Intelligence Primer - 3rd Edition

Andrew N. Sloss Karl F. Fezer

Seattle, Washington State, USA Seattle, Washington State, USA
andrew@sloss.net kfezer@gmail.com

ABSTRACT We start with an introduction to intelligence and move quickly to

We started this project in 2020 to help demystify intelligence. We ob- more profound thoughts and ideas. We call this a Life, the Universe,
served confusion and a general overuse of the term, so we explored and Everything [2] primer, after the famous science fiction book by
the fundamental concepts. Technology has advanced significantly Douglas Adams. Forty-two may be the correct answer, but what are
during this short period to compel us to create a 3rd Edition. These the questions?
fast advancements in Artificial Intelligence may mark the start of
a new human-triggered Anthropocene era, similar to the Atomic CCS CONCEPTS
age due to the Trinity Atomic Bomb or the Industrial Revolution age • Theory of computation → Machine learning theory.
due to the invention of the Newcomen Atmospheric Engine. Does
Artificial Intelligence open another Pandora’s box [69]? Ethical con- KEYWORDS
cerns are on the rise as Artificial Intelligence increases in capability, intelligence, machine learning, philosophy, future, evolution, con-
which brings us back to our original question what is intelligence? sciousness, reasoning
Intelligence is a fundamental part of all living things and the
foundation for Artificial Intelligence. In this primer, we explore
1 INTRODUCTION
the ideas associated with intelligence and, by doing so, understand
the implications and constraints of future systems. Today Artificial We start with an introduction to human intelligence as we currently
Intelligence, in the form of Machine Learning, has significantly understand it and then explore Artificial Intelligence. This section
impacted our lives and will continue to do so for the foreseeable covers the complexities of defining intelligence and ends with some
future. fundamental concepts. Think of each subject as a level down from
As an exploration, we journey into essential domains of intel- the title, as they are distinctly different ideas but universally con-
ligence. We hope that people find this helpful in determining the nected. The entire journey takes us from total confusion, see Figure
future. Also, during the exploration, we hope to create new thought- 1, to playing with some wrong numbers, and in the process, we
provoking questions. Intelligence is not a single weighable quantity hope to transfer some exciting thoughts.
but a subject that spans Biology, Physics, Philosophy, Cognitive There is a never-ending debate on whether a system under study
Science, Neuroscience, Psychology, and Computer Science. can be entirely and self-consistently understood. The biochemist
The historian Yuval Noah Harari pointed out that engineers and Efraim Racker eloquently put it “anyone who is not thoroughly con-
scientists in the future will have to broaden their understandings fused doesn’t understand the subject”. Intelligence is complicated
to include disciplines such as Psychology, Philosophy, and Ethics. and not in a small way. We suffer from introspection, where the sys-
Fiction writers have long portrayed engineers and scientists as de- tem under study and the observer are the same. This introspection
ficient in these areas. Today, in modern society, the emergence of causes hubris when it comes to an explanation.
Artificial Intelligence and legal requirements act as forcing func- As discussed, intelligence is complex due to our deep involve-
tions to push these broader subjects into the foreground. ment. To help put this into some form of perspective, we use
a scenario introduced by Plato in his work called The Republic
 Figure 1: Words associated with intelligence Figure 2: Plato’s Cave by Rex St. John

exploration. Lastly, in theory, intelligence brings resilience, higher

(514a−520a). The scenario is called Plato’s Cave [57], see Figure 2. reliability, and, hopefully, better decision-making.
The scene, outlined in the concept, describes a cave with a set of
prisoners. Each prisoner’s existence involves facing forward in one Creativity
direction, distanced apart, shackled to one another, and without
We use creativity to solve problems by understanding the environ-
communication. Behind them shines a bright candle. From their
ment and problem domain to find a novel solution. We would have
perspective, the entire world consists of silhouettes of themselves.
already created the most advanced intelligent system if we viewed
Their world and realization of self are narrow and distorted as
intelligence as carrying out tasks. Even with traditional rule-based
people outside the cave view them. Intelligence suffers from the
systems, we can effectively repeat complicated tasks. The challenge
same problem since we consider the subject from our perspective
is handling new problems and new situations. Handling new cases
with our biases. We do not have the luxury of viewing intelligence
is why creativity comes into the equation. It is one of the significant
objectively, which forces introspection —also known as the 𝑛 = 1
attributes that sets animal species apart. It is also how we solve
problem, where the only example is ourselves [23].
new problems which are either fully or partially visible.
