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COMPLEX VARIABLES AND LINEAR ALGEBRA

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Dr. M. Chandru

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Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics, SAS,

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Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, TN, INDIA.

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November 18, 2023
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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 1 / 60
Outline

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1 Complex Analysis

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2 Power Series (Module - 03 - I)
Learning outcomes

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Complex series - Preliminaries

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A general form of geometric series - Preliminaries

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Taylor’s series - Preliminaries
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Taylor’s Series - Examples
Laurent’s Series - Preliminaries
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Laurent’s Series - Examples

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Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

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Residues

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 2 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Learning outcomes

Learning outcomes

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Functions given by power series.

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Taylor series.

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Laurent series.
Singularities and Poles.
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Residues.
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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 3 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Complex series - Preliminaries

Series of the complex terms:

Let (a1 + ib1 ) + (a2 + ib2 ) + ... + (an + ibn ) + ... → (1) be an infinite
series of complex terms. Where, a0 s and b0 s are real numbers.

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 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Complex series - Preliminaries

Series of the complex terms:

Let (a1 + ib1 ) + (a2 + ib2 ) + ... + (an + ibn ) + ... → (1) be an infinite
series of complex terms. Where, a0 s and b0 s are real numbers.
Converge of the series:

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If the series (1) Σan and Σbn converge to the sums A and B respec-

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tively, then the series (1) is said to be converge to the sum A + iB.

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Also, if the series is a convergent series, then

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lim (an + ibn ) = 0.
n→∞

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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 4 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Complex series - Preliminaries

Series of the complex terms:

Let (a1 + ib1 ) + (a2 + ib2 ) + ... + (an + ibn ) + ... → (1) be an infinite
series of complex terms. Where, a0 s and b0 s are real numbers.
Converge of the series:

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If the series (1) Σan and Σbn converge to the sums A and B respec-

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tively, then the series (1) is said to be converge to the sum A + iB.

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Also, if the series is a convergent series, then

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lim (an + ibn ) = 0.
n→∞

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Absolutely convergent of the series:
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The series (1) is said to be absolutely convergent if the series
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|a1 + ib1 | + |a2 + ib2 | + ... + |an + ibn | + ... → (2)
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is convergent since |an | ≤ |an + ibn | and |bn | ≤ |an + ibn |, it follows
r.

that an absolutely convergent series is convergent.

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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 4 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Complex series - Preliminaries

Series of the complex terms:

Let (a1 + ib1 ) + (a2 + ib2 ) + ... + (an + ibn ) + ... → (1) be an infinite
series of complex terms. Where, a0 s and b0 s are real numbers.
Converge of the series:

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If the series (1) Σan and Σbn converge to the sums A and B respec-

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tively, then the series (1) is said to be converge to the sum A + iB.

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Also, if the series is a convergent series, then

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lim (an + ibn ) = 0.
n→∞

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Absolutely convergent of the series:
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The series (1) is said to be absolutely convergent if the series
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|a1 + ib1 | + |a2 + ib2 | + ... + |an + ibn | + ... → (2)
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is convergent since |an | ≤ |an + ibn | and |bn | ≤ |an + ibn |, it follows
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that an absolutely convergent series is convergent.

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Conditionally convergent of the series:

The series (1) is said to be conditionally convergent if the series (1)
but (2) is not convergent.
Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 4 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) A general form of geometric series - Preliminaries

Geometric series:
A finite geometric series has a form:

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n
X a(1 − rn+1 )
Sn = a(1 + r + r2 + · · · + rn ) = a ri ⇒ Sn =

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1−r
i=0

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.

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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 5 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) A general form of geometric series - Preliminaries

Geometric series:
A finite geometric series has a form:

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n
X a(1 − rn+1 )
Sn = a(1 + r + r2 + · · · + rn ) = a ri ⇒ Sn =

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1−r
i=0

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.

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An infinite geometric series has the same form as the finite

nd
geometric series except there is no last term:

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∞
X a
Sn = a(1 + r + r2 + · · · ) = a r i ⇒ Sn =
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.
1−r
i=0
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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 5 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) A general form of geometric series - Preliminaries

Geometric series:
A finite geometric series has a form:

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n
X a(1 − rn+1 )
Sn = a(1 + r + r2 + · · · + rn ) = a ri ⇒ Sn =

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1−r
i=0

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.

ru
An infinite geometric series has the same form as the finite

nd
geometric series except there is no last term:

ha
∞
X a
Sn = a(1 + r + r2 + · · · ) = a r i ⇒ Sn =
.C
.
1−r
i=0
M

a
If |r| < 1 then the infinite geometric series converges to
r.

1−r .
1
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2 If |r| ≥ 1 then the series does not converge(diverge).

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 5 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) A general form of geometric series - Preliminaries

Geometric series:
A finite geometric series has a form:

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n
X a(1 − rn+1 )
Sn = a(1 + r + r2 + · · · + rn ) = a ri ⇒ Sn =

IT
1−r
i=0

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.

ru
An infinite geometric series has the same form as the finite

nd
geometric series except there is no last term:

ha
∞
X a
Sn = a(1 + r + r2 + · · · ) = a r i ⇒ Sn =
.C
.
1−r
i=0
M

a
If |r| < 1 then the infinite geometric series converges to
r.

1−r .
1
D

2 If |r| ≥ 1 then the series does not converge(diverge).

The number r is called the ratio of the geometric series because it is
the ratio of consecutive terms of the series.
Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 5 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Power series - Preliminaries

Power series:
An infinite series of the form

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Σan (z − z0 )n = a0 + a1 (z − z0 ) + a2 (z − z0 )2 + ... + an (z − z0 )n + ... → (3

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is called a power series. It is a series in powers of (z − z0 ).

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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 6 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Power series - Preliminaries

Power series:
An infinite series of the form

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Σan (z − z0 )n = a0 + a1 (z − z0 ) + a2 (z − z0 )2 + ... + an (z − z0 )n + ... → (3

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is called a power series. It is a series in powers of (z − z0 ).

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If Σan (z − z0 )n is converges at z = z0 then it converges absolutely for

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all z such that |z − z0 | < R, where an ’s are complex coefficients and R

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is a non-negative real number, R can be zero or infinity.

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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 6 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Power series - Preliminaries

Power series:
An infinite series of the form

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Σan (z − z0 )n = a0 + a1 (z − z0 ) + a2 (z − z0 )2 + ... + an (z − z0 )n + ... → (3

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is called a power series. It is a series in powers of (z − z0 ).

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If Σan (z − z0 )n is converges at z = z0 then it converges absolutely for

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all z such that |z − z0 | < R, where an ’s are complex coefficients and R

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is a non-negative real number, R can be zero or infinity.

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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 6 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Power series - Preliminaries

Note:
If R > 0 then the series converges absolutely to an analytic

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function for |z − z0 | < R, the series diverges to an analytic

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function for |z − z0 | > R and no conclusion can be drawn about
convergence on the boundary of |z − z0 | = R.

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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 7 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Power series - Preliminaries

Note:
If R > 0 then the series converges absolutely to an analytic

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function for |z − z0 | < R, the series diverges to an analytic

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function for |z − z0 | > R and no conclusion can be drawn about
convergence on the boundary of |z − z0 | = R.

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The disk |z − z0 | < R is called the disk(region) of convergence. z0

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is called the centre of convergence and R is called the radius of

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convergence.

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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 7 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Power series - Preliminaries

Note:
If R > 0 then the series converges absolutely to an analytic

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function for |z − z0 | < R, the series diverges to an analytic

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function for |z − z0 | > R and no conclusion can be drawn about
convergence on the boundary of |z − z0 | = R.

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The disk |z − z0 | < R is called the disk(region) of convergence. z0

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is called the centre of convergence and R is called the radius of

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convergence.

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If R = ∞ the function f (z) is entire function and if R = 0 the
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series only converges only at the point z = z0 .
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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 7 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Power series - Preliminaries

Note:
If R > 0 then the series converges absolutely to an analytic

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function for |z − z0 | < R, the series diverges to an analytic

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function for |z − z0 | > R and no conclusion can be drawn about
convergence on the boundary of |z − z0 | = R.

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The disk |z − z0 | < R is called the disk(region) of convergence. z0

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is called the centre of convergence and R is called the radius of

nd
convergence.

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If R = ∞ the function f (z) is entire function and if R = 0 the
.C
series only converges only at the point z = z0 .
A particular case ∞ n 2 n
P
n=0 an z = a0 + a1 z + a2 z + · · · + an z + · · · ,
M

when z0 = 0.
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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 7 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Power series - Preliminaries

Note:
If R > 0 then the series converges absolutely to an analytic

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function for |z − z0 | < R, the series diverges to an analytic

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function for |z − z0 | > R and no conclusion can be drawn about
convergence on the boundary of |z − z0 | = R.

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The disk |z − z0 | < R is called the disk(region) of convergence. z0

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is called the centre of convergence and R is called the radius of

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convergence.

ha
If R = ∞ the function f (z) is entire function and if R = 0 the
.C
series only converges only at the point z = z0 .
A particular case ∞ n 2 n
P
n=0 an z = a0 + a1 z + a2 z + · · · + an z + · · · ,
M

when z0 = 0.
r.

The function f (z) and its higher derivatives have same radius of
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convergence.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 7 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Power series - Preliminaries

Region of convergence
Let the power series Σan (z − z0 )n .
The convergence region of the series can be obtained by the ratio test

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an+1 (z − z0 )n+1 an+1
lim n
= |z − z0 | lim
an (z − z0 )

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n→∞ n→∞ an
|z − z0 |

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⇒ < 1 = |z − z0 | < R.
R

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The power series converges if |z − z0 | < R.
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The power series diverges if |z − z0 | > R.
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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 8 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Power series - Preliminaries

Region of convergence
Let the power series Σan (z − z0 )n .
The convergence region of the series can be obtained by the ratio test

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an+1 (z − z0 )n+1 an+1
lim n
= |z − z0 | lim
an (z − z0 )

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n→∞ n→∞ an
|z − z0 |

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⇒ < 1 = |z − z0 | < R.
R

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The power series converges if |z − z0 | < R.
ha
The power series diverges if |z − z0 | > R.
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Note: The ratio 1

test states that
an+1
let limn→∞ |an | = R1 or limn→∞
n
an = 1
R
r.
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If R < 1 then the series converges absolutely,

If R > 1 then the series divergent,
If R = 1 then the limit fails to exist or inconclusive.
Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 8 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Power series - Preliminaries

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Radius of convergence

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For every series (3) there exists a non-negative number R such that
for |z − z0 | < R series is convergent

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for |z − z0 | > R series is divergent

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then R is called a radius of convergence.

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 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Power series - Preliminaries

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Radius of convergence

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For every series (3) there exists a non-negative number R such that
for |z − z0 | < R series is convergent

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for |z − z0 | > R series is divergent

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then R is called a radius of convergence.

nd
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The ratio test helps to find the radius of convergence
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1
1
limn→∞ |an | n = R or
M

limn→∞ an+1
an = 1
R.
r.
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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 9 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Power series - Preliminaries
n
Example: Find the radius of convergence of Σ nz n .

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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 10 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Power series - Preliminaries
n
Example: Find the radius of convergence of Σ nz n .
Soln: Here an = n1n then an+1 = (n+1)1(n+1) .
We know that,

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an

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R = lim
n→∞ an+1

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(n + 1)(n+1)
= lim

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n→∞ nn

nd
n+1 n
 
= lim (n + 1)
n→∞
ha n
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1 n
 
= lim (n + 1) 1 +
n
M

n→∞

1 n
   
r.

R = ∞.e = ∞ ∵ 1 + =e
n
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Hence, the radius of the convergence is ∞.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 10 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Power series - Preliminaries
n
Example: Find the radius of convergence of Σ nz n .
Soln: Here an = n1n then an+1 = (n+1)1(n+1) .
We know that,

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an

IT
R = lim
n→∞ an+1

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(n + 1)(n+1)
= lim

ru
n→∞ nn

nd
n+1 n
 
= lim (n + 1)
n→∞
ha n
.C
1 n
 
= lim (n + 1) 1 +
n
M

n→∞

1 n
   
r.

R = ∞.e = ∞ ∵ 1 + =e
n
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Hence, the radius of the convergence is ∞.

Example: Find the radius of convergence of Σ nn!n z n . Ans. R = e.
Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 10 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Power series - Preliminaries
1 n2
zn.


Example: Find the radius of convergence of Σ 1 + n

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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 11 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Power series - Preliminaries
1 n2
zn.


Example: Find the radius of convergence of Σ 1 + n

n 2
Soln: Here an = 1 + n1 .
We know that,

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1 1
= lim |an | n

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R n→∞
 2 n1

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1 n

= lim 1+

ru
n→∞ n

nd
1 n
 
= lim 1 +
ha n
n→∞
.C
1 n
   
1
= e. ∵ 1 + =e
R n
M

Hence, the radius of the convergence is 1e .

r.
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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 11 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Power series - Preliminaries
1 n2
zn.


Example: Find the radius of convergence of Σ 1 + n

n 2
Soln: Here an = 1 + n1 .
We know that,

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1 1
= lim |an | n

IT
R n→∞
 2 n1

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1 n

= lim 1+

ru
n→∞ n

nd
1 n
 
= lim 1 +
ha n
n→∞
.C
1 n
   
1
= e. ∵ 1 + =e
R n
M

Hence, the radius of the convergence is 1e .

r.
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Example: Find the radius of convergence of

n
Σ (−1) n
n (z − 2i) . Ans. R = 0.
2 −n
Σ 1+in n
2 z . Ans. R = 1.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 11 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s series - Preliminaries

Taylor’s series
Let f (z) be an analytic at any points within a circle C with centre z0
and radius R. Then at each point z within C,

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f 0 (z0 ) f 00 (z0 )

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f (z) = f (z0 ) + (z − z0 ) + (z − z0 )2 + ···
1! 2!

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f n (z0 )
+(z − z0 )n + ···

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n!

nd
Then, the R.H.S of the series is converges to f (z) whenever

ha
|z − z0 | < R.
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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 12 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s series - Preliminaries

Taylor’s series
Let f (z) be an analytic at any points within a circle C with centre z0
and radius R. Then at each point z within C,

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f 0 (z0 ) f 00 (z0 )

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f (z) = f (z0 ) + (z − z0 ) + (z − z0 )2 + ···
1! 2!

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f n (z0 )
+(z − z0 )n + ···

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n!

nd
Then, the R.H.S of the series is converges to f (z) whenever

ha
|z − z0 | < R.
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Note:
Taylor’s series of expansion of f (z) in powers of (z − z0 ) or about z =
M

z0 is represented in the form of power series

r.

∞
D

X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n ,
n=0

f n (z 0) 1
R f (z)dz
where, an = n! = 2πi C (z−z0 )n+1 , n = 0, 1, 2, ....
Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 12 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s series - Preliminaries

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Special case: Put z0 = 0 in Taylor series, we get

IT
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∞
f 0 (0) f 00 (0) 2 f n (0) n X f n (0) n
f (z) = f (0) + z+ z + ··· + z + ··· = z
1! 2! n! n!

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n=0

nd
is called Maclaurin’s series of expansion of f (z).

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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 13 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s series - Preliminaries

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Special case: Put z0 = 0 in Taylor series, we get

IT
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∞
f 0 (0) f 00 (0) 2 f n (0) n X f n (0) n
f (z) = f (0) + z+ z + ··· + z + ··· = z
1! 2! n! n!

ru
n=0

nd
is called Maclaurin’s series of expansion of f (z).

ha
A function which is analytic at a point z0 then there exist a
.C
Taylor’s series about the same point.
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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 13 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Some standard Maclaurin’s series

Maclaurin’s series of expansion of standard functions

z2 z3 zn
ez = 1 + z
+ ··· = ∞
P
1!
+ 2!
+ 3! n=0 n! , for|z| < ∞.
z3 z5 (−1)n z 2n+1
z
+ ··· = ∞
P
sin z = 1!
− 3!
+ 5! n=0 (2n+1)!
, for|z| < ∞.

