Electronics B.Sc.

VI Semester ADBC, H Halli

Subject: PHYSICS
SEMESTER - VI
Paper 7: Electronics, Solid State Physics & Nano materials
(3 Hours Teaching per Week)
Module I (13 hours)
Electronics: Transistors-DC and AC current gains DC and AC load Lines-operating point, Self-biasing of
Transistor (Voltage divider method). Single Stage CE amplifier, h-parameters, Expressions for Voltage,
current and power gain using h-parameters.
Operational Amplifiers: Symbol, characteristics of ideal op-amp, concept of virtual ground, Inverting and
non-inverting amplifiers (Theory), Mention of Applications of op-amp.
Oscillators: Concept of feedback-Positive and negative feedback, Barkhausen criteria, Wein Bridge and
Phase shift oscillators (construction and working using lC741), Multivibrators- Types (Brief), Astable
multivibrator-Circuit Operation (using IC555).
Digital Electronics: Analog and Digital signals, Construction of OR, AND gate using diodes, NOT Logic
gate using Transistor, Symbols and Truth Tables of NOR, NAND and XOR Logic gates. Boolean algebra
(brief}, De-Morgan's Theorems, Boolean expressions (Simple}-Implementation by Basic Logic gates.
Electronics
Transistors:
Transistor is one of the most important semiconductor devices, was invented by William Shokley in
1947. The term transistor is derived by contracting the words ‘transfer-resistor’. The transfer of current here
takes place from a low resistance to a high resistance circuit.

The transistor created a revolution in the field of electronics, leading to other inventions like integrated
circuits, optoelectronic devices and microprocessors. The basic function of a transistor is to amplify a weak
signal, used in analogue circuits. It is also used as a switch or a gate in digital circuits.

“Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device where a p-type material is sandwiched between
two n-type materials (npn transistor) or an n-type material sandwiched between two p-type materials (pnp
transistor)”.

Naming the transistor terminals:

A transistor has three doped regions known as emitter, base and collector. All these regions are
provided with terminals.

Emitter: The left hand region of the transistor is called the emitter and it is heavily doped than the other two
regions. Its main function is to supply majority carriers to the base. The emitter is always forward biased with
respect to base so that it can supply a large number of majority carriers.
Electronics B.Sc. VI Semester ADBC, H Halli
Base: The narrow central region of the transistor is called the base. The thickness of this region is very thin
and is very lightly doped. As the base-emitter junction is forward biased it offers low resistance for the emitter
current.

Collector: The right hand region of the transistor is called collector. It is moderately doped. The collector
region is always reverse biased with respect to base.

Symbolic representation of transistor:

Transistor circuit configurations:

Transistor can be connected in three different configurations.

1. Common-Base (CB) connections.

2. Common-Emitter (CE) connections.
3. Common-Collector (CC) connections.

It may be noted that regardless of the type of connection, the emitter-base junction is always forward
biased and collector-base junction is always reverse biased, when used as amplifier. Three configurations
with npn transistors are shown in figure.

Current relations in CB Configuration:

The ratio of collector current to emitter current is called DC

current gain and is denoted by

𝐼𝐶
𝛼=
𝐼𝐸
Electronics B.Sc. VI Semester ADBC, H Halli
The ratio of small change in collector current (∆𝐼𝐶 ) to the corresponding change in emitter current (∆𝐼𝐸 ) at
constant collector-base voltage is called AC current gain and is denoted by

∆𝐼𝐶
𝛼=( )
∆𝐼𝐸 𝑉𝐶𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Current relations in CE Configuration:

The ratio of collector current to base current is called DC current gain

and is denoted by

𝐼𝐶
𝛽=
𝐼𝐵

The ratio of small change in collector current (∆𝐼𝐶 ) to the

corresponding change in base current (∆𝐼𝐵 ) at constant collector-
emitter voltage is called AC current gain and is denoted by

∆𝐼𝐶
𝛽=( )
∆𝐼𝐵 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 are called current amplification factors.