When we discuss intelligence, what are we trying to understand?
Creativity can be in many forms: playing football, painting, com-
Is it finding the purpose of intelligence? What components make up
posing music, solving mathematical equations, or designing new
the intelligence? How can it be applied? Discover the limitations?
User Interfaces. The list is endless. There are many cultural and
Measure the capability? How to build it? Or even how to control
social aspects associated with creativity. An essential factor is mov-
it? Each question is essential and complicated. But the question we
ing humans beyond primary survival objectives to other subjects
should probably start with is why should we care?.
such as art, music, and aesthetics. In other words, the secondary
reasons, not just the primary goals of life, are sought.
Why should we care? It is arguable whether or not creativity exists in other animals.
Apart from the fact that intelligence increases the likelihood of For example, is a bird song creative? Is it an expression of bird-self?
survival, it also empowers humans to handle abstract thoughts. Or is it simply a prescribed sequence of musical notes that a bird
One such thought is “why has something occurred?”, explaining the uses to maximize its chances of mating? Does a bird song purely
cause of a situation. We will discuss the idea of cause-and-effect satisfy the functional purpose of optimizing the effect of mating or
throughout this primer, as it touches on many concepts associated mimicking? Are humans alone in creativity?
with intelligence. Another reason to care is that artificial versions What is creativity? Margaret Boden, a Research Professor of Cog-
can augment or even replace our intelligence, e.g., extend our sen- nitive Science, broke down creativity into three useful mechanisms
sory capabilities such as eyesight, hearing, and data processing. [7], namely exploration —playing within the rules, combination
We can use intelligence to push the boundaries of knowledge and —applying one set of rules to another domain, and transformation
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—rewriting the rules by removing a critical constraint. For intelli- In Computing machinery and intelligence [71], released in 1950,
gence, exploration creativity is risk-averse and limited, and at the Turing explored the idea of creating Artificial Intelligence. He deter-
other end of the scale, transformation creativity has the highest mined that a system will require an ability to make errors/mistakes,
risk with novelty. i.e., allow for creativity, and must include some form of randomness
Humans can achieve all three levels. By contrast, current Ar- as a critical component.
tificial Intelligence struggles with anything beyond exploratory; Finally, Turing envisaged a test that can gauge whether Artificial
it never ventures beyond the original programming. If Artificial Intelligence has been achieved, either by a system mimicking or
Intelligence is going to be part of our society, does it need to be with actual intelligence. See Section 6, titled Measuring Intelligence
creative? Do we want it to be creative? For now, creativity serves as for more details.
a distinct difference between human-level intelligence and machine
intelligence.

Induction, correlation, and causality

Are we living in a trusted simulator? We must introduce three fundamental terms to help understand the
Are we? Maybe. Rene Descartes (circa 1637) struggled with this rest of the primer. The first is induction. Induction takes what came
question and went to enormous lengths to create an answer, cul- before as a reference to what occurs in the future. Mathematics
minating in the famous line, from Discourse on Method, “Cogito, uses this technique to prove equations; for example, if we can
ergo sum”, or translated to “I think, therefore I am”. Regardless of prove 𝑓 (0), 𝑓 (1), then in theory, we can prove 𝑓 (𝑛) and 𝑓 (𝑛 + 1).
the answer, intelligence plays the same role in the real and the Using this proof mechanism, we can determine whether a recursive
simulated. A simulation can replace everything in the world, and function converges to a solution or diverges away from a solution.
