EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

PSYCHOLOGY 5. Self corrections

- science of mental processes and human behaviour - challenging the finding through tests of new
Science hypotheses
- systematic body of knowledge based from facts - content of science changes as we acquire new
gathered from scientific method scientific information
- Content & process - an old information is reevaluated in light of new
- Universal and objective facts
- Systemztized Diagnosis Principle of Modus Tollens - Hindi forever valid and
Psychological Science information kasi may mga bagong information ang
- pertains to research about the psychological maaaring magcontradict
processes underlying behaviour, relying on scientific 6. Publicizing Results
methodology - communicating the results of scientific research
THE NEED FOR SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY through: journal, professional and special interest
Commonsense Psychology groups, professional conferences, scientific papers
- guides the behavior 7. Replication
- use data from experiences to formulate - process of repeating research procedures to verify
commonsense assumptions about the cause and effect that the outcome will be the same as before
but relying solely in commonsense psychology will OBJECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
make us completely wrong • Description - identify behaviour through observe and
- gather data in a systematic and impartial way measure
constrained by two very important factors ex: case studies and surveys
ex: di ka uutang sa kaibigan mo kasi nakita mong • Prediction - knowing in advance the certain
badmood behaviour will occur
NONSCIENTIFIC SOURCES OF DATA ex: correlation
- sources are from person with authority that made it • Explanation - knowledge of the conditions that
usually unreliable and inaccurate reliably reproduce the occurrence of a
behaviour
NONSCIENTIFIC INTERFERENCE ex: true experiments
- sources are from decisions based from readily • Control - apply the learning about the behaviour
available information
ex: traits, judging individual without even knowing the APPLIED VS BASIC RESEARCH
reason behind it Applied Research - research that is designed to solve
real-world problems, benefits
• CONFIRMATION BIAS
- we have the tendency na icontradict and iignore Basic Research - research designed to test theories or
yung information na iba sa pinaniniwalaan mo to explain psychological phenomena
, gather
• OVERCONFIDENCE BIAS
- overestimate knowledge, kada nadadagdagan ang TOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
knowledge is all you know is yung tama (yabang) 1. Observation
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
- systematic noting and recording of events
- steps that scientists take to gather and verify - criteria na need sunding
information, answer questions, explain relatio ships
- through scale nadedefine natin na observable ang
and communicate findings mga variable na non observable
2. Measurement
CHARATERISITCS OF MODERN SCIENCE - quantifying or assigning numerical values to objects
1. The Scientific Mentality or events
- behavior must follow a natural order, therefore it Quantitative Research (numbers)
can be predicted Qualitative (words)
2. Gathering Empirical Data 3. Experimentation
- collecting data that are observable and - to test a prediction
experienced and capable of being verified or - hypothesis must be testable
disproved through investigation - establish cause and effect relationship
3. Seeking General Principles - direction
- proposing general principles - ethical concerns and technological limitations may
Law - applicable in all situation prevent experimentation
Theory - can be true, can be fake
4. Good Thinking PSYCHOLOGY EXPERIMENT
- collection and interpretation should be systematic, Psychological Experiment
objective, and rational
- controlled procedure in which at least 2 different
Parsimony - simple and precise explanation treatment conditions are applied to subjects
- 2 treatment para may basis of comparison
 experimental laboratory in US at
Antecedent Condition/Independent Variable John Hopkins University 1883
- manipulate 3. Charles Sanders Pierce - developed a research
- cause of behaviour tradition of randomized
Treatment - level of IV, presented to the subjects experiments in laboratories and
and then compared to systematically and specialized textbooks 1800
scientifically explain behaviour 4. Herman Ebbinghaus - published Über das
Dependent Variable Gedächtnis (On Memory);
- measure pioneered the experimental
- Effect of behaviour study of memory
Control (for successful experimentation) 5. George Trumbull Ladd - published the book
- random assignment of subjects “Elements of Physiological
- presenting a treatment condition in an identical Psychology” 1887
manner to all subjects 6. James Mckeen Cattell - established the world’s
- keeping environment, procedures, and instruments third experimental psychology
constant for all subjects lab at University of
ESTABLISHING CAUSE AND EFFECT Pennsylvania 1887
Temporal Relationship (time) - the type of cause and 7. William James - published the The Principles of
effect relationship established through experiments Psychology 1890
8. Mary Whiton Calkins - established the
Sufficient conditions may be classified to have an effect experimental psychology
on the behaviour laboratory at Wellesley College
Necessary condition is identifies to produce the greatest 1891
effect on the behaviour 9. John B. Watcon & Rosalie Rayner - conducted
the little Albert Experiment
(Sufficient lang ang need kasi eto yung attainable wag 1920
ang necessary kasi inaalam ang root cause ng lahat 10. Edwin Boring - published the book A History of
which is impossible) Experimental Psychology 1929
11. Lee Chronbach - published Construct Validity in
HISTORY OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Psychological Test 1955
Experimental Psychology - study of psychological 12. Albert Bandura - conducted the Bobo doll
issues that uses experimental procedures; area of experiment 1961
psychology that utilizes scientific methods to research
the mind and behaviour 20th CENTURY
United States - behaviourism become the dominant
PSEUDOSCIENCE (false claims) paradigm
- 1800s Europe - Frederick Barlett, Kenneth James Williams,
- “pseudo” means false in greek William Adman Hick and Donald
- Any firld of study that gives the appearance of being Broadbent focus on topic such as thinking,
sceintific but has no true scientifc basis and has not memory and attention
been confirmed using scientific method Experimental Psychologists use a range of methods
Modern Pseudoscience - palm reading, astrology, etc.
1. Phrenology - measuring the size and location of
bumps on the skull
2. Physiognomy - facial features to evaluate traits,
mental capacity and skills
3. Mesmerism - body fluids have magnetic properties
that needed to be aligned to cure
illnesses
4. Spiritualism - contact with ghosts and spirits of the
dead
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
Psychological Science emerged in the late 1800s
1. Wilhelm Wundt - father of Experimental
Psychology; first to establish
PsychLab in Leipzig, Germany
1897
2. G. Stanley Hall - founded American Psychological
Association 1983; first opened
 RESEARCH ETHICS