Relation between 𝛼𝐷𝐶 and 𝛽𝐷𝐶 :

We know that

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 … … … (1)

Dividing equation (1) by 𝐼𝐶 ,

𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐵
=1+
𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶

1 1 𝛽+1
= 1+ =
𝛼 𝛽 𝛽

𝜷
𝜶=
𝜷+𝟏
Cross multiplying the above equation, we have
𝛼(𝛽 + 1) = 𝛽
𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼 = 𝛽
𝛼 = 𝛽 − 𝛼𝛽 = 𝛽(1 − 𝛼)
𝜶
𝜷=
𝟏−𝜶
Electronics B.Sc. VI Semester ADBC, H Halli
Transistor Biasing:
The basic function of a transistor is to amplify a weak ac signal, when transistor is used for voltage or
current amplification or as control (on or off); it is necessary to bias the device in a proper way.
DC biasing is a static operation. It deals with setting a fixed level of the current which should flow
through the transistor with a desired fixed voltage drop across the transistor junctions. Usually, the currents
𝐼𝐶 and 𝐼𝐵 𝑎nd the voltages 𝑉𝐵𝐸 and 𝑉𝐶𝐸 are requires to be set by the biasing circuit. The proper values of these
currents and voltages allow a transistor to amplify the weak signals faithfully.
The proper flow of zero signal collector current and the maintenance of proper collector emitter
voltage during the passage of signal is known as transistor biasing.
Requirement of biasing circuit: Following are the requirements of proper biasing a circuit.
1. Proper selection of operating point (Q-point) such that on applying the input signal the instantaneous
operating point does not move either to the saturation region or to the cut-off region.
2. To stabilise the collector current against temperature variation.
3. To make the operating point independent of transistor parameters (i.e. if the transistor is replaced by
another transistor of the same type, the operating point should not shift).
Types of biasing: There are three types of biasing techniques. They are
1. Fixed bias-base bias
2. Collector to base bias
3. Self-bias or emitter bias (Voltage divider bias)
Voltage Divider Bias: The circuit arrangement is shown in figure. Two resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are connected
across supply voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐶 and provide biasing. 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 form a
potential divider across 𝑉𝐶𝐶 . The emitter resistor 𝑅𝐸 provides
stabilisation. The resistor 𝑅𝐸 causes a voltage drop in a direction so as
to reverse bias the emitter junction. Since the junction must be forward
biased, the base voltage is obtained from the supply through 𝑅1 − 𝑅2
network. The net forward bias across the emitter junction is equal to 𝑉𝐵
minus the DC voltage drop across 𝑅𝐸 .
Circuit Analysis:
As 𝐼𝐵 is very small, it can be taken that same current 𝐼1 is flowing
through both the resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 . Let us calculate 𝐼𝐶 .
𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐸
𝐼1 = ∵𝐼=
𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
The voltage 𝑉2 developed across 𝑅2 is given by
𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝑉2 = ( ) . 𝑅2
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Applying K V L to the base circuit, we have
Electronics B.Sc. VI Semester ADBC, H Halli
𝑉2 = 𝑉𝐵𝐸 + 𝑉𝐸 = 𝑉𝐵𝐸 + 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸

𝑉2 = 𝑉𝐵𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐸 ∵ 𝐼𝐸 ≈ 𝐼𝐶

𝑽𝟐 −𝑽𝑩𝑬
𝑰𝑪 = 𝑹𝑬

The collector-emitter voltage can be calculatd as follows

Applying K V L to the output circuit, we have

𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 + 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸

𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐸

𝑽𝑪𝑬 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪 (𝑹𝑳 + 𝑹𝑬 )

The DC load line:

When no signal is applied to a transistor circuit it is said to be in the quiescent condition. The figure
shows CE amplifier in the quiescent condition.

The collector circuit DC supply battery 𝑉𝐶𝐶 sends the collector current 𝐼𝐶 through the load resistance
𝑅𝐿 and the transistor. The voltage drop across the load is 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐸 . Then,

𝑉𝐶𝐸 − 𝑉𝐶𝐶 + 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐿 = 0

𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐿 … … … (1)

1 𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝐶 = (− ) 𝑉𝐶𝐸 + … … … (2)
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
1
Equation (2) is an equation of straight line (𝑌 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶), slope of the line is 𝑚 = (− 𝑅 ) and intercept
𝐿

𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝐶= . Therefore if 𝐼𝐶 is plotted against 𝑉𝐶𝐸 (on the transistor output characteristics) we get a straight line.
𝑅𝐿

This line is called the DC load line because it depends upon the value of the load 𝑅𝐿 used in the circuit.
Electronics B.Sc. VI Semester ADBC, H Halli
Plotting of DC Load line: To draw load line we need two points of the straight line. They are located as
follows.
When collector current 𝐼𝐶 = 0, then from eqn (1) 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 thus we get a point 𝑨. When collector-emitter
𝑉𝐶𝐶
voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 0, then from eqn (1) 𝐼𝐶𝐶 = . Thus, we get point 𝑩. Joining points 𝐴 and 𝐵 we get DC load
𝑅𝐿

line.
Location of the operating point:
The operating point must naturally lie on the load line. To find exactly where on this line it lies we
have to consider the base current 𝐼𝐵 . From the base circuit, we have,
𝑉𝐵𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐵 + 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 = 0

𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐵 =
𝑅𝐵

Once the base current is known the point where the characteristics for this base current intersects the load line
gives the operating point. This point is called the operating point or Q-point.