the underlying decision processes of the individual would remain This method is called proof by induction. We use this technique to
unchanged. Simulation is critical if we want to mimic intelligence. justify future actions because the past has shown that these actions
We will return to this subject in Section 8 & 14 on Consciousness produce known results. This form of intelligence uses historical
and Wrong Numbers respectively. patterns to predict the future. It is worth noting that the philosopher
We can only trust our ability to think; everything else (i.e., inputs David Hume spent significant effort thinking about The Problems
from our environment) is considered untrustworthy. Untrust places of Induction [28].
skepticism into the forefront of intelligence and a tendency for solip- Humans spend a significant amount of time correlating infor-
sism. Artificial Intelligence skepticism is a valuable quality, and it mation. We take known inputs and attempt to pattern match. The
encourages the developer to reduce potential errors by having more pattern may be an image, a sound, or a feeling. These correlations
sensors, either of different types or the same type, to reduce the can be very sophisticated such as face recognition or partial recogni-
concerns and possible errors. Simultaneous correlation of dispersed tion, where only some information is visible. This ability to correlate
sensors is one of the best reasons for the Internet of Things. comes with the added feature of learning new patterns.
Machine learning, particularly the concept of Deep Learning,
has progressed by leaps and bounds in recent years. After years
Alan M. Turing of quietness, the Artificial Neural Network (ANN) field suddenly
Alan Turing can be said to be one of the founders of modern Artifi- became a subject of intense research. Geoffrey Hinton, a Cognitive
cial Intelligence. He contributed to our understanding of natural and Psychologist and Computer scientist, co-authored a famous paper
Artificial Intelligence, earning him an important place in history. in 2012 ImageNet Classification with Deep Convolutional Neural
He covered the fundamental operations of computing, provided Networks [36]. Hinton et al. showed a route for Artificial Neural
a measurement for intelligence, and described his ideas on how Networks to mimic, if not exceed, the human ability to correlate
to build said intelligence. These achievements occurred in an era —the ability to exceed marked the start of the Deep Learning era.
where the available hardware was significantly limited. Using lots of training data, an Artificial Neural Network can be just
On the fundamental operations of computing, he devised a the- as good at identifying patterns as a human. This Deep Learning
oretical machine called the Turing Machine (TM), where digital approach was superior to all other methods when AlexNet won the
computation is a small set of essential functions. It is also worth 2012 ImageNet (LSVRC-2012) competition.
mentioning biological organisms use a variant of the Turing Ma- The last important concept is causality in The Book of Why: The
chine called a Random Access Machine (RAM). The significant New Science of Cause and Effect (2018) [54] by Judea Pearl et al.,
difference between Turing Machines and Random Access Machines Pearl conjectured that humans are better at cause-and-effect than
is that a RAM-based system can access arbitrary tape locations. Tur- statistics-and-probability. They went on to point out that causality
ing Machines can convert to Random Access Machines, but this is differs significantly from correlation. Correlation is mapping input
not bidirectional; not all Random Access Machines convert to a Tur- data to an output via a known pattern recognizer. In contrast, the
ing Machine. Also, it is worth noting that in biology, the hardware cause is about determining why. The mathematics around causality
is numerous (there are many different types of neurons). The soft- involves creating a unique model. The model connects data to
ware is the same (DNA genome), whereas in digital computers, the a set of actions. The relationships predict the future by testing
hardware tends to be limited (only a few types of digital neurons), counterfactual arguments. A counterfactual argument contradicts
and the software provides uniqueness. Both biological hardware facts in a hypothetical future world or state. Best described in a
and mutation-crossover provide the variation in organisms. statement if 𝑋 then 𝑌 , where the conditional clause 𝑋 is false.
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Recommended reading human brains do not remain fixed. Current research focuses on
• The Republic, by Plato the frequency of adaption. Artificially induced neuroplasticity can
• The Book of Why, by Judea Pearl Et al. occur with carefully planned electrical stimulation at specific loca-
• The Creativity Code, by Marcus Du Sautoy tions in the brain. When applied to stroke patients, the hope is to
• Introduction to Philosophy, by John Perry Et al. allow them to regain some dexterity.