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z2 z4 P∞ (−1)n z 2n
cos z = 1 − + + ··· = , for|z| < ∞.

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2! 4! n=0 (2n)!
3 5 P∞ 2n+1
z z z z
sinh z = + + · · · = n=0 (2n+1)!
+ , for|z| < ∞

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1! 3! 5!
z2 z4 P∞ z2n
cosh z = 1 + 2! + 4! + · · · = n=0 (2n)! , for|z| < ∞.

ru
1
= (1 + z)−1 = 1 − z + z 2 − z 3 + · · · = ∞ n n
P
1+z n=0 (−1) z , for|z| < 1.

nd
1
= (1 − z)−1 = 1 + z + z 2 + z 3 + · · · = ∞ n
P
1−z n=0 z , for|z| < 1.

= (1 + z)−m = ∞
ha
1 P n
(1+z)m n=0 (−mn)z , for|z| < 1.
.C
(m+n−1)! n
1
= (1 − z)−m = ∞
P
(1−z)m n=0 (m−1)!n! z , for|z| < 1.
M

z2 z3 z4
log(1 + z) = z − 2
+ 3
− 4
+ · · · , for|z| < 1.
2 3 4
− log(1 − z) = z + z2 + z3 + z4 + · · · , for|z| < 1.
r.
D

2 3 4
h i
log(1 − z) = − z + z2 + z3 + z4 + · · · , for|z| < 1.
n n(n−1) 2 n(n−1)(n−2) 3 Pn n!
(1 + z)n = 1 + 1!
z + 2!
z + 3!
z + ··· = k
k=0 (n−k)!k! z , for|z| < 1.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 14 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) A simple procedure to get Taylor’s series

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The procedure to get Taylor’s series expansion of f (z):

IT
To obtain the Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) about z = z0

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ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 15 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) A simple procedure to get Taylor’s series

-V
The procedure to get Taylor’s series expansion of f (z):

IT
To obtain the Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) about z = z0

,V
Put w = z − z0 ⇒ z = w + z0 . Then
f (z) = f (w + z0 ) = φ(w)(say).

ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 15 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) A simple procedure to get Taylor’s series

-V
The procedure to get Taylor’s series expansion of f (z):

IT
To obtain the Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) about z = z0

,V
Put w = z − z0 ⇒ z = w + z0 . Then
f (z) = f (w + z0 ) = φ(w)(say).

ru
nd
Write the Maclaurin’s series expansion of standard functions or
direct expansion.
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 15 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) A simple procedure to get Taylor’s series

-V
The procedure to get Taylor’s series expansion of f (z):

IT
To obtain the Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) about z = z0

,V
Put w = z − z0 ⇒ z = w + z0 . Then
f (z) = f (w + z0 ) = φ(w)(say).

ru
nd
Write the Maclaurin’s series expansion of standard functions or
direct expansion.
ha
Then, substitute w = z − z0 we get required Taylor’s series
.C
expansion.
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 15 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: Obtain the Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) = 1

z
at z = 1.

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 16 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: Obtain the Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) = 1

z
at z = 1.
Soln: Given f (z) = z1

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 16 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: Obtain the Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) = z1 at z = 1.

Soln: Given f (z) = z1
To expand the Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) = z1 about z − 1

-V
Put w = z − 1 ⇒ z = 1 + w.
f (z) = z1 = 1+w
1
= (1 + w)−1 = 1 − w + w2 − w3 + · · · , for|w| < 1

IT
Now, substitute w = z − 1

,V
f (z) = 1 − (z − 1) + (z − 1)2 − (z − 1)3 + · · ·, for|(z − 1)| < 1

ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 16 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: Obtain the Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) = z1 at z = 1.

Soln: Given f (z) = z1
To expand the Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) = z1 about z − 1

-V
Put w = z − 1 ⇒ z = 1 + w.
f (z) = z1 = 1+w
1
= (1 + w)−1 = 1 − w + w2 − w3 + · · · , for|w| < 1

IT
Now, substitute w = z − 1

,V
f (z) = 1 − (z − 1) + (z − 1)2 − (z − 1)3 + · · ·, for|(z − 1)| < 1
This is the required Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) = z1 about z − 1.

ru
Example:
Expand f (z) = ez as Taylor’s series about z = 1 and z = 3.

nd
1

1
2 Expand f (z) =

ha
z2
P∞
In powers of (z+1) or prove that z −2 = n=1 (n + 1)(z + 1)n , if
.C
|z + 1| < 1.
In powers of (z-2), state the region of validity of the expansion in
M

each cases.
r.

3 Expand f (z) = sinh z and cosh z in Taylor’s series about z = iπ.

D

z−1
4 Expand f (z) = z+1
as Taylor’s series about z = 0 and z = 1.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 16 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: Obtain the Taylor’s expansion of f (z) = z

(z+1)(z+2)
in powers of z − 2.

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 17 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: Obtain the Taylor’s expansion of f (z) = z

(z+1)(z+2)
in powers of z − 2.
z
Soln: Given f (z) = (z+1)(z+2)

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 17 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: z
Obtain the Taylor’s expansion of f (z) = (z+1)(z+2) in powers of z − 2.
z
Soln: Given f (z) = (z+1)(z+2)
To obtain in powers of z − 2 means we need to find an Taylor’s series expansion about
z = 2.
Put w = z − 2 ⇒ z = w + 2. Thus,

-V
z w+2 A B
f (z) = (z+1)(z+2) = (w+3)(w+4) = w+3 + w+4 .

IT
So
w + 2 = A(w + 4) + B(w + 3). If w = −3 then A = −1. If w = −4 then B = 2.

,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 17 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: z
Obtain the Taylor’s expansion of f (z) = (z+1)(z+2) in powers of z − 2.
z
Soln: Given f (z) = (z+1)(z+2)
To obtain in powers of z − 2 means we need to find an Taylor’s series expansion about
z = 2.
Put w = z − 2 ⇒ z = w + 2. Thus,

-V
z w+2 A B
f (z) = (z+1)(z+2) = (w+3)(w+4) = w+3 + w+4 .

IT
So
w + 2 = A(w + 4) + B(w + 3). If w = −3 then A = −1. If w = −4 then B = 2.

,V
Thus

ru
1 2
f (z) = − +
w+3 w+4

nd
1 2
=− +
3(1 + w w

ha
3
) 4(1 + 4
)
1  w −1
 2  w −1
.C
=− 1+ + 1+
3 3 4 4
1h w  w 2  w 3 i 1h w  w 2  w 3 i
M

=− 1− + − + ··· + 1− + − + ···
3 3 3 3 2 4 4 4
2 1  2 1   2 1  2
r.

= − − − 2 w+ − 3 w − ···
4 3 42 3 43 3
D

2 1  2 1   2 1 
f (z) = − − − 2 (z − 2) + − 3 (z − 2)2 − · · ·
4 3 42 3 43 3

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 17 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: z
Obtain the Taylor’s expansion of f (z) = (z+1)(z+2) in powers of z − 2.
z
Soln: Given f (z) = (z+1)(z+2)
To obtain in powers of z − 2 means we need to find an Taylor’s series expansion about
z = 2.
Put w = z − 2 ⇒ z = w + 2. Thus,

-V
z w+2 A B
f (z) = (z+1)(z+2) = (w+3)(w+4) = w+3 + w+4 .

IT
So
w + 2 = A(w + 4) + B(w + 3). If w = −3 then A = −1. If w = −4 then B = 2.

,V
Thus

ru
1 2
f (z) = − +
w+3 w+4

nd
1 2
=− +
3(1 + w w

ha
3
) 4(1 + 4
)
1  w −1
 2  w −1
.C
=− 1+ + 1+
3 3 4 4
1h w  w 2  w 3 i 1h w  w 2  w 3 i
M

=− 1− + − + ··· + 1− + − + ···
3 3 3 3 2 4 4 4
2 1  2 1   2 1  2
r.

= − − − 2 w+ − 3 w − ···
4 3 42 3 43 3
D

2 1  2 1   2 1 
f (z) = − − − 2 (z − 2) + − 3 (z − 2)2 − · · ·
4 3 42 3 43 3
z
This is required Taylor’s expansion of f (z) = (z+1)(z+2)
in powers of z − 2.
Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 17 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

(z 2 −1)
Example: Obtain the Taylor’s series expansion to represent the function f (z) = (z+2)(z+3)
in the region |z| < 2.

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 18 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

(z 2 −1)
Example: Obtain the Taylor’s series expansion to represent the function f (z) = (z+2)(z+3)
in the region |z| < 2.

-V
(z 2 −1)
Soln: Given f (z) = (z+2)(z+3)

IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 18 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

(z 2 −1)
Example: Obtain the Taylor’s series expansion to represent the function f (z) = (z+2)(z+3)
in the region |z| < 2.

-V
(z 2 −1)
Soln: Given f (z) = (z+2)(z+3)

IT
2
(z −1) (−5z−7) 3 8
⇒ (z+2)(z+3)
= 1 + z2 +5z+6 = 1 + (z+2) − (z+3)

,V
−1 −1
1 + 32 1 + z2 − 38 1 + z3



⇒

2
3  
2 
z 3
1 + 2 1 − 2 + z2 − z2 + · · · − 83 1 − z3 + z3
3 z


⇒ − + ···

ru
3
n z n− 8

n
1 + 23 ∞
P∞
(−1)n z3
P

⇒ n=0 (−1) 2 3 n=0

nd
2 
(z −1)
=1+ ∞ n 3 8
zn .
P
⇒ (z+2)(z+3) n=0 (−1) 2n+1
− 3n+1

ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 18 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

(z 2 −1)
Example: Obtain the Taylor’s series expansion to represent the function f (z) = (z+2)(z+3)
in the region |z| < 2.

-V
(z 2 −1)
Soln: Given f (z) = (z+2)(z+3)

IT
2
(z −1) (−5z−7) 3 8
⇒ (z+2)(z+3) = 1 + z2 +5z+6 = 1 + (z+2) − (z+3)

,V
−1 −1
⇒ 1 + 32 1 + z2 − 38 1 + z3




2
3  
2
3 
⇒ 1 + 2 1 − 2 + z2 − z2 + · · · − 83 1 − z3 + z3 − z3 + · · ·
3 z

ru
n z n− 8

n
⇒ 1 + 23 ∞
P∞
(−1)n z3
P

n=0 (−1) 2 3 n=0

nd
2 
(z −1)
⇒ (z+2)(z+3) = 1 + ∞ n 3 8
zn .
P
n=0 (−1) 2n+1
− 3n+1

ha
(z 2 −1)
This is the required Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) = (z+2)(z+3) about |z| < 2.
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 18 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

(z 2 −1)
Example: Obtain the Taylor’s series expansion to represent the function f (z) = (z+2)(z+3)
in the region |z| < 2.

-V
(z 2 −1)
Soln: Given f (z) = (z+2)(z+3)

IT
2
(z −1) (−5z−7) 3 8
⇒ (z+2)(z+3) = 1 + z2 +5z+6 = 1 + (z+2) − (z+3)

,V
−1 −1
⇒ 1 + 32 1 + z2 − 38 1 + z3




2
3  
2
3 
⇒ 1 + 2 1 − 2 + z2 − z2 + · · · − 83 1 − z3 + z3 − z3 + · · ·
3 z

ru
n z n− 8

n
⇒ 1 + 23 ∞
P∞
(−1)n z3
P

n=0 (−1) 2 3 n=0

nd
2 
(z −1)
⇒ (z+2)(z+3) = 1 + ∞ n 3 8
zn .
P
n=0 (−1) 2n+1
− 3n+1

ha
(z 2 −1)
This is the required Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) = (z+2)(z+3) about |z| < 2.
.C
Example:
1 Obtain the Taylor’s series expansion of e(1+z) in the power of z − 1.
M

2z 3 +1
2 Find the Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) = z 2 +z
about z = i and z = 1.
r.

4z−1
3 Expand f (z) = z 4 −1
as Taylor’s series about about orgin.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 18 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: Expand f (z) = cos z in a Taylor series at z = π/4.

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 19 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: Expand f (z) = cos z in a Taylor series at z = π/4.

Soln: Given f (z) = cos z

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 19 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: Expand f (z) = cos z in a Taylor series at z = π/4.

Soln: Given f (z) = cos z

-V
By Taylor’s series expansion about z = z0 .

IT
f 0 (z0 ) f 00 (z0 )
f (z) = f (z0 ) + (z − z0 ) + (z − z0 )2 + · · · → (1)
1! 2!

,V
.

ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 19 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: Expand f (z) = cos z in a Taylor series at z = π/4.

Soln: Given f (z) = cos z

-V
By Taylor’s series expansion about z = z0 .

IT
f 0 (z0 ) f 00 (z0 )
f (z) = f (z0 ) + (z − z0 ) + (z − z0 )2 + · · · → (1)
1! 2!

,V
. Here z0 = π/4 then we obtain
f (π/4) = √1 ,

ru
2
f 0 (z) = − sin z, f 0 (π/4) = − √1 ,

nd
2
f 00 (z) = − cos z, f 00 (π/4) = − √1 ,

ha
2
f 000 (z) = sin z, f 000 (π/4) = √1 .
2
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 19 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: Expand f (z) = cos z in a Taylor series at z = π/4.

Soln: Given f (z) = cos z

-V
By Taylor’s series expansion about z = z0 .

IT
f 0 (z0 ) f 00 (z0 )
f (z) = f (z0 ) + (z − z0 ) + (z − z0 )2 + · · · → (1)
1! 2!

,V
. Here z0 = π/4 then we obtain
f (π/4) = √1 ,

ru
2
f 0 (z) = − sin z, f 0 (π/4) = − √1 ,

nd
2
f 00 (z) = − cos z, f 00 (π/4) = − √1 ,

ha
2
f 000 (z) = sin z, f 000 (π/4) = √1 .
2
.C
Sub. the above
 values in (1), we get 
(z− π )2 (z− π )3
f (z) = √1 1 − (z − π
) + 4
+ 4
+ ··· .
M

2 4 2! 6
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 19 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: Expand f (z) = cos z in a Taylor series at z = π/4.

Soln: Given f (z) = cos z

-V
By Taylor’s series expansion about z = z0 .

IT
f 0 (z0 ) f 00 (z0 )
f (z) = f (z0 ) + (z − z0 ) + (z − z0 )2 + · · · → (1)
1! 2!

,V
. Here z0 = π/4 then we obtain
f (π/4) = √1 ,

ru
2
f 0 (z) = − sin z, f 0 (π/4) = − √1 ,

nd
2
f 00 (z) = − cos z, f 00 (π/4) = − √1 ,

ha
2
f 000 (z) = sin z, f 000 (π/4) = √1 .
2
.C
Sub. the above
 values in (1), we get 
(z− π )2 (z− π )3
f (z) = √1 1 − (z − π
) + 4
+ 4
+ ··· .
M

2 4 2! 6
This is the required Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) = cos z about z = π/4.
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 19 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: Expand f (z) = cos z in a Taylor series at z = π/4.

Soln: Given f (z) = cos z

-V
By Taylor’s series expansion about z = z0 .

IT
f 0 (z0 ) f 00 (z0 )
f (z) = f (z0 ) + (z − z0 ) + (z − z0 )2 + · · · → (1)
1! 2!

