1.

Functions and Relations

Relation: any set of ordered pair (x,y)
- Domain: first element of the pair. This is also the x-coordinate. The domain is also called the
independent variable because whatever you change in a math question, the domain will not be
affected unless it is the domain itself that you change. This is the input because this is typically what
you use within the equation to find the answer.
- Range; the second element of the pair. Also y-coordinate. The range is also called the dependent
variable because if even one thing in the equation changes, the range is subject to change. It is the
output because this is typically the answer of a math problem.

Function: a relation or rule of correspondence between two elements (domain and range) where each
element of the domain only corresponds to one element in the range.
- Why? If you input a domain into a function, it will be impossible to get an answer with a different
number to the one you got initially unless you change other parts of the function.
- Ex: f(x)=x+3 if x = 2. f(2)=2+3 = 5.
- The domain is 2 and its range is 5. No matter how hard you try, you can’t change the fact that
2+3 is 5 so it is impossible to get another element of range to correspond with our domain.

Remember:
- f(x) is the same as y
- The domain cannot correspond to multiple ranges.
- Elements of range can correspond to multiple elements of the domain.
{(1,2), (3,4), (1,5)} Not allowed cus domain 1 is repeated
{(1,2), (3,2), (4,5)} Totally fine.
First element cannot repeat and no one cares what happens to the second element as long as it
exists.
- NO element of the domain can be repeated (unless the domain corresponds to the same range in its
first occurrence)
- Ex: Z = {(a,b), (c,d), (a,e), (e,f)} Not a function bc domain a corresponds to two ranges, b
and e
- Ex: Z = {(a,b), (c,d), (a,b), (e,f)} Function bc the first (a,b) is the same as the second (a,b).
In the list: {Hatsune Miku, Michael Sheen, Hatsune Miku} Just because Miku is repeated
twice, doesn’t mean there are two separate instances of her. Both appearances on the list refer
to the one and only Hatsune Miku.
- The domain must correspond to an element in the range otherwise it is not a function.
- Why? If asked to solve f(x)=x2 given x = 3. f(x)=32 can’t not have an output because there
is an answer to 32 which is 9.

Vertical Line Test

When presented with a graph and asked to see if it represents a function or not, We can tell a graph shows us
a function if we draw a straight vertical line (the line that goes up and down [standing line]) and the graph
touches the line only once:
 2. Evaluating Functions
Law of Substitution
If a+x=b and x=c then a+c=b
This just means that if it’s specified that x is equal to a certain value then you can replace x with the given
value.

3. Even and Odd Functions

A function can be even, odd or neither.

Graphical Interpretation
Even Functions have graphs that are symmetric with respect to the y axis (y=0).
So the middle of the graph should be aligned with y=0 and always moves in the same vertical direction.

Odd Functions have graphs that are symmetric with respect to the origin (0,0).
One end of the graph doesn’t go the same direction as the other end and its middle is set at (0,0).
Neither - Functions that are not even or odd don’t follow the rules above.

In the 1st picture, while it is symmetrical if cut through the center, it isn’t set at y=0.
2nd picture: The ends of the graph go in different directions, yes, but it isn’t set at the origin, (0,0).

Algebraic Test
Algebra is the math where different symbols represent missing values.
A function is Even if f(-x) = f(x)
- This means that even after you replaced each x with (-x), you end up with the same function as what
you started with
A function is Odd if f(-x) = -f(x)
- The function is odd if you substituted x with (-x) and your answer is the same as if you replaced all
the signs of the original function with the opposite sign. (Meaning that all +’s turned into -’s and vice
versa)
A function is Neither if f(-x) is not equal to anything and doesn’t comply with the above stuff.

Steps:
Note that the original function refers to the function given to you before you made any changes to it.
● Substitute (-x) for every x value in the function. Compare your result to the original function.
● To do this, change the sign of all x values to the opposite. + turns into - and - turns into +.
○ If there are powers involved and the exponent of an x is even, then the x will remain positive.
○ If the exponent of a negative x is odd then the x will be negative.
● After solving, compare your newly changed function to how the function was before you changed
the signs of everything.
● If your new function is the same as your original function, it is even.
● If your new function is your old function but just with the opposite signs, it is odd.
● Even if one single sign is wrong different from the original function, it is automatically neither even
or odd.

