-5
\ dissociation constant of water 25 °c - G 5 × 10-15
2019. The equivalent conductance of a weak monobasic acid at infinite dilution is 388.5
ohm-1.cm2.equiv-1 at 25°C. Find the specific conductance of 0.1M solution if the degree of
dissociation is 6%. [KUET]
Solve :
A = 388.5 ohm–1 cm2 equiv–1 A
\k= V
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specific conductivity, m = KVmolar eq
= 0.3885
dissociation = 6%
6
\ will be concentration, = 100 × 0.1 = 6 × 10 –3 m
6 × 10-3 mole contains 1000 cm3
1 mole " 166 × 66 × 103 cm3
\ m = KVmolar = 64.74 × 10–3 ohm-1 cm2 mole–1 (Ans)
2019. The equilibrium constant of the reaction A2 + B2 2AB is Kp; What will be the equilibrium
1 1
constant of AB = 2 A2 + 2 B2 reaction [KUET]
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Solve :
1 1 A2 + B2 2AB
AB A 2 + B2 2
2 2 pAB
p p Kp = p
( A2) . ( B2)1/2
1/2
A .
p
B2
Kp = p 2
AB
p p
æ A2 . B2ö1/2
= ç p2 ÷
è AB ø
1/2
æ1ö
= çK ÷ (Ans)
è pø
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2019. 25cm ammonia solution of 0.1M concentration was taken in a conical flask. Then 5 cm3 of HCl
3

solution having 0.1M concentration was added to this solution. Calculate the pH of the solution.
[Kb = 3.3 ´ 10-5] [KUET]

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Engineering Admission Coaching Lecture Sheet Chemistry – 2
n salt
Solve : pOH = pKb + log n Acid
0.1 ´ 5
= - log (3.3 ´ 10- 5) + log
(0.1 ´ 25 - 0.1 ´ 5)
= 3.87
\ pH = 10.12 (Ans)
2019. 22. The value of Kc at 230°C is 49 for the reaction PCl3 + Cl2 PCl3. If 0.5 mol of each PCl3
and Cl2 are taken and reacted in a 5 L volume container, determine the number of mole of the
components present in the equilibrium mixture at that temperature. [RUET]
Solve :
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PCl3 + Cl2 PCl5
Initial Stage : 0.5 + 0.5 x
equilibrium stage 0.5 - x + 0.5 - x x
x x
[PCl5] 5 5
Kc = = or, 49 =
[PCl3] [Cl2] æ0.5 - xö æ0.5 - xö æ0.5 - xö
2
ç ÷ç ÷ ç ÷
è 5 øè 5 ø è 5 ø
x (3.5 - 7x)2
or, 5 = 25
or, (3.5 - 7x)2 = 5x
or, 49x2 - 49x + 12.25 = 5x
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\ x = 0.7826 mol I x = 0.3195 mol
But x ¹ 0.78 mol because in initial stage it was 0.5 mol.
Then is equilibrium PCl5 = 0.3195 mol (Ans)
PCl3 = Cl2 = (0.5 - 0.3195) mol = 0.1805 mol (Ans)
2019. Determine the pH of 1M 0.1 M and 0.001 M NaOH. [RUET]
-
(i) 1m for of NaOH pOH = - log[OH ]
= - log [1] = 0
\ pH = 14 - pOH = 14 (Ans)
(ii) 0.1m for of NaOH of pOH = - log [OH-]
= - log [0.1] = 1
\ pH = 14 - pOH = 13 (Ans)
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(iii) 0.001m for of NaOH of pOH = - log [OH-]
= - log [0.001] = 3
\ pH = 14 - pOH = 14-3 = 11 (Ans)
2019.The bond energy of H - H, O = O and O - H are 434.7, 493.24 and 463.98 KJ mol-1 respectively.
1
Determine the heat of the following reaction H2(g) + 2 O2 (g) ¾® H2O(g) [RUET]
Solve : H - H = 434.7 KJ mol-1
O = O = 493.24 KJ mol-1
O - H = 463.98 KJ mol-1
1
Reaction Heat 1 of H - H bond energy + of O = O bond energy - 2 of H - O bond energy
2
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1
= 434.7 + 2 ´ 493.24 - 2 ´ 463.98
= - 246.64 KJ/mol-1

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