,V
. Here z0 = π/4 then we obtain
f (π/4) = √1 ,

ru
2
f 0 (z) = − sin z, f 0 (π/4) = − √1 ,

nd
2
f 00 (z) = − cos z, f 00 (π/4) = − √1 ,

ha
2
f 000 (z) = sin z, f 000 (π/4) = √1 .
2
.C
Sub. the above
 values in (1), we get 
(z− π )2 (z− π )3
f (z) = √1 1 − (z − π
) + 4
+ 4
+ ··· .
M

2 4 2! 6
This is the required Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) = cos z about z = π/4.
r.

Example: Expand f (z) = sin z in a Taylor series at z = π.

D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 19 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: Expand f (z) = sin z

z−π
in a Taylor series at z = π.

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 20 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: Expand f (z) = sin z

z−π
in a Taylor series at z = π.

-V
sin z
Soln: Given f (z) = z−π

IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 20 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: Expand f (z) = sin z

z−π
in a Taylor series at z = π.

-V
sin z
Soln: Given f (z) = z−π
Put w = z − π ⇒ z = π + w.

IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 20 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: Expand f (z) = sin z

z−π
in a Taylor series at z = π.

-V
sin z
Soln: Given f (z) = z−π
Put w = z − π ⇒ z = π + w. Thus,

IT
,V
sin z sin(π + w) − sin w 1
= =− = − sin w
z−π w w w

ru
1h w3 w5 i

nd
=− w− + + ···
w 3! 5!
w2 w4

ha
=−1+ − + ···
3! 5!
.C
sin z (z − π)2 (z − π)4
=−1 + − + ···
z−π 3! 5!
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 20 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: Expand f (z) = sin z

z−π
in a Taylor series at z = π.

-V
sin z
Soln: Given f (z) = z−π
Put w = z − π ⇒ z = π + w. Thus,

IT
,V
sin z sin(π + w) − sin w 1
= =− = − sin w
z−π w w w

ru
1h w3 w5 i

nd
=− w− + + ···
w 3! 5!
w2 w4

ha
=−1+ − + ···
3! 5!
.C
sin z (z − π)2 (z − π)4
=−1 + − + ···
z−π 3! 5!
M

sin z
This is the required Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) = at z = π.
r.

z−π
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 20 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Preliminaries

Laurent’s Series
.If f (z) is analytic inside and on the boundary of the annular(ring-shaped) region D be-
tween two concentric circles C1 (|z − z0 | = R1 ) and C2 (|z − z0 | = R2 ) with center at z0 and

-V
radii R1 and R2 (R2 < R1 ), then at any point z in D

IT
∞
X ∞
X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n + bn (z − z0 )−n

,V
n=0 n=1

where,

ru
Z
1 f (z)
an = dz, n = 0, 1, 2, · · ·
2πi (z − z0 )n+1

nd
C1
Z
1 f (z)

ha
bn = dz, n = 1, 2, · · ·
2πi C2 (z − z0 )−n+1
.
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 21 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Preliminaries

Laurent’s Series
.If f (z) is analytic inside and on the boundary of the annular(ring-shaped) region D be-
tween two concentric circles C1 (|z − z0 | = R1 ) and C2 (|z − z0 | = R2 ) with center at z0 and

-V
radii R1 and R2 (R2 < R1 ), then at any point z in D

IT
∞
X ∞
X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n + bn (z − z0 )−n

,V
n=0 n=1

where,

ru
Z
1 f (z)
an = dz, n = 0, 1, 2, · · ·
2πi (z − z0 )n+1

nd
C1
Z
1 f (z)

ha
bn = dz, n = 1, 2, · · ·
2πi C2 (z − z0 )−n+1
.
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 21 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Preliminaries

Note:
In the Laurent’s series of the
Pf (z) about z = z0 the terms

-V
containing positive powers ∞ n=0 a n (z − z 0 ) n is called regular or

IT
analytic part.

,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 22 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Preliminaries

Note:
In the Laurent’s series of the
Pf (z) about z = z0 the terms

-V
containing positive powers ∞ n=0 a n (z − z 0 ) n is called regular or

IT
analytic part.

,V
In the Laurent’s series of the f (z) about
P∞the singular point z = z0
−n
the terms containing negative powers n=1 bn (z − z0 ) is called

ru
singular or principle part.

nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 22 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Preliminaries

Note:
In the Laurent’s series of the
Pf (z) about z = z0 the terms

-V
containing positive powers ∞ n=0 a n (z − z 0 ) n is called regular or

IT
analytic part.

,V
In the Laurent’s series of the f (z) about
P∞the singular point z = z0
−n
the terms containing negative powers n=1 bn (z − z0 ) is called

ru
singular or principle part.

nd
The series ∞ −n converges to the analytic function
P
n=1 bn (z − z0 )
for |z − z0 | > R1 . ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 22 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Preliminaries

Note:
In the Laurent’s series of the
Pf (z) about z = z0 the terms

-V
containing positive powers ∞ n=0 a n (z − z 0 ) n is called regular or

IT
analytic part.

,V
In the Laurent’s series of the f (z) about
P∞the singular point z = z0
−n
the terms containing negative powers n=1 bn (z − z0 ) is called

ru
singular or principle part.

nd
The series ∞ −n converges to the analytic function
P
n=1 bn (z − z0 )
for |z − z0 | > R1 . ha
.C
The series ∞ n
P
n=0 an (z − z0 ) converges to the analytic function for
M

|z − z0 | < R2 .
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 22 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Preliminaries

Note:
In the Laurent’s series of the
Pf (z) about z = z0 the terms

-V
containing positive powers ∞ n=0 a n (z − z 0 ) n is called regular or

IT
analytic part.

,V
In the Laurent’s series of the f (z) about
P∞the singular point z = z0
−n
the terms containing negative powers n=1 bn (z − z0 ) is called

ru
singular or principle part.

nd
The series ∞ −n converges to the analytic function
P
n=1 bn (z − z0 )
for |z − z0 | > R1 . ha
.C
The series ∞ n
P
n=0 an (z − z0 ) converges to the analytic function for
M

|z − z0 | < R2 .
Together, the series both converge on annular region
r.
D

R1 < |z − z0 | < R2 where f (z) is analytic function.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 22 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

Example: Expand in the series the function f (z) = 1

z 2 −3z+2
in the valid region for (i)
|z| < 1, (ii) 1 < |z| < 2 (iii) |z| > 2.

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
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M
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D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 23 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

Example: 1
Expand in the series the function f (z) = z2 −3z+2 in the valid region for (i)
|z| < 1, (ii) 1 < |z| < 2 (iii) |z| > 2.
1 1 A B
Soln: Given f (z) = z2 −3z+2 = (z−1)(z−2) = z−1 + z−2 .
1 = A(z − 2) + B(z − 1)

-V
IT
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ru
nd
ha
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M
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D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 23 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

Example: 1
Expand in the series the function f (z) = z2 −3z+2 in the valid region for (i)
|z| < 1, (ii) 1 < |z| < 2 (iii) |z| > 2.
1 1 A B
Soln: Given f (z) = z2 −3z+2 = (z−1)(z−2) = z−1 + z−2 .
1 = A(z − 2) + B(z − 1)
Put z = 1, we get A = −1. Put z = 2, we get B = 1.

-V
1 1 1
Thus, (z−1)(z−2) = − z−1 + z−2 .

IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
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M
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D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 23 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

Example: 1
Expand in the series the function f (z) = z2 −3z+2 in the valid region for (i)
|z| < 1, (ii) 1 < |z| < 2 (iii) |z| > 2.
1 1 A B
Soln: Given f (z) = z2 −3z+2 = (z−1)(z−2) = z−1 + z−2 .
1 = A(z − 2) + B(z − 1)
Put z = 1, we get A = −1. Put z = 2, we get B = 1.

-V
1 1 1
Thus, (z−1)(z−2) = − z−1 + z−2 .

IT
(i) For |z| < 1 ⇒ 0 < |z| < 1, if |z| < 1 ⇒ | z2 | < 1
2
< 1.

,V
ru
nd
ha
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M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 23 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

Example: 1
Expand in the series the function f (z) = z2 −3z+2 in the valid region for (i)
|z| < 1, (ii) 1 < |z| < 2 (iii) |z| > 2.
1 1 A B
Soln: Given f (z) = z2 −3z+2 = (z−1)(z−2) = z−1 + z−2 .
1 = A(z − 2) + B(z − 1)
Put z = 1, we get A = −1. Put z = 2, we get B = 1.

-V
1 1 1
Thus, (z−1)(z−2) = − z−1 + z−2 .

IT
(i) For |z| < 1 ⇒ 0 < |z| < 1, if |z| < 1 ⇒ | z2 | < 21 < 1. Now, find the expansion is
converge in the region |z| < 1.

,V
1 1
f (z) = z−2 − z−1
 −1
= 1  + 1 = −1 1 − z + (1 − z)−1

ru
1−z 2 2
−2 1− z
2

nd
2
   
= − 12 1 + z2 + z4 + · · · + 1 + z + z 2 + · · ·

ha
 n P P∞  
f (z) = − 12 ∞ z
+ ∞ n 1 n
P
n=0 2 n=0 z = n=0 1 − 2n+1 z .
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 23 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

Example: 1
Expand in the series the function f (z) = z2 −3z+2 in the valid region for (i)
|z| < 1, (ii) 1 < |z| < 2 (iii) |z| > 2.
1 1 A B
Soln: Given f (z) = z2 −3z+2 = (z−1)(z−2) = z−1 + z−2 .
1 = A(z − 2) + B(z − 1)
Put z = 1, we get A = −1. Put z = 2, we get B = 1.

-V
1 1 1
Thus, (z−1)(z−2) = − z−1 + z−2 .

IT
(i) For |z| < 1 ⇒ 0 < |z| < 1, if |z| < 1 ⇒ | z2 | < 21 < 1. Now, find the expansion is
converge in the region |z| < 1.

,V
1 1
f (z) = z−2 − z−1
 −1
= 1  + 1 = −1 1 − z + (1 − z)−1

ru
1−z 2 2
−2 1− z
2

nd
2
   
= − 12 1 + z2 + z4 + · · · + 1 + z + z 2 + · · ·

ha
 n P P∞  
f (z) = − 12 ∞ z
+ ∞ n 1 n
P
n=0 2 n=0 z = n=0 1 − 2n+1 z .
.C
M
r.
D

which is a series of positive power of z, and so it is a Taylor’s expansion for f (z) within the
circle |z| = 1.
Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 23 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

.(ii) For 1 < |z| < 2, if 1 < |z| ⇒ |z| > 1 ⇒ | z1 | < 1 and |z| < 2 ⇒ | z2 | < 1.

-V
IT
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ru
nd
ha
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D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 24 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

.(ii) For 1 < |z| < 2, if 1 < |z| ⇒ |z| > 1 ⇒ | z1 | < 1 and |z| < 2 ⇒ | z2 | < 1. Now, find the
expansion is converge in the region | z1 | < 1 and | z2 | < 1.

-V
IT
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ru
nd
ha
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M
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D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 24 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

.(ii) For 1 < |z| < 2, if 1 < |z| ⇒ |z| > 1 ⇒ | z1 | < 1 and |z| < 2 ⇒ | z2 | < 1. Now, find the
expansion is converge in the region | z1 | < 1 and | z2 | < 1.
1 1
f (z) = z−2 − z−1
 −1  −1
= 1  −  1  = −1 1 − z − z1 1 − 1
2 2 z

-V
−2 1− z
2
1
z 1− z
 2
    n
− 12 1 + + z22 + · · · − z1 1 + z1 + z12 + · · · = − 21 ∞
z z
− z1 ∞ −n
P P
f (z) = n=0 z

IT
2 n=0 2
which is a series of positive and negative powers of z and so it is Laurent’s expansion in the

,V
annular region 1 < |z| < 2.

ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 24 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

.(ii) For 1 < |z| < 2, if 1 < |z| ⇒ |z| > 1 ⇒ | z1 | < 1 and |z| < 2 ⇒ | z2 | < 1. Now, find the
expansion is converge in the region | z1 | < 1 and | z2 | < 1.
1 1
f (z) = z−2 − z−1
 −1  −1
= 1  −  1  = −1 1 − z − z1 1 − 1
2 2 z

-V
−2 1− z
2
1
z 1− z
 2
    n
− 121 + + z22 + · · · − z1 1 + z1 + z12 + · · · = − 21 ∞
z z
− z1 ∞ −n
P P
f (z) = n=0 z

IT
2 n=0 2
which is a series of positive and negative powers of z and so it is Laurent’s expansion in the

,V
annular region 1 < |z| < 2.
(iii) For |z| > 2, if |z| > 2 ⇒ | z2 | < 1 and |z| > 2 > 1 ⇒ |z|
1
< 1.

ru
1 1
f (z) = z−2
− z−1

nd
 −1  −1
1 −  1 1 2 1 1
=   =
z
1− z
− z
1− z
z 2
1− z z 1
1− z
2

ha
    P  
f (z) = 1
1 + z2 + z22 + · · · − z1 1 + z1 + z12 + · · · = ∞ n
n=0 2 − 1 z n+1
1
.C
z
which is a series in negative powers of z and so it is Laurent’s expansion in the annular
region 2 < |z| < R where R is a large number.
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 24 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

.(ii) For 1 < |z| < 2, if 1 < |z| ⇒ |z| > 1 ⇒ | z1 | < 1 and |z| < 2 ⇒ | z2 | < 1. Now, find the
expansion is converge in the region | z1 | < 1 and | z2 | < 1.
1 1
f (z) = z−2 − z−1
 −1  −1
= 1  −  1  = −1 1 − z − z1 1 − 1
2 2 z

-V
−2 1− z
2
1
z 1− z
 2
    n
− 121 + + z22 + · · · − z1 1 + z1 + z12 + · · · = − 21 ∞
z z
− z1 ∞ −n
P P
f (z) = n=0 z

IT
2 n=0 2
which is a series of positive and negative powers of z and so it is Laurent’s expansion in the

,V
annular region 1 < |z| < 2.
(iii) For |z| > 2, if |z| > 2 ⇒ | z2 | < 1 and |z| > 2 > 1 ⇒ |z|
1
< 1.

ru
1 1
f (z) = z−2
− z−1

nd
 −1  −1
1 −  1 1 2 1 1
=   =
z
1− z
− z
1− z
z 2
1− z z 1
1− z
2

ha
    P  
f (z) = 1
1 + z2 + z22 + · · · − z1 1 + z1 + z12 + · · · = ∞ n
n=0 2 − 1 z n+1
1
.C
z
which is a series in negative powers of z and so it is Laurent’s expansion in the annular
region 2 < |z| < R where R is a large number.
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 24 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

Example: Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) = 1

(z+1)(z+3)
in the valid region for |z| < 1,
|z| > 3, 1 < |z| < 3 and 0 < |z + 1| < 2.

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 25 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

Example: Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) = 1

(z+1)(z+3)
in the valid region for |z| < 1,
|z| > 3, 1 < |z| < 3 and 0 < |z + 1| < 2.
1
Soln: Given f (z) = (z+1)(z+3) .

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 25 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

Example: Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) = 1

(z+1)(z+3)
in the valid region for |z| < 1,
|z| > 3, 1 < |z| < 3 and 0 < |z + 1| < 2.
1
Soln: Given f (z) = (z+1)(z+3) .

-V
1 A B

IT
= +
(z + 1)(z + 3) z + 1 z+3

,V
1 =A(z + 3) + B(z + 1).

ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 25 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

Example: Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) = 1

(z+1)(z+3)
in the valid region for |z| < 1,
|z| > 3, 1 < |z| < 3 and 0 < |z + 1| < 2.
1
Soln: Given f (z) = (z+1)(z+3) .