Remember:
● |x| - These little lines mean absolute value or modulus. Doesn’t matter if the number within |this| is
positive or negative, it will result the same value without the minus sign.
○ |19| = 19 |-5| = 5 |-x| = x
● However, this is different when there is more than one element within the vertical straight lines. You
must solve that expression first before finding the absolute value.
○ Like how (5+4) gives a different answer to (5-4), |
a+b| can result differently from |a-b| or |-a+b|
The same as above goes for radicals (the ones with root symbols: √)
- If given 𝑎 + 𝑏, solve (a+b) first and then you can find the root of the answer

❖ Also note that (-a + b) is the same as (b - a)

➢ Ex: -3 + 7 is the same as 7 - 3
➢ Keep in mind that this only works if you keep the signs of the values you were given.

4. Types of Functions
Constant Function
Function that has the same output no matter what the input is
- Form: f(x) = b where b is a constant, meaning it is a value that doesn’t change (an actual number, not
a variable)
- x can be anything but y will always be the same: constant.
Identity Function
Input and output have the same value
- x=y
- f(x) = x
Polynomial Function
A polynomial function is defined by y = a0+a1x1+a2x2+...anxn, where n is a non-negative integer. (Integer
means non-fraction)
Note that a monomial (a single term whether it be a constant or variable) is also a polynomial
- Linear Function: poly function with degree one.
- Form: y = mx+b
- Quadratic Function: poly function with degree two.
- Form: y = ax2+bx+c
- a cannot be 0 (bc if it were 0, it would get rid of the degree 2 and would no longer be
quadratic).
- Cubic Function: poly function with degree three
- Form: y = ax3+bx2+cx+d
- a cannot be 0 bc it would remove the degree three.
Power Function
Function in the form: y=axb where b is a real constant number.
- One term function with a variable as the base and a constant as the exponent.
Rational Function
Function with a fraction
- Rational comes from the word ratio which is shown through a fraction
- The denominator cannot result in 0 because that will return undefined.
- The numerator can be 0, it will just return a 0.
Exponential Function
Functions where there is a variable for the exponent.
 - Form: y=abx
- Note that only b is attached to that exponent. If they were encased in brackets and the exponent is
outside, only then can you find the exponent of ab.
- ab2 = a(b2) while (ab)2 = (a2*b2)
Logarithmic Function
Inverse of exponential function
- Form: y = logbx
- b must be a real constant number and can’t be equal to 1.
- Can be converted into exponential function and vice versa.

5. Piecewise Functions
PIecewise Function: A function with more than one formula to get the output
- Each formula has its own domain

How to graph a piecewise function

● Find where on the x-axis the graph will be. You can see this by looking at the part of the function
where it says "if x __"
○ Look at the number after the inequality. That will be your x-coordinate.

○ Ex:
■ Here, the number after the inequality is 0 so the graphs will start on the x-coordinate
0.

● To find the y coordinates, you need to make a table of values. Separate into two columns, one for x
and the other for the function. Typically, there's at least two functions in a piecewise function so
you'll need to make at least 2 tables to make all the graphs.
○ You will already have your first x from earlier so substitute that value with x from the given
function
■ Ex: Let’s take one of the functions from the picture above. “y = x+3 if x > 0”
■ Our starting x is 0 so replace the x in the function to get “y = 0+3” This gets us
“y=3”. That completes your first pair of coordinates.

● The first set of coordinates you get is where the circle of the graph will be.
● Then, you fill the table with more x values. To get the x values, you look at your inequality. Is it
greater than? less than or equal to? etc
○ If your sign is > or ≥ then you need x values greater than your starting x.
○ If your sign is < or ≤ then you need x values less than your starting x
■ Ex: For “x>0”, the inequality sign is greater than so the following x’s have to be
bigger than 0
● Using two additional x’s is enough so solve for at least two x’s that follow the rule you were given.
After replacing the x with your test values, you should have more sets of coordinates.
 ○ Ex:

● Next, plot the coordinates so you know where your graph should pass through.
● Now, you must determine if your function has a hole or not.
○ The circle is filled if your starting x complies with the rule said in the function
○ Basically, it’s a filled circle if your inequality looks like this: ≥ , ≤ or =. This is bc
your x would be equal to the number stated and follows the rule
○ It's a hole if your starting x does NOT follow the rule.
○ It’s a hole if your inequality looks like < >
● Then join your points together and make an arrow