ETHICS
- core of every discipline
- practices that influence the decision-making process
in terms of doing the right thing
Ethical Guidance - for standard & organization
Legal Liability
- being responsible for what happens to the
participants in the experiment
Institutional Review Board
- to ensure the safety of the participants
Risk/Benefit Analysis - determining whether any
risk to individual are outweighed by potential
benefits or the importance of the knowledge gained If “at risk” and potential harm - mandatory informed
Ethical Committee - evaluate if ethical or not consent
ethical ang research; laws are not the same to ethical If “miniman risk” - not always mandatory informed
guidance; Research Ethics Review Committee consent (not required but highly encouraged)
(ERC); Ethical Review Board (ERB); Research
Ethics Committee (REC) EVOLUTION OF ETHICS IN RESEARCH
Experiment - Subjects • Ethics came to the forefront after the discoveries of
Qualitative - Participants brutal experiments conducted by Nazi doctors on
Quantitative - Respondents Jewish concentration camp prisoners
• Nuremberg War Crime Trials, Nuremberg Code of
Poorly designed research: (Rosenthal, 1994) 1947 - code of ethical standards for scientific research
1. Can lead to inaccurate conclusions was created
2. Time will be taken fro potentially more beneficial • 1947, National Commission for the Protection of
educational experiences Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioural
3. Money will be wasted to poor-quality science Research
INFORMED CONSENT • 1979, US Department of Health, Education, and
- agreement to participate after having been fully Welfare issued the Belmont Report - statement of
informed about the nature of the study government policy on research involving human
• Participants must give consent freely without subjects
coercion Three Principles:
• Researchers must give subject a full explanation of a. Respect for persons
the procedures and offer to answer any questions b. Beneficence
related c. Justice
• If pain or injury is possible, researchers must explain
this in advance Ex: Tuskegee Syphilis Study - process and development
of syphilis, ginamit ang mga Black American with
• Subjects legal rights may bot be waived in case of
injury incentives of food, Hindi sila aware sa sakit na merin
sila, hindi binigay yung gamot
• Should be obtained in writing and subjects should
receive a copy to keep DECEPTION AND FULL DISCLOSURE
• If minor or impaired, consent should also obain fro Deception
the parent - intentional misleading of subjects or withholding the
Informed Consent - parents/guardian full information about the nature of experiment to
Informed Assent - minor/cu (may rights ang minor obtain accurate and unbiased resilts
not to participate ex: Stanley Milgram’s Experiment
• Language of the consent is appropriate sa mga - must not influence a subjects decision to take part in
participants (educational attainment) the research so bawal ang extreme deception
• To ensure, bukod sa pagbibigay ng consent, babasahin - must also be debriefed - explaining the true nature
din sa harap nila yung consent and purpose of the study
• Hypothesis should not be disclosed in the form to - justified by the knowledge gained
avoid bias (hindi aware sa possible result)
ANONYMITY AND CONFIDENTIALITY
- qualitative, in use of pseudonym/code
- data should be collected anonymously
- no need to identify subjects by name
- subjects identities mudt be protected
- data should be stored in a secure place, kept it
confidential
ETHICS ON ANIMAL SUBJECTS PAP CODE OF ETHICS
Animal Welfare Code of Ethics and Professional Standard for
- humane care and treatment of animals Psychology Practitioners
RA 8485 (Animal Welfare Act of 1998)
- published by the Psychological Association of the
- law that protects the welfare of animals, even for Philippines in 2008 and was updated on December
those that are used in experiments and researches 2015
- revision was made in 2022 (reflects changes aligned
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee with RA 10029 or the Philippine Psychology Act of
(IACUC) 2009, RA 11036 or the Philippine Mental Health Act
- evaluates animal research before it can be conducted of 2018, and RA 10912 or the Continuing
The concern about animal welfare includes avoiding Professional Development Act of 2016
unnecessary pain or risk - presents the principles and standards that govern the
norms of conduct of all registered psychologists and
FRAUD IN SCIENCE psyshometricians in the Philippines
Fraud General Principles of PAP Code of Ethics
- publishing false data • Principle I: Respect for the Dignity of Persons
Replication and Peer Reviews and People
- detects falsification • Principle II: Competence Caring for the Well-
- Research articles that are submitted for publishing Being of Persons and Peoples
will be reviewed first by several experts • Principle III: Integrity
• Principle IV: Professional and Scientific
PLAGIARISM Responsibilities to Society
- representation of someone else’s ideas, words, or
written work as your own
- without proper credit or citation
- serious breach of ethics
APA CODE OF ETHICS
Ethical principles of Psychologists and Code of
Conduct
- published by the American Psychological
Association in 2002, and amended in 2010 as well as
in 2016
General Principles of APA Code of Ethics
• Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence -
psychologists strive to benefit those with whom
they work and take care to do no harm
• Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility -
psychologists establish relationships of trust with
those with whom they work as well as their
scientific and professional responsibility to the
society
• Principle C: Integrity - psychologists seek to
promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in the
science, teaching, and practice of psychology
• Principle D: Justice - psychologists recognize
that fairness and justice entire all personas to
access to and befit from the contributions of
psychology and to to equal quality in the
processes, procedures, and services being
conducted by psychologists
• Principle E: Respect for People’s Rights and
Dignity - psychologists respect the dignity and
worth of all people, and the rights of individuals to
privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination
 FORMULATING THE HYPOTHESIS