-V
1 A B

IT
= +
(z + 1)(z + 3) z + 1 z+3

,V
1 =A(z + 3) + B(z + 1).

ru
1
Put z = −1, we get A = 2
. Put z = −3, we get B = − 12 . Now

nd
1 1 1

ha
= −
(z + 1)(z + 3) 2(z + 1) 2(z + 3)
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 25 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

Example: Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) = 1

(z+1)(z+3)
in the valid region for |z| < 1,
|z| > 3, 1 < |z| < 3 and 0 < |z + 1| < 2.
1
Soln: Given f (z) = (z+1)(z+3) .

-V
1 A B

IT
= +
(z + 1)(z + 3) z + 1 z+3

,V
1 =A(z + 3) + B(z + 1).

ru
1
Put z = −1, we get A = 2
. Put z = −3, we get B = − 12 . Now

nd
1 1 1

ha
= −
(z + 1)(z + 3) 2(z + 1) 2(z + 3)
.C
|z|
(i) |z| < 1, we have 3 < 31 < 1
M

f (z) = 21 (1 + z)−1 − 16 (1 + z3 )−1

h
2 i
z 3
= 21 1 − z + z 2 − z 3 + · · · − 16 1 − z3 + z3 −
 

+ ···
r.

3
= 12 − 61 − 12 − 18 1
z + 12 − 54
1
z2 − · · ·




D

1
f (z) = 3
− 49 z + 13 2
27
z − 40 3
21
z + ···

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 25 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

. (ii) For 1 < |z| < 3 if 1 < |z| ⇒ |z| > 1 ⇒ | z1 | < 1 and |z| < 3 ⇒ | z3 | < 1.

-V
IT
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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 26 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

. (ii) For 1 < |z| < 3 if 1 < |z| ⇒ |z| > 1 ⇒ | z1 | < 1 and |z| < 3 ⇒ | z3 | < 1.

-V
   
f (z) = 12 z+1
1
− 21 z+31

1 1

IT
= −  
1
2z 1+ z 6 1+ z 3

,V
 −1  −1
1 1
= 2z 1 + z − 6 1 + z3
1

z2
   

ru
1
= 2z 1 − z1 + z12 − z13 + · · · − 16 1 − z3 + 9
− ···

nd
2
 
1
f (z) = 2z − 2z12 + 2z13 − · · · − 16 + 18
z
− z54 + ···

ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 26 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

. (ii) For 1 < |z| < 3 if 1 < |z| ⇒ |z| > 1 ⇒ | z1 | < 1 and |z| < 3 ⇒ | z3 | < 1.

-V
   
f (z) = 12 z+1
1
− 21 z+31

1 1

IT
= −  
1
2z 1+ z 6 1+ z 3

,V
 −1  −1
1 1
= 2z 1 + z − 6 1 + z3
1

z2
   

ru
1
= 2z 1 − z1 + z12 − z13 + · · · − 16 1 − z3 + 9
− ···

nd
2
 
1
f (z) = 2z − 2z12 + 2z13 − · · · − 16 + 18
z
− z54 + ···
3
(iii) |z| > 3 ⇒ |z| < 1.

ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 26 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

. (ii) For 1 < |z| < 3 if 1 < |z| ⇒ |z| > 1 ⇒ | z1 | < 1 and |z| < 3 ⇒ | z3 | < 1.

-V
   
f (z) = 12 z+1
1
− 21 z+31

1 1

IT
= −  
1
2z 1+ z 6 1+ z 3

,V
 −1  −1
1 1
= 2z 1 + z − 6 1 + z3
1

z2
   

ru
1
= 2z 1 − z1 + z12 − z13 + · · · − 16 1 − z3 + 9
− ···

nd
2
 
1
f (z) = 2z − 2z12 + 2z13 − · · · − 16 + 18
z
− z54 + ···
3
(iii) |z| > 3 ⇒ |z| < 1.
f (z) = 1
− 1 
ha
.C
 
1
2z 1+ z 3
2z 1+ z
 −1  −1
1
1 + z1 1
− 2z 1 + z3
M

= 2z
   
1
f (z) = 2z 1 − z1 + z12 − · · · − 2z 1
1− 3
z
+ 9
z2
− ··· .
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 26 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

-V
(iv) 0 < |z + 1| < 2. Put w = z + 1 ⇒ z = w − 1, 0 < |w| < 2 ⇒

IT
| w2 | < 1.

,V
ru
nd
ha
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M
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D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 27 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

-V
(iv) 0 < |z + 1| < 2. Put w = z + 1 ⇒ z = w − 1, 0 < |w| < 2 ⇒

IT
| w2 | < 1.

,V
 −1
1
f (w − 1) = w(w+2) =  1  = 2w1
1 + w2
2w 1+ w

ru
2

nd
 
1 w w2 w3
= 2w 1 − 2 + 22 − 8 + · · ·

ha
1 1 w w2
= 2w − 4 + 8 − 16 + · · ·
.C
1 1 z+1 (z+1)2
f (z) = 2(z+1) − 4 + 8 − 16 + · · ·.
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 27 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

Example: Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) = 7z−2

z(z−2)(z+1)
in the valid region for 1 <
|z + 1| < 3.

-V
IT
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ru
nd
ha
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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 28 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

Example: Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) = 7z−2

z(z−2)(z+1)
in the valid region for 1 <
7z−2
|z + 1| < 3. Soln: Given f (z) = z(z−2)(z+1)
.

-V
IT
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ru
nd
ha
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M
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D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 28 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

Example: Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) = 7z−2

z(z−2)(z+1)
in the valid region for 1 <
7z−2
|z + 1| < 3. Soln: Given f (z) = z(z−2)(z+1)
.

7z − 2 A B C
f (z) == = + +
z(z − 2)(z + 1) z z−2 z+1

-V
Now

IT
7z − 2 = A(z − 2)(z + 1) + Bz(z + 1) + Cz(z − 2)
Put z = 2, we get B = 2, put z = 0, we get A = 1, put z = −1, we get C = −3.

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ru
nd
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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 28 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

Example: Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) = 7z−2

z(z−2)(z+1)
in the valid region for 1 <
7z−2
|z + 1| < 3. Soln: Given f (z) = z(z−2)(z+1)
.

7z − 2 A B C
f (z) == = + +
z(z − 2)(z + 1) z z−2 z+1

-V
Now

IT
7z − 2 = A(z − 2)(z + 1) + Bz(z + 1) + Cz(z − 2)
Put z = 2, we get B = 2, put z = 0, we get A = 1, put z = −1, we get C = −3. Thus

,V
1 2 3
f (z) = + − .

ru
z z−2 z+1
Put w = z + 1 ⇒ z = w − 1. Now 1 < |z + 1| < 3 ⇒ 1 < |w| < 3. We have 1 < |w| ⇒ |w| >

nd
1
1 ⇒ |w | < 1 and |w| < 3 ⇒ | w
3
| < 1.

ha
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M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 28 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

Example: Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) = 7z−2

z(z−2)(z+1)
in the valid region for 1 <
7z−2
|z + 1| < 3. Soln: Given f (z) = z(z−2)(z+1)
.

7z − 2 A B C
f (z) == = + +
z(z − 2)(z + 1) z z−2 z+1

-V
Now

IT
7z − 2 = A(z − 2)(z + 1) + Bz(z + 1) + Cz(z − 2)
Put z = 2, we get B = 2, put z = 0, we get A = 1, put z = −1, we get C = −3. Thus

,V
1 2 3
f (z) = + − .

ru
z z−2 z+1
Put w = z + 1 ⇒ z = w − 1. Now 1 < |z + 1| < 3 ⇒ 1 < |w| < 3. We have 1 < |w| ⇒ |w| >

nd
1
1 ⇒ |w | < 1 and |w| < 3 ⇒ | w
3
| < 1. We have

ha
1 2 3
f (w − 1) = + −
.C
w−1 w−3 w
1 2 3
=  +  −
M

w 1− w 1
3 w − 1 w
3
1 1 −1 2 w −1 3
r.

= 1− − 1− −
w w 3 3 w
D

1 1  1 2  2 w  w 2  3
= 1+ + + ··· − 1+ + + ··· −
w w w 3 3 3 w
1  1  1 2  2 z + 1  z + 1 2  3
f (z) = 1+ + + ··· − 1+ + + ··· − .
z+1 z+1 z+1 3 3 3 z+1
Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 28 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples
z 2 −1
Example: Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) = z 2 +5z+6
in the region (i) |z| < 2 (ii)
|z| > 3 (iii) 2 < |z| < 3.

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
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M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 29 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples
z 2 −1
Example: Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) = z 2 +5z+6
in the region (i) |z| < 2 (ii)
|z| > 3 (iii) 2 < |z| < 3. Soln: Given

z2 − 1 (5z + 7)
f (z) = =1− 2 .
z2 + 5z + 6 z + 5z + 6

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 29 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples
z 2 −1
Example: Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) = z 2 +5z+6
in the region (i) |z| < 2 (ii)
|z| > 3 (iii) 2 < |z| < 3. Soln: Given

z2 − 1 (5z + 7)
f (z) = =1− 2 .
z2 + 5z + 6 z + 5z + 6

-V
Now
(5z + 7) A B

IT
= + .
z 2 + 5z + 6 z+2 z+3

,V
Thus,
5z + 7 = A(z + 3) + B(z + 2).

ru
Put z = −3, we get B = 8. Put z = −2, we get A = −3.

nd
ha
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M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 29 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples
z 2 −1
Example: Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) = z 2 +5z+6
in the region (i) |z| < 2 (ii)
|z| > 3 (iii) 2 < |z| < 3. Soln: Given

z2 − 1 (5z + 7)
f (z) = =1− 2 .
z2 + 5z + 6 z + 5z + 6

-V
Now
(5z + 7) A B

IT
= + .
z 2 + 5z + 6 z+2 z+3

,V
Thus,
5z + 7 = A(z + 3) + B(z + 2).

ru
Put z = −3, we get B = 8. Put z = −2, we get A = −3. Therefore,

nd
3 8
f (z) = 1 + − .

ha
z+2 z+3
.C
(i) |z| < 2. We have | z2 | < 1 and | z3 | < 1.

3 8
M

f (z) =1 +  −  
z z
2 2 +1 3 3 +1
r.

3 z −1 8 z −1
−
D

=1 + 1+ 1+
2 2 3 3
3 z z2  8 z z2 
f (z) =1 + 1− + − ··· − 1− + − ···
2 2 4 3 3 9

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 29 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

.(ii) For |z| > 3. We have | z3 | < 1. Note that 2 < 3 < |z| and hence | z2 | < 1.

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
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M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 30 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

.(ii) For |z| > 3. We have | z3 | < 1. Note that 2 < 3 < |z| and hence | z2 | < 1.

3 8
f (z) =1 + −
z+2 z+3
1 8

-V
=1 +  −  
2
z 1+ z z 1 + z3

IT
3 2 −1 8 3 −1
=1 + 1+ − 1+

,V
z z z z
3 2 4  8 3 9 
f (z) =1 + 1 − + 2 − ··· − 1 − + 2 − ···

ru
z z z z z z

nd
ha
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M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 30 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

.(ii) For |z| > 3. We have | z3 | < 1. Note that 2 < 3 < |z| and hence | z2 | < 1.

3 8
f (z) =1 + −
z+2 z+3
1 8

-V
=1 +  −  
2
z 1+ z z 1 + z3

IT
3 2 −1 8 3 −1
=1 + 1+ − 1+

,V
z z z z
3 2 4  8 3 9 
f (z) =1 + 1 − + 2 − ··· − 1 − + 2 − ···

ru
z z z z z z

nd
(iii) For 2 < |z| < 3. We have 2 < |z| ⇒ |z| > 2 ⇒ | z2 | < 1 and |z| < 3 ⇒ | z3 | < 1.

ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 30 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

.(ii) For |z| > 3. We have | z3 | < 1. Note that 2 < 3 < |z| and hence | z2 | < 1.

3 8
f (z) =1 + −
z+2 z+3
1 8

-V
=1 +  −  
2
z 1+ z z 1 + z3

IT
3 2 −1 8 3 −1
=1 + 1+ − 1+

,V
z z z z
3 2 4  8 3 9 
f (z) =1 + 1 − + 2 − ··· − 1 − + 2 − ···

ru
z z z z z z

nd
(iii) For 2 < |z| < 3. We have 2 < |z| ⇒ |z| > 2 ⇒ | z2 | < 1 and |z| < 3 ⇒ | z3 | < 1.

f (z) =1 +
3
−
8
ha
.C
z+2 z+3
3 8
=1 +  − 
M


2
z 1+ z 3 1 + z3
r.

3 2 −1 8 z −1
=1 + 1+ − 1+
D

z z 3 3
3 2 4  8 z z2 
f (z) =1 + 1 − + 2 − ··· − 1− + − ···
2 z z 3 3 9

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 30 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

Example: Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) = 1

(z+2)(z 2 +1)
in the region (i) |z| < 1 (ii)
1
1 < |z| < 2 (iii) |z| > 2. Soln: Given f (z) = (z+2)(z 2 +1)

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 31 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

Example: Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) = 1

(z+2)(z 2 +1)
in the region (i) |z| < 1 (ii)
1
1 < |z| < 2 (iii) |z| > 2. Soln: Given f (z) = (z+2)(z 2 +1)
Now,
1 A Bz + C
= + 2 .
(z + 2)(z 2 + 1) z+2 z +1

-V
We have

IT
1 = A(z 2 + 1) + (Bz + C)(z + 2).

,V
Put z = −2, we get A = 51 . Comparing coefficient of z 2 , we get 0 = A + B. Thus B = − 51 .
Put z = 0, we get 1 = A + 2C and hence C = 25 .

ru
nd
ha
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M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 31 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

Example: Find the Laurent’s series of f (z) = 1

(z+2)(z 2 +1)
in the region (i) |z| < 1 (ii)
1
1 < |z| < 2 (iii) |z| > 2. Soln: Given f (z) = (z+2)(z 2 +1)
Now,
1 A Bz + C
= + 2 .
(z + 2)(z 2 + 1) z+2 z +1

-V
We have

IT
1 = A(z 2 + 1) + (Bz + C)(z + 2).

,V
Put z = −2, we get A = 51 . Comparing coefficient of z 2 , we get 0 = A + B. Thus B = − 51 .
Put z = 0, we get 1 = A + 2C and hence C = 25 . Therefore,

ru
− 1 z + 25

nd
1 1 1 2 − z 
f (z) = + 52 = +
5(z + 2) z +1 5(z + 2) 5 z2 + 1

(i) For |z| < 1. We have | z2 | < 1

ha
< 1 and hence | z2 | < 1.
.C
2

1 1
 + (2 − z)(1 + z 2 )−1
M

f (z) = 
10 1 + z2 5
r.

1  z −1
 1  
= 1+ + (2 − z) 1 − z 2 + z 4 − · · ·
D

10 2 5
1  z z2  2−z 
f (z) = 1− + − ··· + 1 − z2 + z4 − · · · .
10 2 4 5

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 31 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

.(ii) 1 < |z| < 2. We have 1 < |z| ⇒ |z| > 1 ⇒ | z1 | < 1 ⇒ 1
|z|2
< 1 and |z| < 2 ⇒ | z2 | < 1.

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 32 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

.(ii) 1 < |z| < 2. We have 1 < |z| ⇒ |z| > 1 ⇒ | z1 | < 1 ⇒ 1
|z|2
< 1 and |z| < 2 ⇒ | z2 | < 1.

1 1 2−z
f (z) = +
5(z + 2) 5 z2 + 1
1 2−z 1

-V
=  +  
10 1 + z2 5 z2 1 + 1
z2

IT
1  z −1 2−z 1 −1
= 1+ + 1+ 2

,V
10 2 5z 2 z
1  z z2  2−z 1 1 
1− + − ··· + 1 − 2 + 4 − ···

ru
f (z) =
10 2 4 5z 2 z z

nd
ha
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M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 32 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

.(ii) 1 < |z| < 2. We have 1 < |z| ⇒ |z| > 1 ⇒ | z1 | < 1 ⇒ 1
|z|2
< 1 and |z| < 2 ⇒ | z2 | < 1.