6. Operations on Functions
This is using the arithmetic operations with functions.

Addition
(f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
Remember that since this is dealing with addition, you only add like terms. So only add constants with
constants and add the terms with the same variables together.
Note that x2 and x are not like terms although they have the same variable, their exponents are not the same
so they cannot be added together
Also remember that x + x = 2x, not x2
● Ex: Let f(x) = 3x + 2 and g(x) = x2 + 4x - 5
○ (f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
= (3x + 2) + (x2 +4x - 5)
= x2 + (3x+4x) + (2-5)
= x2 + 7x - 3

Subtraction
(f-g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
The same with addition, only subtract like terms. Keep in mind that the minus symbol changes the function
just after it [g(x) in the form given above]
● Ex: Let f(x) = 3x + 2 and g(x) = x2 + 4x - 5
○ (f-g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
= (3x + 2) - (x2 +4x - 5)
= x2 + (3x - 4x) + (2 - (-5))
= x2 - x + 7
Reminder that - (-x) is the same as +x
Multiplication
(f*g)(x) = f(x) * g(x)
Here, you can multiply constants with variables and variables with different variables.
Remember the distributive property: A term multiplying a polynomial means you have to multiply that term
to each element of the polynomial.
Note that x*x = x2, not 2x

● Ex: Let f(x) = 3x + 2 and g(x) = x2 + 4x - 5

○ (fg)(x) = f(x) * g(x)
= (3x + 2) * (x2 + 4x - 5)
= 3x(x2 + 4x - 5) + 2(x2 + 4x - 5)
= (3x3 + 12x2 - 15x) + (2x2 + 8x - 10)
= 3x3 + 14x2 - 7x - 10

Division
(f/g)(x) = f(x) / g(x)
This can also be shown as a fraction, just can’t do it on google docs. You also have the same rules as
multiplication with dividing terms, doesn’t matter if it’s a constant or variable, you can divide it.

7. Composition of Functions
Composition of functions is just function of a function. If f(x) is the function of g(x), then the x within f(x) is
replaced by whatever the function of g(x) is.
(f∘g)(x) = f(g(x))
● Here, f(x) is referred to as the outer function
● Inner function is g(x)
● The order of which function is first is very important. It is not interchangeable.
○ (f∘g)(x) is different from (g∘f)(x)

1. It’s simpler to write the outer function first so you have a clear idea of how the function should start.
2. Then, replace all instances of x in the outer function with the entirety of the inner function.
3. Then, add, subtract, multiply, or divide as the problem calls for and simplify as much as you can

❖ Ex: Let f(x) = 3x + 2 and g(x) = x2 + 4x - 5

➢ (g∘f)(x) = x2 + 4x - 5
 = (3x+2)2 + 4(3x+2) - 5
= (9x2 + 12x + 4) + (12x + 8) - 5
= 9x2 + (12x + 12x) + 4 + 8 - 5
= 9x2 + 24x - 7

8. Rational Functions - Basic Concepts

Rational Functions are functions that involve dividing functions. Note that the denominator cannot be a
zero function (meaning that the function results in 0) because that returns an answer of Undefined.

Remember
Rules of if it’s a rational function
The numerator and denominator must be polynomials.
Note that a single constant or variable counts as a polynomial bc it’s a monomial. If the denominator
or numerator of a function is a monomial, it is still a function.
If either the numerator or denominator contains a radical (√), it is not a rational function because
expressions that have the root symbol are not polynomials.
If there is a negative exponent, it is not a rational function because a polynomial cannot have a
negative exponent.
A fraction in either the numerator or denominator is still a rational function as long as there’s no
radical or negative exponent.
Denominator cannot be equal to 0. You cannot divide any number by 0 so it can’t be a polynomial.

Idk if it’ll come up but:

Differences b/w Rational Expression/Equation/Inequality/Function

Rational Expression
- A combination of numbers, variables or functions where at least one of those terms is a fraction.
- Basically, whenever you don’t see an equals sign or any of the inequality signs, you have yourself an
expression.

- Ex: and
Rational Equation
- It’s an equation if there is an equals sign (=) and a fraction somewhere in there. If there’s no fraction,
it’s just a regular equation.
- Only has to have at least one fraction for it to count as a rational equation.

- Ex:
Rational Inequality
- The relationship between two expressions where at least one expression has a fraction and they are
not equal, meaning that instead of =, you see > or < or ≤ or ≥
 - Ex:
Rational Function
- A function that has at least one rational expression somewhere in it.
- If it has f(x) or y on one side of the equals sign, it is a function.
- Note that the letters in f(x) can be exchanged for any letter. As long as it looks something like
f(x) where one letter is outside and one is inside the parentheses, it’s a function.