“The purpose of DC biasing of a transistor is to obtain certain dc collector current at a certain DC collector
voltage. These values of current and voltage define the point, at which the transistor operates. This point is
known as operating point or Q-point”.

Ac Load Line:

AC load line is the locus of Q-point when AC signal is applied at the

input of the amplifier. It enable us to determine the values of 𝐼𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐶𝐸
when signal is applied at the input.

The DC load line is 𝐴𝐵. The AC load line is 𝐶𝐷. The

intersection of AC and DC load line represents the Q-point (Fig).

Single stage CE amplifier: Figure shows the common emitter amplifier circuit using npn transistor. The
emitter base junction is in forward
bias with the battery 𝑉𝐵𝐵 . The
collector-base junction is in
reverse bias with the battery 𝑉𝐶𝐶 .
AC signal to be amplified is fed to
the input circuit. The amplified
output is obtained in the output
circuit.
Electronics B.Sc. VI Semester ADBC, H Halli
𝐵𝑦 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐾𝐶𝐿, 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐸

𝐵𝑦 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐾𝑉𝐿, 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐿

During the +ve half cycle of the input signal the base becomes more +ve, as a result 𝐼𝐸 and hence 𝐼𝐶
increases. As 𝐼𝐶 increases the voltage drop across 𝑅𝐿 also increases. Consequently the collector voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸
decreases. As the collector is connected to the +ve of 𝑉𝐶𝐶 , a decrease in 𝑉𝐶𝐸 results in the collector becoming
less +ve. As a result –ve output signal will be obtained. Thus corresponding to the +ve half cycle of the input
AC signal, -ve half cycle is obtained as the transistor output. On other words transistor input and output signals
are out of phase by 1800 . In this way an input signal applied to the base, a very small change in base current
produces a much larger change in the collector current. Thus a very substantial current gain is obtained.

DC current Gain:

It is the ratio of the collector current to the base current and is denoted by

𝐼𝐶
𝛽=
𝐼𝐵

AC Current Gain:

It is the ratio of small change in collector current (∆𝐼𝐶 ) to the corresponding change in base current (∆𝐼𝐵 ) at
constant collector-emitter voltage is called AC current gain. Its value is quite large and lies between 50 to 150
and is denoted by

∆𝐼𝐶
𝛽=( )
∆𝐼𝐵 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

AC Voltage gain: It is the ratio of the change in output voltage to the change in input voltage.

AC Power Gain: It is the ratio of the change in output power to the change in input power.

Hybrid Parameters, h-Parameters: To analyse the performance of transistors, they are conveniently
represented by an equivalent circuit. The hybrid equivalent or
the h-parameter equivalent circuit is widely used for small
signal low frequency applications because of the following
reasons.

1. Values of circuit components are easily available and

2. The procedure followed is quite simple and easy to understand.

Consider a linear circuit shown in figure. In this circuit when input voltage 1 is applied, input current 𝐼1
flows. Then output voltage 𝑉2 and the current 𝐼2 appears. Both currents 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 are assumed to flow
Electronics B.Sc. VI Semester ADBC, H Halli
inside the box of the linear circuit. Both voltages 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are assumed to be +ve from the upper to lower
terminals. These four variables can be related by the following equations.