1 1 2−z
f (z) = +
5(z + 2) 5 z2 + 1
1 2−z 1

-V
=  +  
10 1 + z2 5 z2 1 + 1
z2

IT
1  z −1 2−z 1 −1
= 1+ + 1+ 2

,V
10 2 5z 2 z
1  z z2  2−z 1 1 
1− + − ··· + 1 − 2 + 4 − ···

ru
f (z) =
10 2 4 5z 2 z z

nd
(iii) |z| > 2. We have |z| > 2 > 1 and hence we get | z2 | < 1 and | z1 | < | z12 | < 1.

1 2−z
ha
.C
f (z) = +
5(z + 2) 5(z 2 + 1)
1 2−z
M

=  +  
2
5z 1 + z 5z 1 + z12
2
r.

1  2 −1 2−z 1 −1

= 1+ + 1+ 2
D

5z z 5z 2 z
1  2 4  2−z 1 1 
f (z) = 1 − + 2 − ··· + 1 − + − · · · .
5z z z 5z 2 z2 z4

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 32 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Laurent’s Series - Examples

-V
Example

IT
1
Find the Laurent’s series of in (i) 0 < |z| < 1, (ii)

,V
z(z−1)
0 < |z − 1| < 1.

ru
nd
Example

ha
1
Find the Laurent’s series of z(1−z) in (i) |z + 1| < 1, (ii) 1 < |z + 1| < 2
.C
(iii) |z + 1| > 2.
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 33 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Zeros of an analytic function

If a function f (z) analytic in a region R is zero at a point z = z0 in R

-V
then z0 is called a zero of the function f (z).

IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 34 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Zeros of an analytic function

If a function f (z) analytic in a region R is zero at a point z = z0 in R

-V
then z0 is called a zero of the function f (z).

IT
Simple zero
If f (z0 ) = 0 and f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0 then z = z0 is called a simple zero of the

,V
function f (z) or zero of the first order.

ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 34 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Zeros of an analytic function

If a function f (z) analytic in a region R is zero at a point z = z0 in R

-V
then z0 is called a zero of the function f (z).

IT
Simple zero
If f (z0 ) = 0 and f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0 then z = z0 is called a simple zero of the

,V
function f (z) or zero of the first order.

ru
Zero of order n

nd
If f (z0 ) = f 0 (z0 ) = f 00 (z0 ) = · · · = f n−1 (z0 ) = 0 and f n (z0 ) 6= 0 then
z = z0 is called a zero of the order n.
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 34 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Zeros of an analytic function

If a function f (z) analytic in a region R is zero at a point z = z0 in R

-V
then z0 is called a zero of the function f (z).

IT
Simple zero
If f (z0 ) = 0 and f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0 then z = z0 is called a simple zero of the

,V
function f (z) or zero of the first order.

ru
Zero of order n

nd
If f (z0 ) = f 0 (z0 ) = f 00 (z0 ) = · · · = f n−1 (z0 ) = 0 and f n (z0 ) 6= 0 then
z = z0 is called a zero of the order n.
Example: ha
.C
2 +1
Find the zeros of f (z) = z1−z 2
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 34 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Zeros of an analytic function

If a function f (z) analytic in a region R is zero at a point z = z0 in R

-V
then z0 is called a zero of the function f (z).

IT
Simple zero
If f (z0 ) = 0 and f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0 then z = z0 is called a simple zero of the

,V
function f (z) or zero of the first order.

ru
Zero of order n

nd
If f (z0 ) = f 0 (z0 ) = f 00 (z0 ) = · · · = f n−1 (z0 ) = 0 and f n (z0 ) 6= 0 then
z = z0 is called a zero of the order n.
Example: ha
.C
2 +1
Find the zeros of f (z) = z1−z 2
M

z 2 +1
Soln: Given f (z) = 1−z 2
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 34 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Zeros of an analytic function

If a function f (z) analytic in a region R is zero at a point z = z0 in R

-V
then z0 is called a zero of the function f (z).

IT
Simple zero
If f (z0 ) = 0 and f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0 then z = z0 is called a simple zero of the

,V
function f (z) or zero of the first order.

ru
Zero of order n

nd
If f (z0 ) = f 0 (z0 ) = f 00 (z0 ) = · · · = f n−1 (z0 ) = 0 and f n (z0 ) 6= 0 then
z = z0 is called a zero of the order n.
Example: ha
.C
2 +1
Find the zeros of f (z) = z1−z 2
M

z 2 +1
Soln: Given f (z) = 1−z 2
2 (z+i)(z−i)
r.

Now, f (z) = z1−z

+1
2 = =0 1−z 2
D

⇒ (z + i)(z − i) = 0
⇒ (z + i) = 0 ⇒ z = −i is a simple zero and
(z − i) = 0 ⇒ z = i is a simple zero.
Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 34 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Singular Point

A point at which a function f (z) is not analytic is called a singular

-V
point or singularity of f (z).

IT
,V
ru
nd
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 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Singular Point

A point at which a function f (z) is not analytic is called a singular

-V
point or singularity of f (z).

IT
Example:
1

,V
Let f (z) = z−3 ,

ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 35 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Singular Point

A point at which a function f (z) is not analytic is called a singular

-V
point or singularity of f (z).

IT
Example:
1
, then z − 3 = 0 ⇒ z = 3

,V
Let f (z) = z−3

ru
nd
ha
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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 35 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Singular Point

A point at which a function f (z) is not analytic is called a singular

-V
point or singularity of f (z).

IT
Example:
1
, then z − 3 = 0 ⇒ z = 3

,V
Let f (z) = z−3
1
Hence, z = 3 is a singular point of f (z) = z−3 .

ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 35 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Singular Point

A point at which a function f (z) is not analytic is called a singular

-V
point or singularity of f (z).

IT
Example:
1
, then z − 3 = 0 ⇒ z = 3

,V
Let f (z) = z−3
1
Hence, z = 3 is a singular point of f (z) = z−3 .

ru
nd
Note: z̄, |z|2 , Re(z), Im(z), zRe(z) are nowhere analytic. That does

ha
not mean that every point of C is a singularity.
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 35 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Singular Point

A point at which a function f (z) is not analytic is called a singular

-V
point or singularity of f (z).

IT
Example:
1
, then z − 3 = 0 ⇒ z = 3

,V
Let f (z) = z−3
1
Hence, z = 3 is a singular point of f (z) = z−3 .

ru
nd
Note: z̄, |z|2 , Re(z), Im(z), zRe(z) are nowhere analytic. That does

ha
not mean that every point of C is a singularity.
.C
Types of Singularities
M

Isolated singularity
r.

Poles
D

Essential singularity
Removable singularity

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 35 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Isolated singularity:

A singular point z = z0 of a function f (z) is called an isolated singular

-V
point if there exist a circle with centre z = z0 which contains no other

IT
singular point of f (z). Otherwise non-isolated singularity.

,V
ru
nd
ha
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Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 36 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Isolated singularity:

A singular point z = z0 of a function f (z) is called an isolated singular

-V
point if there exist a circle with centre z = z0 which contains no other

IT
singular point of f (z). Otherwise non-isolated singularity.

,V
Examples:

ru
z 2 +z
(i) f (z) = (z+2)(z−3) .

nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 36 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Isolated singularity:

A singular point z = z0 of a function f (z) is called an isolated singular

-V
point if there exist a circle with centre z = z0 which contains no other

IT
singular point of f (z). Otherwise non-isolated singularity.

,V
Examples:

ru
z 2 +z
(i) f (z) = (z+2)(z−3) .

nd
Here z = −2 and z = 3 are two isolated singular points.

ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 36 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Isolated singularity:

A singular point z = z0 of a function f (z) is called an isolated singular

-V
point if there exist a circle with centre z = z0 which contains no other

IT
singular point of f (z). Otherwise non-isolated singularity.

,V
Examples:

ru
z 2 +z
(i) f (z) = (z+2)(z−3) .

nd
Here z = −2 and z = 3 are two isolated singular points.

ha
.C
1
(ii) f (z) = sin z .
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 36 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Isolated singularity:

A singular point z = z0 of a function f (z) is called an isolated singular

-V
point if there exist a circle with centre z = z0 which contains no other

IT
singular point of f (z). Otherwise non-isolated singularity.

,V
Examples:

ru
z 2 +z
(i) f (z) = (z+2)(z−3) .

nd
Here z = −2 and z = 3 are two isolated singular points.

ha
.C
(ii) f (z) = sin1 z .
Now sin z = 0 when z = nπ, n = 0, 1, 2, · · · .
M

Thus f (z) has an infinite number of isolated singular points.

r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 36 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Isolated singularity:

A singular point z = z0 of a function f (z) is called an isolated singular

-V
point if there exist a circle with centre z = z0 which contains no other

IT
singular point of f (z). Otherwise non-isolated singularity.

,V
Examples:

ru
z 2 +z
(i) f (z) = (z+2)(z−3) .

nd
Here z = −2 and z = 3 are two isolated singular points.

ha
.C
(ii) f (z) = sin1 z .
Now sin z = 0 when z = nπ, n = 0, 1, 2, · · · .
M

Thus f (z) has an infinite number of isolated singular points.

r.
D

1 1


Note: tan z , sin( πz )
, log z these functions has non-isolated singular-
ity at z = 0.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 36 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Pole:

-V
IT
Let z = z0 be an isolated singularity of f (z). The point z = z0 is called

,V
a pole if the principal part of the Laurent’s expansion of f (z) at z = z0
has a finite number of terms. If the principal part of f (z) at z = z0 as

ru
given by
b1 b2 br

nd
+ + ··· +
z−a (z − a)2 (z − a)r

ha
where br 6= 0, we say that a is a pole of order r.
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 37 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Pole:

-V
IT
Let z = z0 be an isolated singularity of f (z). The point z = z0 is called

,V
a pole if the principal part of the Laurent’s expansion of f (z) at z = z0
has a finite number of terms. If the principal part of f (z) at z = z0 as

ru
given by
b1 b2 br

nd
+ + ··· +
z−a (z − a)2 (z − a)r

ha
where br 6= 0, we say that a is a pole of order r.
.C
Note: A pole of order 1 is called simple pole and a pole of order 2 is
M

called a double pole.

r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 37 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Examples:
z
(i) f (z) = ez .

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 38 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Examples:
z
(i) f (z) = ez . Now

-V
ez 1 z2 z3 

IT
f (z) = = 1+z+ + + ···
z z 2! 3!

,V
1 z z2
f (z) = + 1 + + + ···
z 2! 3!

ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 38 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Examples:
z
(i) f (z) = ez . Now

-V
ez 1 z2 z3 

IT
f (z) = = 1+z+ + + ···
z z 2! 3!

,V
1 z z2
f (z) = + 1 + + + ···
z 2! 3!

ru
Here the principal part of f (z) at z = 0 has single term z1 .

nd
Hence z = 0 is a simple pole.

ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 38 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Examples:
z
(i) f (z) = ez . Now

-V
ez 1 z2 z3 

IT
f (z) = = 1+z+ + + ···
z z 2! 3!

,V
1 z z2
f (z) = + 1 + + + ···
z 2! 3!

ru
Here the principal part of f (z) at z = 0 has single term z1 .

nd
Hence z = 0 is a simple pole.
(ii) f (z) = cos
ha
z
z2
.
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 38 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Examples:
z
(i) f (z) = ez . Now

-V
ez 1 z2 z3 

IT
f (z) = = 1+z+ + + ···
z z 2! 3!

,V
1 z z2
f (z) = + 1 + + + ···
z 2! 3!

ru
Here the principal part of f (z) at z = 0 has single term z1 .

nd
Hence z = 0 is a simple pole.
(ii) f (z) = cos
ha
z
z2
. Now
.C
cos z 1  z2 z4 
f (z) = = 2 1− + − ···
M

z 2 z 2! 4!
1 1 z2
f (z) = 2 − + − ···
r.

z 2! 4!
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 38 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Examples:
z
(i) f (z) = ez . Now

-V
ez 1 z2 z3 

IT
f (z) = = 1+z+ + + ···
z z 2! 3!

,V
1 z z2
f (z) = + 1 + + + ···
z 2! 3!

ru
Here the principal part of f (z) at z = 0 has single term z1 .

nd
Hence z = 0 is a simple pole.
(ii) f (z) = cos
ha
z
z2
. Now
.C
cos z 1  z2 z4 
f (z) = = 2 1− + − ···
M

z 2 z 2! 4!
1 1 z2
f (z) = 2 − + − ···
r.

z 2! 4!
D

Here, z = 0 is a double pole or pole of order 2.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 38 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Essential singularity:
Let z = z0 be an isolated singularity of f (z). The point z = z0 is called

-V
an essential singularity if the principal part of the Laurent’s expansion
of f (z) at z = z0 has an infinite number of terms.

IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 39 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Essential singularity:
Let z = z0 be an isolated singularity of f (z). The point z = z0 is called

-V
an essential singularity if the principal part of the Laurent’s expansion
of f (z) at z = z0 has an infinite number of terms.

IT
,V
Examples:
1

ru
(i) f (z) = e z .

nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 39 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Essential singularity:
Let z = z0 be an isolated singularity of f (z). The point z = z0 is called

-V
an essential singularity if the principal part of the Laurent’s expansion
of f (z) at z = z0 has an infinite number of terms.

IT
,V
Examples:
1

ru
(i) f (z) = e z . Now

nd
1 1 1 1
f (z) = e z = 1 + + 2 + 3 + ···
z z 2! z 3!

ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 39 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Essential singularity:
Let z = z0 be an isolated singularity of f (z). The point z = z0 is called

-V
an essential singularity if the principal part of the Laurent’s expansion
of f (z) at z = z0 has an infinite number of terms.

IT
,V
Examples:
1

ru
(i) f (z) = e z . Now

nd
1 1 1 1
f (z) = e z = 1 + + 2 + 3 + ···
z z 2! z 3!

ha
The principal part of f (z) has infinite number of terms. Hence z = 0
.C
is essential singularity of f (z).
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 39 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Essential singularity:
Let z = z0 be an isolated singularity of f (z). The point z = z0 is called

-V
an essential singularity if the principal part of the Laurent’s expansion
of f (z) at z = z0 has an infinite number of terms.

IT
,V
Examples:
1

ru
(i) f (z) = e z . Now

nd
1 1 1 1
f (z) = e z = 1 + + 2 + 3 + ···
z z 2! z 3!

ha
The principal part of f (z) has infinite number of terms. Hence z = 0
.C
is essential singularity of f (z).
(ii) f (z) = z 2 sin( z1 ).
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 39 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Essential singularity:
Let z = z0 be an isolated singularity of f (z). The point z = z0 is called

-V
an essential singularity if the principal part of the Laurent’s expansion
of f (z) at z = z0 has an infinite number of terms.

IT
,V
Examples:
1

ru
(i) f (z) = e z . Now

nd
1 1 1 1
f (z) = e z = 1 + + 2 + 3 + ···
z z 2! z 3!

ha
The principal part of f (z) has infinite number of terms. Hence z = 0
.C
is essential singularity of f (z).
(ii) f (z) = z 2 sin( z1 ). Now
M

 
1 1 1 1 
r.

f (z) =z 2 sin = z2 − 3 + 5 − ···

z z z 3! z 5!
D

1 1
f (z) =z − + 3 − ···
z3! z 5!

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 39 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Essential singularity:
Let z = z0 be an isolated singularity of f (z). The point z = z0 is called

-V
an essential singularity if the principal part of the Laurent’s expansion
of f (z) at z = z0 has an infinite number of terms.