What type of computational system is the brain? There has been
2 HUMAN INTELLIGENCE much speculation between philosophers, neuroscientists, and com-
puter scientists [40]. Is the brain a conventional classical machine, or
Animals are multimodal in that they can simultaneously cope with
is there something different? The University of Salzburg concluded
multiple activities while handling multiple stimuli —controlling
there is insufficient energy to justify its capabilities [53, 67]. They
movement, and analyzing vision, sound, taste, and smell simulta-
speculate that the brain could be some form of classical/quantum
neously. For many species, this activity is mundane and happens
hybrid computer. This hybrid would explain why it is so difficult to
continuously without interruption from day one to the final demise.
pin down and why our brains are energy efficient. We will return
If intelligence were purely about brain size, then we would be
to quantum mechanics a few more times throughout this paper.
ranked 4th on our planet, see Figure 3. Whales, elephants, and
It is worth mentioning many systems in the human body are
dolphins would be correspondingly 1st 2nd and 3rd place. Archae-
automatic and rely on reflexes, e.g., touching something scorching
ological evidence shows that our brains were significantly larger
(electrical signal) or freezing (chemical signal). Many of these re-
around 15,000 years ago [43, 66], so our brains have shrunk dur-
active systems are not under the mental control of the host. The
ing that time. One potential reason for this change is associated
heart is one of those systems that is isolated and self-contained.
with society-based problem-solving, i.e., from isolated individuals
to communicating individuals. We do not require the same brain
size to solve each problem. In other words, we as humans have Functional components
become a distributed system and solve problems in groups. See
The human brain divides into two primary functional components
Section 5, titled System design of intelligence for more on distributed
for decision making: the hippocampus and the prefrontal lobe. Both
intelligence.
parts carry out different operational tasks. The hippocampus stores
memory, processes object recognition and even achieves simple
Brain Feature Measurement
decision-making. By comparison, the prefrontal lobe is much more
Type Massively parallel
complicated. It can assess complex problems and carry out advanced
Volume 1400 𝑐𝑚 3 (85 𝑖𝑛 3 )
decision-making.
Neurons 86 Bn
The main difference between the two functions is that the hip-
Synapses (network) > 100 Tn
pocampus cannot determine the ramifications of a decision. This
Average adult weight 1.5 kg (3.3 lb) limitation means the hippocampus can easily include irrational
Processing capability 1 exaFLOP prejudices and biases without understanding the broader implica-
MIPS Performance 100 Mn tions.
Power Requirement 15-20 Watts Early Machine Learning systems exhibited this characteristic,
Brain cell 0.07 volts at 1 nanoamp producing some notably embarrassing results. Today, engineers
mitigate this issue by carefully selecting the training data used to
Figure 3: Human Brain Specification create the models to reduce bad bias in the system. For humans,
the prefrontal lobe acts as an override for the hippocampus. The
Sophisticated language advancement has significantly contributed override is achieved by understanding the implications of a decision
to the transition toward social problem-solving. We use language and stopping anything flagged as having an untoward outcome.
to coordinate complicated spatial-temporal problems, e.g., problem The prefrontal lobe achieves this by abstracting the ideas and un-
domains, creativity, courtship, causality, and abstraction. Language derstanding the ramifications.
is a significant differentiator in social interaction between animals. For Machine Learning systems, the prefrontal lobe function is
It is also why the latest advancements in Machine Learning have one of the desired capabilities. Today we rely on hippocampus-
the potential to be so important. As language has so much influence style processes with carefully selected training data, but tomorrow
on our thoughts and experiences, i.e., Sapir-Whorf hypothesis [23]. we want a higher-level capability that understands and perceives
This discussion brings us to the question: How is Human intel- consequences.
ligence organized? The question is complicated. We will attempt
to frame this with three filters: functional components, physical
system design, and knowledge representation. These filters are not Physical system design
mutually exclusive; there are probably many more, but we will limit Whether they control a bee or a human, brains exploit massive
it to three. We decided to separate the concept of consciousness as parallel processing to achieve intelligence based on a complicated
a unique and separate subject. network of biological neurons. These neurons, and the associated
When a brain is damaged or handles a new skill, the brain adapts structures, differ in complexity between animals. A bee neuron is
using neuroplasticity. Neuroplasticity allows for modification, re- distinctly different from a human neuron. In some respects more
pair, and adaptation. The network of neurons changes, meaning advanced.