𝑉1 = ℎ11 𝐼1 + ℎ12 𝑉2 … … … (1)

𝐼2 = ℎ21 𝐼1 + ℎ22 𝑉2 … … … (2)

The parameters ℎ11 , ℎ12 , ℎ21 & ℎ22 , which relate the four variables of the two port system are called h-
parameters. They may be defined by first putting 𝑉2 = 0 (output terminals short circuited) and then 𝐼1 = 0
(input terminals open circuited) in the above equations. Thus

𝑉1
ℎ11 = | | = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = ℎ𝑖
𝐼1 𝑉2 =0

𝐼2
ℎ21 = | | = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = ℎ𝑓
𝐼1 𝑉2 =0

𝑉1
ℎ12 = | | = 𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = ℎ𝑟
𝑉2 𝐼1 =0

𝐼2
ℎ22 = | | = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = ℎ𝑜
𝑉2 𝐼1 =0

ℎ𝑖 & ℎ𝑜 have dimensions of impedance and admittance respectively. ℎ𝑟 & ℎ𝑓 have no units. Hence the name
hybrid parameters.
Hybrid equivalent circuit for common emitter amplifier:
Figure shows the CE npn transistor amplifier circuit. 𝑅𝐵 is the input
resistance of the input signal and 𝑅𝐿 is the load resistance. The
general h-parameter expression becomes,

𝑉𝑖 = ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝐼𝑏 + ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑉0 … … … (1)

𝐼𝐶 = ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏 + ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑉0 … … … (2)

From equation (1), we get

ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖 − ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝐼𝑏 … … … (3)

The DC voltage of the collector w.r.to the emitter is given by

𝑉𝑐𝑒 + 𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝐿 − 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 0

𝑉𝑐𝑒 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐 − 𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝐿
𝑑𝑉𝑐𝑒 = −𝑅𝐿 𝑑𝐼𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑐𝑒 = −𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝐿
𝑉0 = −𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝐿
Electronics B.Sc. VI Semester ADBC, H Halli
Substituting the value of 𝑉0 in eqn (2), we get
𝐼𝐶 = ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏 − ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 𝐼𝑐

ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏 = ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 𝐼𝑐 + 𝐼𝐶
𝑅𝐿 𝐼𝑐 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐿
ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏 = + … … … (4)
1/ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿
Equation (3) indicates that the base-emitter circuit is equivalent to AC voltage source of ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑉0 and is connected
in series with the input resistance ℎ𝑖𝑒 .

Equation (4) indicates that the collector-emitter circuit is equivalent to current source which supplies a current
ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏 and in parallel of which are connected the output resistance 1/ℎ𝑜𝑒 and load resistance 𝑅𝐿 . Accordingly
the equivalent circuit is drawn as in below figure.

Expressions for Current gain, Voltage gain and power gain using h-parameters:
Hybrid equivalent circuit for common emitter amplifier is as shown in the above figure.
Current Gain: Let Z be the equivalent impedance of 1/ℎ𝑜𝑒 and 𝑅𝐿 in parallel. Then,
1 1 1 1 ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 + 1
= + = ℎ𝑜𝑒 + =
𝑍 1/ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿
𝑍=
ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 + 1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑍
𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝐿 = ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏 . 𝑍
𝑅𝐿
𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝐿 = ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏 .
ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 + 1
𝐼𝑐 ℎ𝑓𝑒
=
𝐼𝑏 ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 + 1
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑖𝑒 =
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
Electronics B.Sc. VI Semester ADBC, H Halli
𝑰𝒄 𝒉𝒇𝒆
∴ 𝑨𝒊𝒆 = =
𝑰𝒃 𝒉𝒐𝒆 𝑹𝑳 + 𝟏
Input impedance: The input impedance 𝒁𝒊𝒆 of the transistor is the input at the input terminals.
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑖
𝑍𝑖𝑒 = =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼𝑏
𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝑉𝑖 = ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝐼𝑏 + ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑉0

𝑉𝑖 = ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝐼𝑏 + ℎ𝑟𝑒 (−𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝐿 ) 𝑉0 = −𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝐿

𝑉𝑖 ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝐼𝑏 𝐼𝑐
𝑍𝑖𝑒 = = − ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝐿 ( )
𝐼𝑏 𝐼𝑏 𝐼𝑏
𝑍𝑖𝑒 = ℎ𝑖𝑒 − ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝐿 𝐴𝑖𝑒
𝑹𝑳 𝒉𝒓𝒆 𝒉𝒇𝒆
𝒁𝒊𝒆 = 𝒉𝒊𝒆 −
𝒉𝒐𝒆 𝑹𝑳 + 𝟏
Voltage Gain:
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉0
𝐴𝑉𝑒 = =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑖
𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝑉0 = −𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝐿
𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝐿 𝐼𝑐 𝐼𝑏
𝐴𝑉𝑒 = − = − . . 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑖 𝐼𝑏 𝑉𝑖
1
𝐴𝑉𝑒 = −𝐴𝑖𝑒 ( ) 𝑅𝐿
𝑍𝑖𝑒
Substituting the values of 𝐴𝑖𝑒 & 𝑍𝑖𝑒 , we get ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝐴𝑖𝑒 =
ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 + 1
𝐴𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑉𝑒 = − ( ) 𝑍𝑖𝑒 = ℎ𝑖𝑒 − ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝐿 𝐴𝑖𝑒
ℎ𝑖𝑒 − ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝐿 𝐴𝑖𝑒
− 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑉𝑒 =
ℎ𝑖𝑒
𝐴𝑖𝑒 − ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝐿
− 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑉𝑒 =
ℎ𝑖𝑒 (ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 + 1)
− ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝐿
ℎ𝑓𝑒
− ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑉𝑒 =
ℎ𝑖𝑒 (ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 + 1) − ℎ𝑓𝑒 ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝐿
− ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑉𝑒 =
ℎ𝑖𝑒 (ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 + 1) − ℎ𝑓𝑒 ℎ𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝐿
− ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑉𝑒 =
ℎ𝑖𝑒 + (ℎ𝑖𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑒 − ℎ𝑓𝑒 ℎ𝑟𝑒 )𝑅𝐿
− 𝒉𝒇𝒆 𝑹𝑳
𝑨𝑽𝒆 =
𝒉𝒊𝒆 + 𝑹𝑳 . ∆𝒉
Electronics B.Sc. VI Semester ADBC, H Halli
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∆ℎ = (ℎ𝑖𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑒 − ℎ𝑓𝑒 ℎ𝑟𝑒 ), the –ve sign indicates that the input anf the output are 180 out of phase.
0

Power Gain:
𝐴𝑝𝑒 = |𝐴𝑉𝑒 | × |𝐴𝑖𝑒 |

ℎ𝑓𝑒 2 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑝𝑒 =
(ℎ𝑖𝑒 + 𝑅𝐿 . ∆ℎ)(ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 + 1)
In actual practice ℎ𝑜𝑒 & ℎ𝑟𝑒 are very small quantities. That is, ℎ𝑜𝑒 < 1 & 𝑅𝐿 . ∆ℎ < ℎ𝑖𝑒

𝒉𝒇𝒆 𝟐 𝑹𝑳
∴ 𝑨𝒑𝒆 =
𝒉𝒊𝒆

Operational Amplifiers

The term operational amplifier (op-amp) was invented in 1947 by John.R.Rayazzini to denote special
type of amplifier. The term operational stands for mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication integration differentiation etc. op-amps have wide range of application such as wave shaping,
impedance transformation, analog-to-digital conversion, generation of wave forms, signal conditioning,
communications etc.

“An op-amp is a multistage high-gain, integrated circuit, with two high- impedance input terminals
and one low output- impedance terminal direct coupled amplifier capable of performing a large number of
linear and non-linear amplification and signal processing function”.

Op-amp is a voltage amplifier with extremely high gain. It can amplify dc as well as ac input signals.
Because of this high voltage gain, externally connected resistors must be used to provide negative feedback.

Op-amp Symbol and Terminals:

The schematic symbol of an op-amp with its different terminals is shown

in figure. The op-amp is symbolically represented by a triangle. The
triangle signifies amplification and points from input to output in the
direction of the signal flow.

All the op-amp have five basic terminals.

1. Two terminals for power supplies +𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑉𝑐𝑐 .

2. Two input terminals marked as inverting terminal and non-inverting terminal for input signals.
3. One terminal for output.

The Ideal op-amp: Op-amp is basically a dc amplifier whose function is amplify the difference between two
input signals. Therefore, op-amp is also known as difference amplifier. The difference between the voltages
at the noninverting input and the inverting input is known as the differential input voltage 𝑉𝑑 .
Electronics B.Sc. VI Semester ADBC, H Halli
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1

The complex action of the op-amp results in the amplification of the differential amplifier results in the
amplification of the differential input voltage, 𝑉𝑑 by a large gain factor A. the output voltage with respect to
ground is given by

𝑉0 = 𝐴𝑉𝑑 = 𝐴(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

Where A is known as the open-loop differential gain. In an ideal op-amp, the output voltage 𝑉0is directly
proportional to the difference between the two input signals.

Ideal op-amp characteristics:

1. The differential open-loop gain of an ideal op-amp is infinite.

2. The input impedance of an ideal op-amp is infinite.
3. The output impedance is zero for an ideal op-amp.
4. An ideal op-amp can amplify any frequency signal from zero to infinity without attenuation.
5. The output voltage of an ideal op-amp is zero when both inputs are equal.
6. The characteristics do not change with temperature.