IT
,V
Examples:
1

ru
(i) f (z) = e z . Now

nd
1 1 1 1
f (z) = e z = 1 + + 2 + 3 + ···
z z 2! z 3!

ha
The principal part of f (z) has infinite number of terms. Hence z = 0
.C
is essential singularity of f (z).
(ii) f (z) = z 2 sin( z1 ). Now
M

 
1 1 1 1 
r.

f (z) =z 2 sin = z2 − 3 + 5 − ···

z z z 3! z 5!
D

1 1
f (z) =z − + 3 − ···
z3! z 5!
The principal part of f (z) has infinite number of terms. Hence, f (z)
has essential singularity atComplex
Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore)
z = 0.Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 39 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Removable singularity:

-V
Let z = z0 be an isolated singularity of f (z). The point z = z0 is called

IT
a removable singularity if the principal part of the Laurent’s series of
f (z) at z = z0 does not exist(no negative powers terms).

,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 40 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Removable singularity:

-V
Let z = z0 be an isolated singularity of f (z). The point z = z0 is called

IT
a removable singularity if the principal part of the Laurent’s series of
f (z) at z = z0 does not exist(no negative powers terms).

,V
ru
Example:
(i) f (z) = sinz z .

nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 40 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Removable singularity:

-V
Let z = z0 be an isolated singularity of f (z). The point z = z0 is called

IT
a removable singularity if the principal part of the Laurent’s series of
f (z) at z = z0 does not exist(no negative powers terms).

,V
ru
Example:
(i) f (z) = sinz z .

nd
Clearly, z = 0 is an isolated singularity.
ha
.C
1 z3 z5 
f (z) = z− + − ···
z 3! 5!
M

z2 z4
f (z) =1 − + − ···
3! 5!
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 40 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Removable singularity:

-V
Let z = z0 be an isolated singularity of f (z). The point z = z0 is called

IT
a removable singularity if the principal part of the Laurent’s series of
f (z) at z = z0 does not exist(no negative powers terms).

,V
ru
Example:
(i) f (z) = sinz z .

nd
Clearly, z = 0 is an isolated singularity.
ha
.C
1 z3 z5 
f (z) = z− + − ···
z 3! 5!
M

z2 z4
f (z) =1 − + − ···
3! 5!
r.
D

Since, there is no principal part in the expansion, z = 0 is a removable

singularity of f (z).

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 40 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Meromorphic function:

-V
A function f (z) is said to be meromorphic function if it is analytic ex-

IT
cept for a finite order of points and these finite set of points are poles.

,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 41 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Meromorphic function:

-V
A function f (z) is said to be meromorphic function if it is analytic ex-

IT
cept for a finite order of points and these finite set of points are poles.

,V
ru
Example:
1

nd
(i) f (z) = z(z−1)2.

ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 41 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Meromorphic function:

-V
A function f (z) is said to be meromorphic function if it is analytic ex-

IT
cept for a finite order of points and these finite set of points are poles.

,V
ru
Example:
1

nd
(i) f (z) = z(z−1)2.

Here, f (z) is analytic except z = 0 and z = 1. Also, 0 and 1 are poles

of order 1 and 2 respectively. ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 41 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Meromorphic function:

-V
A function f (z) is said to be meromorphic function if it is analytic ex-

IT
cept for a finite order of points and these finite set of points are poles.

,V
ru
Example:
1

nd
(i) f (z) = z(z−1)2.

Here, f (z) is analytic except z = 0 and z = 1. Also, 0 and 1 are poles

of order 1 and 2 respectively. ha
.C
Hence f (z) is meromorphic.
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 41 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Meromorphic function:

-V
A function f (z) is said to be meromorphic function if it is analytic ex-

IT
cept for a finite order of points and these finite set of points are poles.

,V
ru
Example:
1

nd
(i) f (z) = z(z−1)2.

Here, f (z) is analytic except z = 0 and z = 1. Also, 0 and 1 are poles

of order 1 and 2 respectively. ha
.C
Hence f (z) is meromorphic.
M

1
(ii) e z is not a meromorphic function.
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 41 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Meromorphic function:

-V
A function f (z) is said to be meromorphic function if it is analytic ex-

IT
cept for a finite order of points and these finite set of points are poles.

,V
ru
Example:
1

nd
(i) f (z) = z(z−1)2.

Here, f (z) is analytic except z = 0 and z = 1. Also, 0 and 1 are poles

of order 1 and 2 respectively. ha
.C
Hence f (z) is meromorphic.
M

1
(ii) e z is not a meromorphic function.
r.

Since z = 0 is an essential singularity.

D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 41 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Example
Find the nature of singularity for the following functions:
(i) f (z) = sin( z1 ).

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 42 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Example
Find the nature of singularity for the following functions:
(i) f (z) = sin( z1 ). Now

-V
IT
 
1 1 1 1
f (z) = sin = − 3 + 5 − ···
z z z 3! z 5!

,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 42 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Example
Find the nature of singularity for the following functions:
(i) f (z) = sin( z1 ). Now

-V
IT
 
1 1 1 1
f (z) = sin = − 3 + 5 − ···
z z z 3! z 5!

,V
Clearly, z = 0 is a singularity and the principal part contains infinite

ru
many terms and hence z = 0 is an essential singularity.

nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 42 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Example
Find the nature of singularity for the following functions:
(i) f (z) = sin( z1 ). Now

-V
IT
 
1 1 1 1
f (z) = sin = − 3 + 5 − ···
z z z 3! z 5!

,V
Clearly, z = 0 is a singularity and the principal part contains infinite

ru
many terms and hence z = 0 is an essential singularity.

nd
ez
(ii) f (z) = (z−1) 4.

ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 42 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Example
Find the nature of singularity for the following functions:
(i) f (z) = sin( z1 ). Now

-V
IT
 
1 1 1 1
f (z) = sin = − 3 + 5 − ···
z z z 3! z 5!

,V
Clearly, z = 0 is a singularity and the principal part contains infinite

ru
many terms and hence z = 0 is an essential singularity.

nd
ez
(ii) f (z) = (z−1) 4 . Now, put z − 1 = t.

ha
.C
ez et e t t2 
=e. 4 = 4 1 + + + ···
(z − 1)4 t t 1! 2!
M

1 1 1 1 1 t 
=e 4 + 3 + 2 + + + + ···
t t t 2! t3! 4! 5!
r.

 1 1 1 1 
f (z) =e + + + + · · ·
D

(z − 1)4 (z − 1)3 (z − 1)2 2! (z − 1)3!

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 42 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Example
Find the nature of singularity for the following functions:
(i) f (z) = sin( z1 ). Now

-V
IT
 
1 1 1 1
f (z) = sin = − 3 + 5 − ···
z z z 3! z 5!

,V
Clearly, z = 0 is a singularity and the principal part contains infinite

ru
many terms and hence z = 0 is an essential singularity.

nd
ez
(ii) f (z) = (z−1) 4 . Now, put z − 1 = t.

ha
.C
ez et e t t2 
=e. 4 = 4 1 + + + ···
(z − 1)4 t t 1! 2!
M

1 1 1 1 1 t 
=e 4 + 3 + 2 + + + + ···
t t t 2! t3! 4! 5!
r.

 1 1 1 1 
f (z) =e + + + + · · ·
D

(z − 1)4 (z − 1)3 (z − 1)2 2! (z − 1)3!

Since there are finite number of terms contains the principal parts.
Hence z = 1 is a pole of order 4.
Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 42 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

. (iii)
 3  5
1 1
1 
 1 z+1 z+1
f (z) = sin = − + − ···
z+1 z+1 3! 5!

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 43 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

. (iii)
 3  5
1 1
1 
 1 z+1 z+1
f (z) = sin = − + − ···
z+1 z+1 3! 5!

-V
The principal part of f (z) has infinite number of terms.

IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 43 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

. (iii)
 3  5
1 1
1 
 1 z+1 z+1
f (z) = sin = − + − ···
z+1 z+1 3! 5!

-V
The principal part of f (z) has infinite number of terms.

IT
Hence, z = −1 is an essential singularity.

,V
cot πz cos πz
(iv) f (z) = (z−a) 3 = sin πz(z−a)3

ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 43 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

. (iii)
 3  5
1 1
1 
 1 z+1 z+1
f (z) = sin = − + − ···
z+1 z+1 3! 5!

-V
The principal part of f (z) has infinite number of terms.

IT
Hence, z = −1 is an essential singularity.

,V
cot πz cos πz
(iv) f (z) = (z−a) 3 = sin πz(z−a)3

Now, sin πz(z − a)3 = 0 ⇒ sin πz = 0 and (z − a)3 = 0.

ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 43 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

. (iii)
 3  5
1 1
1 
 1 z+1 z+1
f (z) = sin = − + − ···
z+1 z+1 3! 5!

-V
The principal part of f (z) has infinite number of terms.

IT
Hence, z = −1 is an essential singularity.

,V
cot πz cos πz
(iv) f (z) = (z−a) 3 = sin πz(z−a)3

Now, sin πz(z − a)3 = 0 ⇒ sin πz = 0 and (z − a)3 = 0.

ru
Hence, z = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · are simple poles or z = a is a pole of order 3.

nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 43 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

. (iii)
 3  5
1 1
1 
 1 z+1 z+1
f (z) = sin = − + − ···
z+1 z+1 3! 5!

-V
The principal part of f (z) has infinite number of terms.

IT
Hence, z = −1 is an essential singularity.

,V
cot πz cos πz
(iv) f (z) = (z−a) 3 = sin πz(z−a)3

Now, sin πz(z − a)3 = 0 ⇒ sin πz = 0 and (z − a)3 = 0.

ru
Hence, z = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · are simple poles or z = a is a pole of order 3.

nd
(v) f (z) = z−sin z
.
ha
z3
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 43 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

. (iii)
 3  5
1 1
1 
 1 z+1 z+1
f (z) = sin = − + − ···
z+1 z+1 3! 5!

-V
The principal part of f (z) has infinite number of terms.

IT
Hence, z = −1 is an essential singularity.

,V
cot πz cos πz
(iv) f (z) = (z−a) 3 = sin πz(z−a)3

Now, sin πz(z − a)3 = 0 ⇒ sin πz = 0 and (z − a)3 = 0.

ru
Hence, z = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · are simple poles or z = a is a pole of order 3.

nd
(v) f (z) = z−sin z
. Clearly, z = 0 is a singularity. Now,
ha
z3
.C
z − sin z 1 h  z3 z5 i
3
= 3 z− z− + − ···
z z 3! 5!
M

1  z3 z5 z7  1 z2 z5
f (z) = 3 − + − ··· = − + − ···
z 3! 5! 7! 3! 5! 7!
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 43 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

. (iii)
 3  5
1 1
1 
 1 z+1 z+1
f (z) = sin = − + − ···
z+1 z+1 3! 5!

-V
The principal part of f (z) has infinite number of terms.

IT
Hence, z = −1 is an essential singularity.

,V
cot πz cos πz
(iv) f (z) = (z−a) 3 = sin πz(z−a)3

Now, sin πz(z − a)3 = 0 ⇒ sin πz = 0 and (z − a)3 = 0.

ru
Hence, z = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · are simple poles or z = a is a pole of order 3.

nd
(v) f (z) = z−sin z
. Clearly, z = 0 is a singularity. Now,
ha
z3
.C
z − sin z 1 h  z3 z5 i
3
= 3 z− z− + − ···
z z 3! 5!
M

1  z3 z5 z7  1 z2 z5
f (z) = 3 − + − ··· = − + − ···
z 3! 5! 7! 3! 5! 7!
r.
D

Here, there is no principal part.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 43 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

. (iii)
 3  5
1 1
1 
 1 z+1 z+1
f (z) = sin = − + − ···
z+1 z+1 3! 5!

-V
The principal part of f (z) has infinite number of terms.

IT
Hence, z = −1 is an essential singularity.

,V
cot πz cos πz
(iv) f (z) = (z−a) 3 = sin πz(z−a)3

Now, sin πz(z − a)3 = 0 ⇒ sin πz = 0 and (z − a)3 = 0.

ru
Hence, z = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · are simple poles or z = a is a pole of order 3.

nd
(v) f (z) = z−sin z
. Clearly, z = 0 is a singularity. Now,
ha
z3
.C
z − sin z 1 h  z3 z5 i
3
= 3 z− z− + − ···
z z 3! 5!
M

1  z3 z5 z7  1 z2 z5
f (z) = 3 − + − ··· = − + − ···
z 3! 5! 7! 3! 5! 7!
r.
D

Here, there is no principal part.

Thus, z = 0 is a removable singularity.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 43 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

 
1
(vi) f (z) = (z + 1) sin z−3 . Put t = z − 3 and hence z = t + 3.

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 44 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

 
1
(vi) f (z) = (z + 1) sin z−3 . Put t = z − 3 and hence z = t + 3.

-V
We have,

IT
1
f (z) =(t + 4) sin

,V
t
 3  5
1 1

ru
1 t t

=(t + 4) − + − ···
t 3! 5!

nd
   
1 1 4 4 4
= 1 − 2 + 4 − ··· + − + − · · ·

ha
t 3! t 5! t 3!t3 5!t5
   
1 1 4 4 4
.C
f (z) = 1 − 2
+ 4
− ··· + − 3
+ 5
− ···
(z − 3) 3! (z − 3) 5! z−3 3!(z − 3) 5!(z − 3)
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 44 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

 
1
(vi) f (z) = (z + 1) sin z−3 . Put t = z − 3 and hence z = t + 3.

-V
We have,

IT
1
f (z) =(t + 4) sin

,V
t
 3  5
1 1

ru
1 t t

=(t + 4) − + − ···
t 3! 5!

nd
   
1 1 4 4 4
= 1 − 2 + 4 − ··· + − + − · · ·

ha
t 3! t 5! t 3!t3 5!t5
   
1 1 4 4 4
.C
f (z) = 1 − 2
+ 4
− ··· + − 3
+ 5
− ···
(z − 3) 3! (z − 3) 5! z−3 3!(z − 3) 5!(z − 3)
M

The principal part of f (z) has infinite number of terms.

r.

Hence, z = 3 is an essential singularity.

D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 44 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Example
Expand each of the following functions in Laurent’s series about z = 0.
Identify the types of singularity also.

-V
(i) f (z) = z1 e−2z .

IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 45 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Example
Expand each of the following functions in Laurent’s series about z = 0.
Identify the types of singularity also.

-V
(i) f (z) = z1 e−2z . We get

IT
1 −2z 1  2z 4z 2 8z 3 

,V
e = 1− + − + ···
z z 1! 2! 3!
1 2 4z 8z 2

ru
f (z) = − + − + ···
z 1! 2! 3!

nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 45 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Example
Expand each of the following functions in Laurent’s series about z = 0.
Identify the types of singularity also.

-V
(i) f (z) = z1 e−2z . We get

IT
1 −2z 1  2z 4z 2 8z 3 

,V
e = 1− + − + ···
z z 1! 2! 3!
1 2 4z 8z 2

ru
f (z) = − + − + ···
z 1! 2! 3!

nd
Thus, z = 0 is a simple pole.

ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 45 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Example
Expand each of the following functions in Laurent’s series about z = 0.
Identify the types of singularity also.

-V
(i) f (z) = z1 e−2z . We get

IT
1 −2z 1  2z 4z 2 8z 3 

,V
e = 1− + − + ···
z z 1! 2! 3!
1 2 4z 8z 2

ru
f (z) = − + − + ···
z 1! 2! 3!

nd
Thus, z = 0 is a simple pole.

ha
 
1
(ii) f (z) = (z − 1) cos z . We have
.C
1  1 1 1 
(z − 1) cos =(z − 1) 1 − + − + ···
M

z z 2 2! z 4 4! z 5 6!
1 1 1 1 1
f (z) =z − + 3 − 5 + ··· − 1 + 2 − 4 + ···
r.