HYPOTHESIS Causal Attributions - naturally formulating hypothesis

- main idea about the kinds of antecedents that affects people’s
- tentative answer behaviour
- scientific assumption
Nonexperimental Hypothesis SEARCHING THE RESEARCH LITERATURE
- Statement of your predictions of how events, 1. Psychology Journals
traits, or behaviours might be related - not about 2. Psychology Books
- relationship 3. Meta Analysis - statistical reviewing procedure that
- no causality uses data from many studies to summarize research
- Correlational study/Quasi-experimental findings
Experimental Hypothesis 4. Google Scholar
- cause and effect relationship 5. Psych INFO
- predicts the changes that will take place in the 6. SAGE Journals
dependent variable when independent variable FORMULATING GOOD RESEARCH QUESTION
was manipulated
- 1 IV = 1 Hypothesis, Multiple IV = Multiple PICOT Framework
Hypothesis • Population/Problem
“There are study that does not require hypothesis” - what is the existing problem
- to descrive ang aim ng study, Qualitative - specific population involved
• Intervention
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS - treatment to alleviate the problem
• Null Hypothesis - level of IV
- reject, nullify, tinetest para dun tayo sa safe side/ Comparison/Control
•
absolute - how you will execute the intervention
- no significant effect ang IV sa DV - Independent variable
• Alternative Hypothesis • Objective/Outcome
- may significant effect ang IV sa DV - expected consequence after the comparison;
“accept” = wala nang pedeng magverify sa study measurable
Reject Null / p < 0.05 - significant - Dependent variable
Failed to Reject Null / p > 0.05 - not significant Time
•
APPROACHES IN GENERATING HYPOTHESIS - optional element
1. Inductive Model - duration of the execution of the experiment
- from specific to general FINER Framework
- basic tool in building a theory
• Feasible
ex: Skinner’s Behavioural Analysis (Operant) - kaya ng pera/budget
2. Deductive Model - complexity of the research design
- from general to specific - mahirap makahanap ng subject
- funnel technique - kayang mareach ang sample size
- filter to come up in a single information - measurable outcomes
- supporting evidence - human & technical resources
3. Building on Prior Research
- most useful way of finding hypothesis • Interesting
- attracts the attention of reader
- read past research (recommendation) - presents a different perspective of the problem
- concrete information
- studies with conflicting outcomes • Novel
- provides different findings
- issue of a psychological journal - resolves a gap in the existing literature
4. Serendipity - generates new hypothesis
- finding things that are not being sought - improves methodological flaws of existing studies
- finding things accidentally/unexpected
• Ethical
ex: Ivan Pavlov (Classical Conditioning) - adhere ethical guidlines
5. Intuition - safeguards the main principles of ethical research
- reasoning without knowing - guarantees safety and reversibility of side effects
- can be a guide to what we choose to study
- avoid repetition • Relevant
- change and contribution
- most accurate If it comes from expert - stimulate further research = fruitful
- should not destroy objectivity upon arriving to - provides an accurate answer to a specific research
empirical evidences questions
6. When all else fails “Interesting, Novel, and Relevant are the 3 important
- try observe people behave in public places aspects of the study para mapublish”
- real-world problem
 THE BASICS OF EXPERIMENTATION