Concept of virtual ground:

As the name indicates it is virtual, not real ground. For some purposes we can consider it as equivalent
to ground. In op-amps the term virtual ground means that the voltage at that particular node is almost
equal to ground voltage (0V). It is not physically connected to ground. This concept is very useful in analysis
of op-amp circuits and it will make a lot of calculations very simple.

Inverting amplifier:

An amplifier whose output voltage is out of phase by 1800 with respect to the input voltage, is known
as an inverting amplifier.

Consider an ideal op-amp. The circuit of an inverting amplifier using an op-amp is shown in figure.
The input signal, 𝑉𝑖 is applied to the inverting terminal of op-amp through a resistor, 𝑅1 , the non-inverting
Electronics B.Sc. VI Semester ADBC, H Halli
terminal is grounded. 𝑅𝑓 is the feedback resistor connected between the output and the inverting terminal of
op-amp. G is the virtual ground. A fraction of output voltage is feedback to the inverting input.

Let 𝐼𝑖 & 𝐼0 be the input current and output current flowing through 𝑅1 & 𝑅𝑓 as in figure. Since the
input impedance of the op-amp is infinite, no current enters the op-amp. Hence, the current 𝐼0 , flowing through
the feedback resistor, 𝑅𝑓 is equal in magnitude to that of 𝐼𝑖 . Therefore,

𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼0

𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝐺 𝑉𝐺 − 𝑉0
=
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓

𝑉𝑖 −𝑉0
= ∵ 𝑉𝐺 = 0
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓

𝑉0 𝑅𝑓
=−
𝑉𝑖 𝑅1

𝑹𝒇
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑮𝒂𝒊𝒏, 𝑨𝑽 = −
𝑹𝟏

Non-inverting amplifier:

An amplifier whose output voltage is in phase with input voltage is called the non-inverting
amplifier.

Consider an ideal op-amp. The circuit of non-inverting op-amp is shown in figure. The input signal,
𝑉𝑖 is applied to the non-inverting terminal of op-amp through a resistor, 𝑅1 , the inverting terminal is grounded.
𝑅𝑓 is the feedback resistor connected between the output and the inverting terminal of op-amp. A fraction of
output voltage is feedback to the inverting input.

Now, by applying Kirchhoff’s current law, we get

𝑉1 𝑉0 − 𝑉1
= … … … (1)
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
Electronics B.Sc. VI Semester ADBC, H Halli
Let us assume the input voltage applied to the non-inverting terminal is 𝑉𝑖 . Now, if we assume that the op-
amp in the circuit is ideal op-amp, then,
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑖

Therefore equation (1) can be written as,

𝑉𝑖 𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑖
=
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓

𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑖
𝑅1

𝑅𝑓
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑖
𝑅1

𝑅𝑓
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖 (1 + )
𝑅1

𝑉0 𝑅𝑓
= (1 + )
𝑉𝑖 𝑅1

Therefore the closed loop gain of the circuit is,

𝑹𝒇
𝑨𝑽 = (𝟏 + )
𝑹𝟏

This term does not contain any negative parts. Hence, it proves that the input signal to the circuit gets
amplified without changing its polarity at the output.

Applications of op-amp: op-amps are used in a wide variety of applications in electronics. Some of the
more common applications are

1. As a Voltage follower (Buffer Amplifier)

2. As a Summing amplifier
3. As a Subtractor (Difference Amplifier)
4. As a Differentiator
5. As a Integrator.

Oscillators

An oscillator is an electronic circuit that converts direct voltage (dc) into alternating voltage (ac) of a
desired frequency and magnitude without the use of any externally applied input signal.

An oscillator requires the following circuit conditions to produce oscillation:

 A transistor (op-amp) in a circuit to generate oscillations.

Electronics B.Sc. VI Semester ADBC, H Halli
 An oscillatory or tank circuit containing either L and C or R and C to produce oscillations.
 A feedback circuit, to supply the energy to the tank circuit to sustain the output without the need for a
signal from a preceding stage.
The block diagram of an oscillator circuit is shown in figure. The oscillatory circuit produces
oscillations that are amplified by the amplifier. A portion of the
amplifier’s voltage is feedback to the oscillatory circuit in correct
magnitude and phase by the feedback network. Thus, losses that
occur in the tank circuit are continuously supplied and hence, un-
damped electrical oscillations are produced.

Introduction to Feedback:

The phenomenon of feeding a portion of the output signal back to the input circuit is known as
feedback. The effect results in a dependence between the output and the input and an effective control can be
obtained in the working of the circuit. Feedback is of two types. (1) Negative Feedback and (2) Positive
Feedback.