2z z 4! z 6! z 1! z 4!
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 45 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Example
Expand each of the following functions in Laurent’s series about z = 0.
Identify the types of singularity also.

-V
(i) f (z) = z1 e−2z . We get

IT
1 −2z 1  2z 4z 2 8z 3 

,V
e = 1− + − + ···
z z 1! 2! 3!
1 2 4z 8z 2

ru
f (z) = − + − + ···
z 1! 2! 3!

nd
Thus, z = 0 is a simple pole.

ha
 
1
(ii) f (z) = (z − 1) cos z . We have
.C
1  1 1 1 
(z − 1) cos =(z − 1) 1 − + − + ···
M

z z 2 2! z 4 4! z 5 6!
1 1 1 1 1
f (z) =z − + 3 − 5 + ··· − 1 + 2 − 4 + ···
r.

2z z 4! z 6! z 1! z 4!
D

The principal part of f (z) has infinite number of terms.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 45 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Example
Expand each of the following functions in Laurent’s series about z = 0.
Identify the types of singularity also.

-V
(i) f (z) = z1 e−2z . We get

IT
1 −2z 1  2z 4z 2 8z 3 

,V
e = 1− + − + ···
z z 1! 2! 3!
1 2 4z 8z 2

ru
f (z) = − + − + ···
z 1! 2! 3!

nd
Thus, z = 0 is a simple pole.

ha
 
1
(ii) f (z) = (z − 1) cos z . We have
.C
1  1 1 1 
(z − 1) cos =(z − 1) 1 − + − + ···
M

z z 2 2! z 4 4! z 5 6!
1 1 1 1 1
f (z) =z − + 3 − 5 + ··· − 1 + 2 − 4 + ···
r.

2z z 4! z 6! z 1! z 4!
D

The principal part of f (z) has infinite number of terms.

Hence, z = 0 is an essential singularity.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 45 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Zeros, Singular Point and Types of Singularities

Example
Expand each of the following functions in Laurent’s series about z = 0.
Identify the types of singularity also.

-V
(i) f (z) = z1 e−2z . We get

IT
1 −2z 1  2z 4z 2 8z 3 

,V
e = 1− + − + ···
z z 1! 2! 3!
1 2 4z 8z 2

ru
f (z) = − + − + ···
z 1! 2! 3!

nd
Thus, z = 0 is a simple pole.

ha
 
1
(ii) f (z) = (z − 1) cos z . We have
.C
1  1 1 1 
(z − 1) cos =(z − 1) 1 − + − + ···
M

z z 2 2! z 4 4! z 5 6!
1 1 1 1 1
f (z) =z − + 3 − 5 + ··· − 1 + 2 − 4 + ···
r.

2z z 4! z 6! z 1! z 4!
D

The principal part of f (z) has infinite number of terms.

Hence, z = 0 is an essential singularity.
2z+3 sin z 4
Examples: (i) f (z) = (z+2) 2 (ii) f (z) = z 4 (iii) f (z) = z 3 (z−2)
.
Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 45 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues

Residues
Let z = z0 is an isolated singular point of f (z), then the Laurent’s
series of f (z) about z = z0 is

-V
∞ ∞

IT
X X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n + bn (z − z0 )−n

,V
n=0 n=1
Z Z
1 f (z) 1 f (z)
where, an = dz, bn = dz, n = 1, 2, · · ·

ru
2πi C1 (z − z0 )n+1 2πi C2 (z − z0 )−n+1

nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 46 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues

Residues
Let z = z0 is an isolated singular point of f (z), then the Laurent’s
series of f (z) about z = z0 is

-V
∞ ∞

IT
X X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n + bn (z − z0 )−n

,V
n=0 n=1
Z Z
1 f (z) 1 f (z)
where, an = dz, bn = dz, n = 1, 2, · · ·

ru
2πi C1 (z − z0 )n+1 2πi C2 (z − z0 )−n+1

nd
1
Here, the coefficient of (z−z 0)
or (z − z0 )−1 (that is, b1 ) in the above

ha
expansion is called the residue of f (z) at z = z0 .
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 46 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues

Residues
Let z = z0 is an isolated singular point of f (z), then the Laurent’s
series of f (z) about z = z0 is

-V
∞ ∞

IT
X X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n + bn (z − z0 )−n

,V
n=0 n=1
Z Z
1 f (z) 1 f (z)
where, an = dz, bn = dz, n = 1, 2, · · ·

ru
2πi C1 (z − z0 )n+1 2πi C2 (z − z0 )−n+1

nd
1
Here, the coefficient of (z−z 0)
or (z − z0 )−1 (that is, b1 ) in the above

ha
expansion is called the residue of f (z) at z = z0 .
That is, b1 is the residue of f (z) at z = z0 which gives
.C
Z
1
M

b1 = f (z)dz.
2πi C
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 46 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues

Residues
Let z = z0 is an isolated singular point of f (z), then the Laurent’s
series of f (z) about z = z0 is

-V
∞ ∞

IT
X X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n + bn (z − z0 )−n

,V
n=0 n=1
Z Z
1 f (z) 1 f (z)
where, an = dz, bn = dz, n = 1, 2, · · ·

ru
2πi C1 (z − z0 )n+1 2πi C2 (z − z0 )−n+1

nd
1
Here, the coefficient of (z−z 0)
or (z − z0 )−1 (that is, b1 ) in the above

ha
expansion is called the residue of f (z) at z = z0 .
That is, b1 is the residue of f (z) at z = z0 which gives
.C
Z
1
M

b1 = f (z)dz.
2πi C
r.

Note: Residue of f (z) at z = z0 may be denoted by

D

Z Z
1
Res[f (z), z0 ] = Res[f (z)]z=z0 = f (z)dz ⇒ f (z)dz = 2πiRes[f (z)]z=z0 .
2πi C C

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 46 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Evaluation of residues

Evaluation of residues

Simple pole: If f (z) has a simple pole at z = z0 , then

-V
IT
Res[f (z)]z=z0 = lim (z − z0 )f (z).
z→z0

,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 47 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Evaluation of residues

Evaluation of residues

Simple pole: If f (z) has a simple pole at z = z0 , then

-V
IT
Res[f (z)]z=z0 = lim (z − z0 )f (z).
z→z0

,V
ru
Pole of order m: If f (z) has a pole of order m at z = z0 , then

nd
ha
1 dm−1  m

Res[f (z)]z=z0 = lim (z − z0 ) f (z) .
(m − 1)! z→z0 dz m−1
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 47 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Evaluation of residues

Evaluation of residues

Simple pole: If f (z) has a simple pole at z = z0 , then

-V
IT
Res[f (z)]z=z0 = lim (z − z0 )f (z).
z→z0

,V
ru
Pole of order m: If f (z) has a pole of order m at z = z0 , then

nd
ha
1 dm−1  m

Res[f (z)]z=z0 = lim (z − z0 ) f (z) .
(m − 1)! z→z0 dz m−1
.C
M

If f (z) has a simple pole at z = z0 , then

r.
D

P (z) P (z0 )
f (z) = then Res[f (z)]z=z0 = 0 .
Q(z) Q (z0 )

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 47 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Examples:

-V
1
Let f (z) = e 2z = 1 + 1
2z
+ 1
2(2z)2
+ ···

IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 48 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Examples:

-V
1
Let f (z) = e 2z = 1 + 2z1 + 2(2z)
1
2 + ···

has an isolated singularity at z = 0.

IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 48 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Examples:

-V
1
Let f (z) = e 2z = 1 + 2z1 + 2(2z)
1
2 + ···

has an isolated singularity at z = 0. From the Laurent series we

IT
see that Res[f (z)]z=0 = 1/2.

,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 48 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Examples:

-V
1
Let f (z) = e 2z = 1 + 2z1 + 2(2z)
1
2 + ···

has an isolated singularity at z = 0. From the Laurent series we

IT
see that Res[f (z)]z=0 = 1/2.

,V
Let f (z) = 1
z3
+ 2
z2
+ 4
z
+ 5 + 6z

ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 48 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Examples:

-V
1
Let f (z) = e 2z = 1 + 2z1 + 2(2z)
1
2 + ···

has an isolated singularity at z = 0. From the Laurent series we

IT
see that Res[f (z)]z=0 = 1/2.

,V
Let f (z) = z13 + z22 + z4 + 5 + 6z

ru
f (z) has a pole of order 3 at z = 0

nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 48 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Examples:

-V
1
Let f (z) = e 2z = 1 + 2z1 + 2(2z)
1
2 + ···

has an isolated singularity at z = 0. From the Laurent series we

IT
see that Res[f (z)]z=0 = 1/2.

,V
Let f (z) = z13 + z22 + z4 + 5 + 6z

ru
f (z) has a pole of order 3 at z = 0 and Res[f (z)]z=0 = 4.

nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 48 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Examples:

-V
1
Let f (z) = e 2z = 1 + 2z1 + 2(2z)
1
2 + ···

has an isolated singularity at z = 0. From the Laurent series we

IT
see that Res[f (z)]z=0 = 1/2.

,V
Let f (z) = z13 + z22 + z4 + 5 + 6z

ru
f (z) has a pole of order 3 at z = 0 and Res[f (z)]z=0 = 4.

nd
z2
Let f (z) = cos(z) = 1 − 2!
+ ···

ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 48 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Examples:

-V
1
Let f (z) = e 2z = 1 + 2z1 + 2(2z)
1
2 + ···

has an isolated singularity at z = 0. From the Laurent series we

IT
see that Res[f (z)]z=0 = 1/2.

,V
Let f (z) = z13 + z22 + z4 + 5 + 6z

ru
f (z) has a pole of order 3 at z = 0 and Res[f (z)]z=0 = 4.

nd
2
Let f (z) = cos(z) = 1 − z2! + · · ·

ha
Thus, f (z) has removable singularity or analytic at z = 0.
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 48 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Examples:

-V
1
Let f (z) = e 2z = 1 + 2z1 + 2(2z)
1
2 + ···

has an isolated singularity at z = 0. From the Laurent series we

IT
see that Res[f (z)]z=0 = 1/2.

,V
Let f (z) = z13 + z22 + z4 + 5 + 6z

ru
f (z) has a pole of order 3 at z = 0 and Res[f (z)]z=0 = 4.

nd
2
Let f (z) = cos(z) = 1 − z2! + · · ·

ha
Thus, f (z) has removable singularity or analytic at z = 0. Then,
.C
Res[f (z)]z=0 = 0.
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 48 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Examples:

-V
1
Let f (z) = e 2z = 1 + 2z1 + 2(2z)
1
2 + ···

has an isolated singularity at z = 0. From the Laurent series we

IT
see that Res[f (z)]z=0 = 1/2.

,V
Let f (z) = z13 + z22 + z4 + 5 + 6z

ru
f (z) has a pole of order 3 at z = 0 and Res[f (z)]z=0 = 4.

nd
2
Let f (z) = cos(z) = 1 − z2! + · · ·

ha
Thus, f (z) has removable singularity or analytic at z = 0. Then,
.C
Res[f (z)]z=0 = 0.
z3 z5 z2 z4
 
sin(z)
Let f (z) = = 1
z− + − ··· =1− + − ···
M

z z 3! 5! 1! 5!
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 48 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Examples:

-V
1
Let f (z) = e 2z = 1 + 2z1 + 2(2z)
1
2 + ···

has an isolated singularity at z = 0. From the Laurent series we

IT
see that Res[f (z)]z=0 = 1/2.

,V
Let f (z) = z13 + z22 + z4 + 5 + 6z

ru
f (z) has a pole of order 3 at z = 0 and Res[f (z)]z=0 = 4.

nd
2
Let f (z) = cos(z) = 1 − z2! + · · ·

ha
Thus, f (z) has removable singularity or analytic at z = 0. Then,
.C
Res[f (z)]z=0 = 0.
3 5 2 4
 
Let f (z) = sin(z) = z1 z − z3! + z5! − · · · = 1 − z1! + z5! − · · ·
M

z
So, f (z) has a removable singularity at z = 0. Then,
r.

Res[f (z)]z=0 = 0.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 48 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
z3

-V
Find the residue of f (z) = (z−1)(z−2)(z−3) at each of its poles.

IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 49 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
z3

-V
Find the residue of f (z) = (z−1)(z−2)(z−3) at each of its poles.

IT
z3
Soln: Given f (z) = (z−1)(z−2)(z−3) .

,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 49 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
z3

-V
Find the residue of f (z) = (z−1)(z−2)(z−3) at each of its poles.

IT
z 3
Soln: Given f (z) = (z−1)(z−2)(z−3) .

,V
Here, the singularities of the function f (z) are z = 1, z = 2 and z = 3

ru
which are simple poles(poles of order 1).

nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 49 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
z3

-V
Find the residue of f (z) = (z−1)(z−2)(z−3) at each of its poles.

IT
z 3
Soln: Given f (z) = (z−1)(z−2)(z−3) .

,V
Here, the singularities of the function f (z) are z = 1, z = 2 and z = 3

ru
which are simple poles(poles of order 1).
Then, the residue of f (z) at the poles are

nd
ha
z3 13 1
(i) Res[f (z)]z=1 = lim (z − 1). = = ,
(z − 1)(z − 2)(z − 3)
.C
z→1 (−1)(−2) 2
z3 23
(ii) Res[f (z)]z=2 = lim (z − 2). = = −8,
M

z→2 (z − 1)(z − 2)(z − 3) (1)(−1)

z3 33 27
r.

(iii) Res[f (z)]z=3 = lim (z − 3). = = .

z→3 (z − 1)(z − 2)(z − 3) (1)(2) 2
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 49 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
Determine the poles and find the residues at each pole of the function
z2
(z−1)(z−2)2
.

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 50 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
Determine the poles and find the residues at each pole of the function
z2
(z−1)(z−2)2
.

-V
z2

IT
Soln: Given f (z) = (z−1)(z−2)2
.

,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 50 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
Determine the poles and find the residues at each pole of the function
z2
(z−1)(z−2)2
.

-V
z 2

IT
Soln: Given f (z) = (z−1)(z−2) 2.

Here, the singularities of the functions f (z) are z = 1 (simple pole)

,V
and z = 2 (pole of order 2).

ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 50 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
Determine the poles and find the residues at each pole of the function
z2
(z−1)(z−2)2
.

-V
z 2

IT
Soln: Given f (z) = (z−1)(z−2) 2.

Here, the singularities of the functions f (z) are z = 1 (simple pole)

,V
and z = 2 (pole of order 2).

ru
Then, the residue of f (z) at the poles are

nd
z2
(i) Res[f (z)]z=1 = lim (z − 1). =1

ha
z→1 (z − 1)(z − 2)2
z2
.C
1 d
(ii) Res[f (z)]z=2 = lim (z − 2)2
1! z→2 dz (z − 1)(z − 2)2
M

1 d z2
= lim
1! z→2 dz (z − 1)
r.

 (z − 1)2z − z 2  (2 − 1)4 − 22
D

= lim 2
=
z→2 (z − 1) (2 − 1)2
Res[f (z)]z=2 =0.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 50 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
z 2 +4
Find the singularity of f (z) = z 3 +2z 2 +2z
and the corresponding

-V
residues.

IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 51 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
z 2 +4
Find the singularity of f (z) = z 3 +2z 2 +2z
and the corresponding

-V
residues.

IT
z 2 +4
Soln: Given f (z) = z 3 +2z 2 +2z

,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 51 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
z 2 +4
Find the singularity of f (z) = z 3 +2z 2 +2z
and the corresponding

-V
residues.