PSYCHOLOGY EXPERIMENT “reliability sets ceiling to validity”

Features: Hindi lahat ng reliable is valid
1. Manipulation of antecedent conditions “Validity measures accuracy while reliability measures
2. At least two treatment the consistency of test results”
Internal validity - the extent to which the observed 2.1 Face Validity
results represent the truth in the population we are - mukha ba Siyang test
studying, an experiment must be a controlled procedure - less stict
External Validity - the extent to which the results of a - lowest form pero need mareach
study are generalizable to patients in our daily practice - confidence and trust
(general population, other context, real life) 2.2 Content Validity
“Pag pinrioritize ang internal validity, nasasacrifice - lahat ng aspect ng concept ay nacocover ng test
ang external, and vice versa” - judgement of experts on the field
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE 2.3 Criterion Validity (known as gold standard)
- manipulate/control a. Predictive Validity - refers to the ability of the
- walang factor ang pedeng makaapekto instrument to predict future behaviour or
- at least 2 treatment (pedeng presence and absence, performance based on the score obtained from it
amount or degree and category) b. Concurrent Validity - reflects whether scores
Quasi : selects rather than creates level of IV (random on a measuring device correlate with scores
assignment) obtained from another method of measuring the
same concept
DEPENDENT VARIABLE 2.4 Construct Validity
- measurable - umbrella validity
- dependent sa existence ni IV - transition from theory to research application
- objective measure - gaano kacorrelated ang score sa specific
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION theoretical framework
• Conceptual a. Convergent Validity - test results should highly
- general definition of the terms correlate with scores on test measuring the same
• Operational or similar construct
- own definition kung paano ginamit sa study b. Discriminant or Divergent Validity - test
- detailed (if dependent variable, include yung should not highly correlate with scores on test
measurement na ginamit yung scales) measuring other constructs
Psychometrically Sound - reliable and valid
CONSTRUCTS & NONCONSTRUCTS
Hypothetical Constructs
- unseen process postulated to explain behaviour
EVALUATING OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
1. Reliability
- dependable and consistent findings
1.1 Interrater Reliability
- agreement between measurement of the same
responses from different observers
Internal Consistency - Cronbach’s A and
McDonald’s Omega
1.2 Test-Retest Reliability
- measure stability over time
- pre and post test, comparison of scores of people
who have been measured twice with the same test
instrument
- relatively unchanging
- Pearson r
1.3 Interitem Reliability
- different parts of a questionnaire, test, or other
instruments attain consistent results, measures the
internal consistency
- Inaalam yung corelation ng study with each other
Homogeneity = unifactorial, Cohen’s and Kappa
2. Validity
- refers to the principle of actually studying the
variables that we intent to study
- extent kung saan namemeasure yung test
PROBLEMS IN INTERNAL VALIDITY
1. Extraneous Variable
- physical environment
- factors that are not the focus of the experiment pero
nakakaapekto sa findings
2. Confounding
- situation wherein an extraneous variable changes
systematically across different conditions of an
experiment
- kapag hindi nacontrol yung extraneous variables
- not valid
CLASSIC THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY
- proposed by Donald Campbell
All quasi-experimental studies contain one or more
classic threats, and it is the reason why they are not
considered as true experiments - they are potentially
confounded
1. History
- outside events that happened before the
experimentation which could have caused the
experimental effects
2. Maturation (duration)
- any internal (physical or psychological) change in
subjects that might have affected the score in the DV
3. Testing
- pre & post test
- effects on the DV produced by a previous
administration of the same test or other measuring
instrument
- pedeng walang pre test, post test nalang or alternative
form of test
4. Instrumentation
- when some features of the measuring instrument
itself changes during the experiment
- quality of the instrument
5. Statistical Regression
- statistical phenomenon
- lumlapit sa mean ang extreme low and extreme high
scores
- regression toward the mean
6. Selection
- when the researcher does not assign subjects
randomly to the different conditions of an experiment
- random assignment is done to prevent systematic
differences
7. Subject Mortality
- refers to the occurrence of subjects dropping out of
the experiment
- lack of continuation by participants in any empirical
experimentation
8. Selection Interaction
- when a selection threat combines with another threat
- not randomly assignment + one of other threats