Negative or Degenerate feedback:

• In negative feedback, the feedback energy (voltage or current), is out of phase with the input signal and thus
opposes it.

• Negative feedback reduces gain of the amplifier. It also reduce distortion, noise and instability.

• This feedback increases bandwidth and improves input and output impedances.

• Due to these advantages, the negative feedback is frequently used in amplifiers.

Positive or regenerate feedback:

• In positive feedback, the feedback energy (voltage or currents), is in phase with the input signal. Positive
feedback increases gain of the amplifier also increases distortion, noise and instability.

• Because of these disadvantages, positive feedback is seldom employed in amplifiers. But the positive
feedback is used in oscillators.

Let 𝐴𝑉 be the voltage gain of the amplifier in the absence of

feedback. Feedback is then applied by feeding a portion 𝛽 of the
output voltage, the signal voltage, 𝑉𝑖 and the feedback voltage,
𝛽𝑉0, that is, a total of (𝑉𝑖 + 𝛽𝑉0 ). This total input voltage
Electronics B.Sc. VI Semester ADBC, H Halli
amplified by the gain, 𝐴𝑉 of the amplifier, must be equal to the output voltage. Thus,

(𝑉𝑖 + 𝛽𝑉0 ) × 𝐴𝑉 = 𝑉0

𝐴𝑉 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉0 (1 − 𝐴𝑉 𝛽)

Therefore, the voltage gain with positive feedback is

𝑽𝟎 𝑨𝑽
𝑨𝑽𝒇 = =
𝑽𝒊 (𝟏 − 𝑨𝑽 𝜷)

Barkhausen Criteria:

• The condition 𝐴𝑉 𝛽 = 1 is known as Barkhausen criteria. It implies (1) Magnitude of the loop gain 𝐴𝑉 𝛽 = 1
(2) Phase shift over the loop = 0 or 360 degrees.

• Frequency of the noise in the amplifier for which this criteria are satisfied, is the frequency of oscillations.

• By applying this criteria, we can even find the values of transistor parameters, like gain, required for setting
in oscillations.

Wien bridge oscillator:

The Wein bridge oscillator is widely used for

variable frequency in the range of 5 Hz to 1 MHz
laboratory instrument called signal generator. The
circuit diagram is as shown in figure. It consists of a
lead-lag circuit called a feedback circuit. It acts as a
resonant circuit. The feedback network consists of
𝑅1 − 𝐶1, 𝑅2 − 𝐶2 (called a lead-lag network) and
𝑅3 − 𝑅4 (called a voltage divider circuit that is feedback path). The output of op-amp is connected as the
bridge input at points A and C. The bridge circuit output at points B and D is the input to the op-amp. It uses
positive and negative feedback because there are two paths for feedback. There is a path for positive feedback
from the output through the lead-lag circuit to the non-inverting input. There is also a path for negative
feedback from the output through the voltage divider (𝑅3 − 𝑅4 ) to the inverting input.

The positive feedback helps the oscillations to build up when the power is switched on. After the output
signal reaches the desired level, the negative feedback reduces the loop gain 𝐴𝑉 𝛽 to 1. The output of the
amplifier is fed to the feedback circuit. When the bridge is balanced, the total phase shift is zero. The balanced
1
condition occurs at one frequency. The expression for the frequency is given by 𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

When 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅 & 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 𝐶, then voltage gain with feedback 𝐴𝑉 = 3. Therefore, the feedback
fraction 𝛽 = 1/3.
Electronics B.Sc. VI Semester ADBC, H Halli
1
Note: The Wein Bridge is sometimes referred as a notch filter circuit. The notch frequency is 𝑓𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑅𝐶

Phase shift oscillator:

The circuit diagram of phase shift oscillator using an

op-amp is shown in figure. It consists of an amplifier
stage and a feedback network. The potentiometer is
provided in place of 𝑅𝑓 so that it can be adjusted to get
a perfectly distortion less output.