- Ex:

9. Solving Rational Equations

Steps:
1. Find the Least Common Denominator (LCD)
a. LCD is basically the least common multiple (LCM) of the denominators of your equation.
Note that multiple means the number you get after multiplying. How do you find the LCM?
i. List your denominators [ex1: 3, 6, 12] [ex2: 2, 4, 18]
ii. See if your biggest denominator is a multiple of the other denominators. [ex1: yes]
[ex2: 18 is not a multiple of 4, but yes to 2.]
iii. If it is a multiple of the other denominators, skip to the next step. If not, get another
multiple of your biggest denominator and go back to step ii. (By this I mean, multiply
your denominator by 2 and get that multiple. If that doesn’t work, multiply by 3 and
so on) Repeat ii and iii until it’s a multiple of your other denominators.
iv. If the multiple you’re left with is a multiple of your other denominators then that is
your LCM. [ex1: LCM of 3,6,12 is 12] [ex2: LCM of 2,4,18 is 36]
b. If a denominator is a fraction, just multiply that with the LCD of the constants.
2. Multiply the LCD to both sides of the equation so you get rid of the fractions.

3. Simplify using the distributive property and combine all like terms
a. 30 - 5x = 10x
b. 30 = 10x + 5x
c. 30 = 15x
d. 30/15 = x
e. 2 = x
4. Check the solution by replacing the x in the original equation with the answer you just got. If
both sides are equal, problem solved!

Factoring Quadtratics
Remember that this will not always always work, but here’s a trick you can do to quickly find the factors of
a quadratic:
X method using the standard form: ax2+bx + c = 0

Once you have the value(s) of x, check the equation by replacing all instances of x in the original equation
with one value you got just now.
If one root (value of x) matches but the other one doesn’t, that is called an extraneous root.

10. Solving Rational Inequalities

Steps:
1. If one side of your inequality is not 0, transpose it to the other side to change that. (Transposing
works the same as when you’re working with equations.)
a. If you have to combine a fraction with a constant, turn the constant into a fraction by giving it
the same denominator as your given fraction and multiply the constant with that denominator
i. Ex: 3 is a constant being combined with a rational so this happens:

b. After you’ve converted the constant(s) into similar fractions, combine and simplify into one
singular fraction.

i. Ex:
2. Identify the Critical Values.
a. Take the numerator and denominator separately and equate them to 0.

i. Numerator:
 ii. Denominator:
3. These critical values give us the points that separate the intervals on a number line. The critical
values determine the boundaries of the intervals on a number line.
a. The intervals below are shown by I, II and III. There can be more than 3. The number of
intervals are determined by how many instances of x there are in your most simplified answer
from the previous steps.
b. An interval means the range of numbers between two points. So Interval I is the range of
numbers from negative infinity to 5. Interval II are the numbers between 5 and 10. And
Interval III contains the terms from 10 to positiveinfinity.

i.
4. Test your critical values by substituting them in the original inequality. Use the rational
inequality given in the question before you simplified it.
a. After substituting, if your answer follows the inequality, fill the circle in. If your answer
doesn’t follow, leave it as a hole/open dot.

i.
5. Use test points to check if each interval is part of the solution set.
a. You will need to pick as many numbers as there are intervals on your number line. If there are
three intervals, you need to pick 3 test points. Note: When picking test points, it’s advisable
to use either 0 or 1 whenever you can because they’re the easiest numbers to calculate with.
Also, pick a number closest to your critical value while filling the requirements needed for
each interval to make things easier for yourself.
b. Interval I - Pick a test point less than your first critical value (the crit value closest to the
left). Replace the all instances of x in your original inequality with this test point. If your
answer follows the rule, you may shade that part of the number line. If not, leave it be.
c. Interval II - Pick a test point greater than your first critical value but less than your next crit
value. Substitute for x and check if it follows the rule. If yes, shade that part.
d. Interval III - Pick a test point greater than your last critical value. Substitute for x, check if
it follows the rule. Yes? Shade. No? Leave it alone.
 i.

How to write solution set notation

Thank you to Nikki from ABM for this pic

- {} curly brackets shows the solution set

- [] brackets with corners like these is used when the number is included in the solution set
- () rounded brackets like these are used when the number is not included.
- If more than one part of the number line is shaded and they’re separated with an unshaded part, use
∪ the union symbol. This indicates that both intervals are included in the solution set.