IT
z +4 2
Soln: Given f (z) = z 3 +2z 2 +2z

,V
Here, z 3 + 2z 2 + 2z = 0
⇒ z(z 2 + 2z + 2) = 0

ru
⇒ z = 0 and z 2 + 2z + √ 2 = 0.

nd
Thus z = 0 and z = −2±2 4−8 = −1 ± i.

ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 51 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
z 2 +4
Find the singularity of f (z) = z 3 +2z 2 +2z
and the corresponding

-V
residues.

IT
z +4 2
Soln: Given f (z) = z 3 +2z 2 +2z

,V
Here, z 3 + 2z 2 + 2z = 0
⇒ z(z 2 + 2z + 2) = 0

ru
⇒ z = 0 and z 2 + 2z + √ 2 = 0.

nd
Thus z = 0 and z = −2±2 4−8 = −1 ± i.

ha
Now, z = 0, −1 + i, −1 − i are simple pole of f (z).
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 51 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
z 2 +4
Find the singularity of f (z) = z 3 +2z 2 +2z
and the corresponding

-V
residues.

IT
z +4 2
Soln: Given f (z) = z 3 +2z 2 +2z

,V
Here, z 3 + 2z 2 + 2z = 0
⇒ z(z 2 + 2z + 2) = 0

ru
⇒ z = 0 and z 2 + 2z + √ 2 = 0.

nd
Thus z = 0 and z = −2±2 4−8 = −1 ± i.

ha
Now, z = 0, −1 + i, −1 − i are simple pole of f (z).
.C
Then, the residue of f (z) at the poles are
M

z2 + 4
(i) Res[f (z)]z=0 = lim z × =2
z(z 2 + 2z + 2)
r.

z→0
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 51 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

.
  z2 + 4
(ii) Res[f (z)]z=−1+i = lim z − (−1 + i)   
z→−1+i
z z − (−1 + i) z − (−1 − i)

-V
(−1 + i)2 + 4

IT
=
(−1 + i)(−1 + i + 1 + i)

,V
1 − 1 − 2i + 4 −1 − i
= ×
(−1 + i)(2i) −1 − i

ru
2i − 2 − 4 − 4i
=

nd
(1 + i − i + 1)(2i)
1 −i(−3 − i) 3i − 1

ha
Res[f (z)]z=−1+i = (−3 − i) = = .
2i 2 2
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 52 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

.
  z2 + 4
(ii) Res[f (z)]z=−1+i = lim z − (−1 + i)   
z→−1+i
z z − (−1 + i) z − (−1 − i)

-V
(−1 + i)2 + 4

IT
=
(−1 + i)(−1 + i + 1 + i)

,V
1 − 1 − 2i + 4 −1 − i
= ×
(−1 + i)(2i) −1 − i

ru
2i − 2 − 4 − 4i
=

nd
(1 + i − i + 1)(2i)
1 −i(−3 − i) 3i − 1

ha
Res[f (z)]z=−1+i = (−3 − i) = = .
2i 2 2
.C
M

  z2 + 4
(iii) Res[f (z)]z=−1−i = lim z − (−1 − i) .   
z→−1−i
z z − (−1 + i) z − (−1 − i)
r.

−3i − 1
D

Res[f (z)]z=−1−i = .
2

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 52 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
z3
Find the residues at each pole of the function (z−1)4 (z−2)(z−3)
.

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 53 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
z3
Find the residues at each pole of the function (z−1)4 (z−2)(z−3)
.

-V
z3

IT
Soln: Given f (z) = (z−1)4 (z−2)(z−3)
.

,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 53 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
z3
Find the residues at each pole of the function (z−1)4 (z−2)(z−3)
.

-V
z 3

IT
Soln: Given f (z) = (z−1)4 (z−2)(z−3) .
Here, the singularities of the functions f (z) are z = 1 (pole of order 4),

,V
z = 2 (simple pole) and z = 3 (simple pole) .

ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 53 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
z3
Find the residues at each pole of the function (z−1)4 (z−2)(z−3)
.

-V
z 3

IT
Soln: Given f (z) = (z−1)4 (z−2)(z−3) .
Here, the singularities of the functions f (z) are z = 1 (pole of order 4),

,V
z = 2 (simple pole) and z = 3 (simple pole) .

ru
Then, the residue of f (z) at the poles are

nd
z3 8

ha
(i) Res[f (z)]z=2 = lim (z − 2) × = = −8,
z→2 (z − 1)4 (z − 2)(z − 3) 1(−1)
.C
z3 27 27
(ii) Res[f (z)]z=3 = lim (z − 3) × = 4 = ,
z→3 (z − 1)4 (z − 2)(z − 3) 2 (1) 16
M

1 d3 z3
(iii) Res[f (z)]z=1 = lim 3
(z − 1)4 × 4
3! z→1 dz (z − 1) (z − 2)(z − 3)
r.

d3 z3
 
1
D

= lim
6 z→1 dz 3 (z − 2)(z − 3)

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 53 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples
z3
.Now, (z−2)(z−3)
= (z + 5) + 19z−30
(z−2)(z−3)
→ (1) [using synthetic division]

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 54 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples
z3
.Now, (z−2)(z−3)
= (z + 5) + 19z−30
(z−2)(z−3)
→ (1) [using synthetic division]
19z−30 A B
Consider, (z−2)(z−3) = (z−2) + (z−3) , we obtain A = −8 and B = 27.
z3 8 27
(1) ⇒ (z−2)(z−3) = (z + 5) − (z−2) + (z−3) .

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 54 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples
z3
.Now, (z−2)(z−3)
= (z + 5) + 19z−30
(z−2)(z−3)
→ (1) [using synthetic division]
19z−30 A B
Consider, (z−2)(z−3) = (z−2) + (z−3) , we obtain A = −8 and B = 27.
z3 8 27
(1) ⇒ (z−2)(z−3) = (z + 5) − (z−2) + (z−3) .
Thus,

-V
d3
 
1 8 27
Res[f (z)]z=1 = lim (z + 5) − +

IT
6 z→1 dz 3 (z − 2) (z − 3)

,V
d2
 
1 8 × (−1) 27 × (−1)
= lim 1 − +
6 z→1 dz 2 (z − 2)2 (z − 3)2

ru
 
1 d 8 × (−2) 27 × (−2)
= lim 0+ −

nd
6 z→1 dz (z − 2)3 (z − 3)3
 
1 d −16 54

ha
= lim +
6 z→1 dz (z − 2)3 (z − 3)3
.C
   
1 −16 × (−3) 54 × (−3) 1 48 −162
= lim + = lim +
6 z→1 (z − 2)4 (z − 3)4 6 z→1 (z − 2)4 (z − 3)4
M

   
1 48 162 1 48 162
= − = −
6 (1 − 2)4 (1 − 3)4 6 1 16
r.

   
1 768 − 162 1 606 101
D

Res[f (z)]z=1 = = = .
6 16 6 16 16

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 54 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
1
Find the residues of the function z−sin z at its pole.

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 55 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
1
Find the residues of the function z−sin z at its pole.
1
Soln: Let f (z) = z−sin z .

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 55 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
1
Find the residues of the function z−sin z at its pole.
1
Soln: Let f (z) = z−sin z .

-V
IT
1 1
f (z) = =  
z − sin z z− z− z3
+ z5
− ···

,V
3! 5!
1 1
= =

ru
z3 z5
 
− + ··· 1 z2
3! 5! z3 3!
− 5!
+ ···

nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 55 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
1
Find the residues of the function z−sin z at its pole.
1
Soln: Let f (z) = z−sin z .

-V
IT
1 1
f (z) = =  
z − sin z z− z− z3
+ z5
− ···

,V
3! 5!
1 1
= =

ru
z3 z5
 
− + ··· 1 z2
3! 5! z3 3!
− 5!
+ ···

nd
So, the singularity of the function f (z) is z = 0(pole of order 3).

ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 55 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
1
Find the residues of the function z−sin z at its pole.
1
Soln: Let f (z) = z−sin z .

-V
IT
1 1
f (z) = =  
z − sin z z− z− z3
+ z5
− ···

,V
3! 5!
1 1
= =

ru
z3 z5
 
− + ··· 1 z2
3! 5! z3 3!
− 5!
+ ···

nd
So, the singularity of the function f (z) is z = 0(pole of order 3).

ha
Then, the residue of f (z) at the poles is
.C
 
1 d2  3 1
Res[f (z)]z=0 = lim z ×  
2! z→0 dz 2 2
M

1
z 3 3! − z5! − · · ·
 
4z 3

2z
r.

1 d  (−1) 0 − 5! + 7! − · · · 
= lim
D

  2 
2 z→0 dz 1 2 4
− z + z − ···
3! 5! 7!

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 55 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

-V
  2  
1 z2 4 2
 3! −

 5!
+ z7! − · · · × 5!2
− 12z7!
+ ···
1

IT
Res[f (z)]z=0 = lim 4
2 z→0 
 2 4
1
− z5! + z7! − · · ·

,V

 3!
i 
4z 3 z2 z4 4z 3
h   
2z 1 2z
− + ··· ×2× − + − ··· 0− + − ···

ru


5! 7! 3! 5! 7! 5! 7!
−  4
1 z2 z4

nd
− + − ···


3! 5! 7!
h i
1 2 2

ha



1 3! 5!
−0
=
1 4
.C
2


3!
2


1 36 3
M

5!
Res[f (z)]z=0 = = = .
2 1 2 120 10


3!
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 56 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example

-V
1
Classify the singularities for the function f (z) = 1−ez .

IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 57 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example

-V
1
Classify the singularities for the function f (z) = 1−ez .

IT
,V
1
Soln: Let f (z) = 1−ez is not defined for 1 − ez = 0.

ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 57 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example

-V
1
Classify the singularities for the function f (z) = 1−ez .

IT
,V
1 z
Soln: Let f (z) = 1−e z is not defined for 1 − e = 0.
z z
⇒1−e =0 ⇒ e =1 ⇒ e =1=e z 2nπi

ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 57 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example

-V
1
Classify the singularities for the function f (z) = 1−ez .

IT
,V
1 z
Soln: Let f (z) = 1−e z is not defined for 1 − e = 0.
z z
⇒1−e =0 ⇒ e =1 ⇒ e =1=e z 2nπi

ru
⇒ z = 2nπi, n ∈ Z which are simple poles of the function f (z).

nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 57 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example

-V
1
Classify the singularities for the function f (z) = 1−ez .

IT
,V
1 z
Soln: Let f (z) = 1−e z is not defined for 1 − e = 0.
z z
⇒1−e =0 ⇒ e =1 ⇒ e =1=e z 2nπi

ru
⇒ z = 2nπi, n ∈ Z which are simple poles of the function f (z).

nd
We know that, Res[f (z)]z=z0 = QP0(z 0)

ha
(z0 )
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 57 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example

-V
1
Classify the singularities for the function f (z) = 1−ez .

IT
,V
1 z
Soln: Let f (z) = 1−e z is not defined for 1 − e = 0.
z z
⇒1−e =0 ⇒ e =1 ⇒ e =1=e z 2nπi

ru
⇒ z = 2nπi, n ∈ Z which are simple poles of the function f (z).

nd
We know that, Res[f (z)]z=z0 = QP0(z 0)

ha
(z0 )
Now, Residue at the pole z = 2nπi
.C
Let P (z) = 1,
Q(z) = 1 − ez ⇒ Q0 (z) = −ez
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 57 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example

-V
1
Classify the singularities for the function f (z) = 1−ez .

IT
,V
1 z
Soln: Let f (z) = 1−e z is not defined for 1 − e = 0.
z z
⇒1−e =0 ⇒ e =1 ⇒ e =1=e z 2nπi

ru
⇒ z = 2nπi, n ∈ Z which are simple poles of the function f (z).

nd
We know that, Res[f (z)]z=z0 = QP0(z 0)

ha
(z0 )
Now, Residue at the pole z = 2nπi
.C
Let P (z) = 1,
Q(z) = 1 − ez ⇒ Q0 (z) = −ez
M

Then, Res[f (z)]z=2nπi = QP0(2nπi) 1

(2nπi) = −e2nπi = −1.
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 57 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
Find the poles and residues of the function f (z) = cot z.

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 58 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
Find the poles and residues of the function f (z) = cot z.

-V
cos z
Soln: Let f (z) = cot z = sin z is not defined for sin z = 0.

IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 58 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
Find the poles and residues of the function f (z) = cot z.

-V
Soln: Let f (z) = cot z = cos z
sin z is not defined for sin z = 0.

IT
⇒ sin z = 0 ⇒ z = nπ, n ∈ Z which are simple poles of the func-

,V
tion f (z).

ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 58 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
Find the poles and residues of the function f (z) = cot z.

-V
Soln: Let f (z) = cot z = cos z
sin z is not defined for sin z = 0.

IT
⇒ sin z = 0 ⇒ z = nπ, n ∈ Z which are simple poles of the func-

,V
tion f (z).
We know that, Res[f (z)]z=z0 = QP0(z 0)

ru
(z0 )

nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 58 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
Find the poles and residues of the function f (z) = cot z.

-V
Soln: Let f (z) = cot z = cos z
sin z is not defined for sin z = 0.

IT
⇒ sin z = 0 ⇒ z = nπ, n ∈ Z which are simple poles of the func-

,V
tion f (z).
We know that, Res[f (z)]z=z0 = QP0(z 0)

ru
(z0 )
Now, Residue at the pole z = nπ

nd
Let P (z) = cos z ⇒ P (nπ) = cos nπ = (−1)n ,

ha
Q(z) = sin z ⇒ Q0 (z) = cos z ⇒ Q0 (nπ) = cos nπ = (−1)n
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 58 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
Find the poles and residues of the function f (z) = cot z.

-V
Soln: Let f (z) = cot z = cos z
sin z is not defined for sin z = 0.

IT
⇒ sin z = 0 ⇒ z = nπ, n ∈ Z which are simple poles of the func-

,V
tion f (z).
We know that, Res[f (z)]z=z0 = QP0(z 0)

ru
(z0 )
Now, Residue at the pole z = nπ

nd
Let P (z) = cos z ⇒ P (nπ) = cos nπ = (−1)n ,

ha
Q(z) = sin z ⇒ Q0 (z) = cos z ⇒ Q0 (nπ) = cos nπ = (−1)n
(−1)n
.C
Then, Res[f (z)]z=nπ = QP0(nπ)
(nπ) = (−1)n = 1.
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 58 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

Example
Find the poles and residues of the function f (z) = cot z.

-V
Soln: Let f (z) = cot z = cos z
sin z is not defined for sin z = 0.

IT
⇒ sin z = 0 ⇒ z = nπ, n ∈ Z which are simple poles of the func-

,V
tion f (z).
We know that, Res[f (z)]z=z0 = QP0(z 0)

ru
(z0 )
Now, Residue at the pole z = nπ

nd
Let P (z) = cos z ⇒ P (nπ) = cos nπ = (−1)n ,

ha
Q(z) = sin z ⇒ Q0 (z) = cos z ⇒ Q0 (nπ) = cos nπ = (−1)n
(−1)n
.C
Then, Res[f (z)]z=nπ = QP0(nπ)
(nπ) = (−1)n = 1.
M

Examples:
1 Find the residues of the function f (z) = cot z
and its poles.
r.

z4
−1 1
D

Ans. Res[f (z)]z=0 = 20 and Res[f (z)]z=nπ = (nπ) 4 , n ∈ Z.

2 Find the residues of the function f (z) = tan

z
z
and its poles.
−2
Ans. Res[f (z)]z=0 = 0 and Res[f (z)]z=(2n+1)π = (2n+1)π , n ∈ Z.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 58 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 59 / 60
 Power Series (Module - 03 - I) Residues: Examples

-V
IT
,V
ru
nd
ha
.C
M
r.
D

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE November 18, 2023 60 / 60