The phase shift circuit or the feedback network

consists of three identical RC sections. Each RC
section produces a phase shift of 600 . Therefore the net phase shift of the feedback network is 600 × 3 =
1800 . The op-amp is used in inverting mode and it provides a phase shift of 1800 . The total phase shift
between the input and output circuit is 3600 𝑜𝑟 00 . Hence, the feedback is positive. This condition is satisfied
only at a particular frequency, called the frequency of oscillations and is given by

1
𝑓=
2𝜋𝑅𝐶√6

The value of the feedback fraction of the 𝑅𝐶 phase shift network is 𝛽 = 1/29, where 𝛽 = 𝑅𝑖 /𝑅𝑓 .
Hence, the gain of the amplifier must be equal to 29 so that loop gain 𝐴𝑉 𝛽 may be equal to 1.

Multivibrator

A multivibrator is an electronic circuit that is used to implement a two state system like flip-flops,
timers and oscillators. Multivibrators are classified into three types based on the circuit operation, namely
Astable multivibrators, Bistable multivibrators and Monostable multivibrators. The Astable multivibrator is
not stable and it repeatedly switches from one state to the other. In Monostable multivibrator, one state is
stable and remaining state is unstable. A trigger pulse is the root to the circuit to enter the unstable state. When
the circuit enters into the unstable state, then it will return to the normal state after a fixed time. A Bistable
mutivibrator circuit is stable that can be changed from one stable to other stable by an external trigger pulse.
This multivibrator circuit is also called as flip-flop which can be used to store one bit of data.
Astable multivibrator-Circuit Operation (usingIC555):
Circuit: Astable multivibrator is also called as Free Running Multivibrator. It has no stable states and
continuously switches between the two states without application of any external trigger. The IC 555 can be
made to work as an astable multivibrator with the addition of three external components: two resistors (R1 and
R2) and a capacitor (C). The schematic of the IC 555 as an astable multivibrator along with the three external
components is shown in figure.
Electronics B.Sc. VI Semester ADBC, H Halli

The pins 2 and 6 are connected and hence there is no need for an
external trigger pulse. It will self-trigger and act as a free running
multivibrator (oscillator). The rest of the connections are as follows:
pin 8 is connected to supply voltage (VCC). Pin 3 is the output terminal
and hence the output is available at this pin. Pin 4 is the external reset
pin. A momentary low on this pin will reset the timer. Hence, when not
in use, pin 4 is usually tied to VCC.
The control voltage applied at pin 5 will change the threshold voltage level. But for normal use, pin 5 is
connected to ground via a capacitor (usually 0.01µF), so the external noise from the terminal is filtered out.
Pin 1 is ground terminal. The timing circuit that determines the width of the output pulse is made up of R 1,
R2 and C.
Operations:

The following schematic depicts the internal circuit of the IC 555 operating in astable mode. The RC
timing circuit incorporates R1, R2 and C. Initially, on power-up, the flip-flop is RESET (and hence the output
of the timer is low). As a result, the discharge transistor is driven to saturation (as it is connected to Q’). The
capacitor C of the timing circuit is connected at Pin 7 of the IC 555 and will discharge through the transistor.
The output of the timer at this point is low. The voltage across the capacitor is nothing but the trigger voltage.
So, while discharging, if the capacitor voltage becomes less than 1/3 VCC, which is the reference voltage to
trigger comparator (comparator 2), the output of the comparator 2 will become high. This will SET the flip-
flop and hence the output of the timer at pin 3 goes to HIGH. This high output will turn OFF the transistor.
As a result, the capacitor C starts charging through the resistors R1 and R2. Now, the capacitor voltage is same
as the threshold voltage (as pin 6 is connected to the capacitor resistor junction). While charging, the capacitor
voltage increases exponentially towards VCC and the moment it crosses 2/3 VCC, which is the reference voltage
to threshold comparator (comparator 1), its output becomes high. As a result, the flip-flop is RESET. The
output of the timer falls to LOW. This low output will once again turn on the transistor which provides a
discharge path to the capacitor. Hence the capacitor C will discharge through the resistor R 2. And hence the
Electronics B.Sc. VI Semester ADBC, H Halli
cycle continues. Thus, when the capacitor is charging, the voltage across the capacitor rises exponentially and
the output voltage at pin 3 is high. Similarly, when the capacitor is discharging, the voltage across the capacitor
falls exponentially and the output voltage at pin 3 is low. The shape of the output waveform is a train of
rectangular pulses. The waveforms of capacitor voltage and the output in the astable mode are shown below.
While charging, the capacitor charges through the resistors R1 and R2. Therefore the charging time constant
is (R1 + R2) C as the total resistance in the charging path is R1 + R2. While discharging, the capacitor discharges
through the resistor R2 only. Hence, the discharge time constant is R2C.

*********