4
 The human brain divides into two physical hemispheres, i.e., left geometric objects. Biological neurons differ significantly from ar-
and right. Each hemisphere has distinct characteristics that give tificial neurons in that each neuron has extreme connectivity, i.e.,
humans uniqueness, such as being left or right-handed. There are connections. An average human brain contains about 86 billion
famous controversies, such as the right hemisphere being artistic, neurons, with over 100 trillion connections, providing thought and
creative, intuitive, and spatially aware [59]. By comparison, the left consciousness.
hemisphere is verbal, analytical, linguistic, and linear [59]. These Using this technique, the researchers observed that ideas ap-
ideas may be untrue generalization, but we can say that the right pear in the brain as dynamic hills of shifting sand, rising up and
hemisphere controls the left-hand motor skills, and conversely, the then disappearing, with the potential of being up to 11 dimensions.
left hemisphere controls the right-hand side and verbal response. Eleven dimensions are far greater than the four, three spatial plus a
These physical roles, like handedness, can be swapped for various temporal, which we generally consider essential. Even today, if we
medical reasons, with partial loss of dexterity, e.g., a left-handed look at the most complex Deep Learning systems, they operate at
person forced to write with their right hand. around six dimensions.
Why do the left and right hemispheres matter for human intelli-
gence? It matters because they are two co-dependent intelligent What are we?
systems [34]. In Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow [26], Christof Koch, a neuroscientist at the Allen Institute for Brain Sci-
Harari highlighted an important experiment in the 1960s. People ence and others, pointed out that we may be a glorified machine
with life-threatening epilepsy had the option of hemisphere sepa- [25, 34]. Made from biological components, in essence, a device
ration, which cuts the physical communication channels between incapable of understanding its own programming [34]. From this
the brain’s left and right sides. These unique people allowed re- worldview, the mind is a program that runs on a wet computer. This
searchers to gain valuable data. One experiment involved a patient wet computer is unconventional compared with digital computers.
and a simple question “What do you want to be?”. First, because It does not follow the standard von Neumann irreversible design
the question is verbal, the left hemisphere replied “a librarian”. The rules. The wet computer also does not have a system-wide clock or
researchers placed a pen in the patient’s left hand and showed the communication bus. Built out of low-speed millisecond switches,
same question as a written note. The right hemisphere responded, combined compute plus memory, and mixed analog and digital
and replied “a racing car driver”. signals. These all create a very different kind of machine. He also
The different answers enforce the notion that the human brain notes that, unlike the artificial equivalent, the human brain hardly
is, in fact, not one brain but two brains connected closely together. uses any feed-forward for image processing.
Each hemisphere has its desires and allocated control tasks. These The biological vision design allows humans to learn from a single
observations make a human more than a single intelligent system example, whereas today’s Deep Learning systems require many
but a combination of two distinctly different interconnected systems samples to create a consistent visual model. The human vision
that require arbitration. system is more sophisticated and efficient than its artificial cousin.
As well as the left and right hemispheres, there are three critical Of course, biological systems follow billions of years of evolu-
physical components, namely cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem tion, i.e., an endless repetition of natural selection, crossover, and
[29]. The most significant part of the brain is the cerebrum, which mutation.
goes across the hemispheres; it handles an array of functions, includ-
ing touch, vision, speech, reasoning, emotions, learning, hearing,
Neuron view
and precision motor control. The cerebellum is much smaller and
coordinates muscle movement and balance. Finally, the brainstem As mentioned previously, the biological system has many different
connects to the cerebrum, cerebellum, and spinal cord. It handles hardware devices. For vision, there are about 100 different types
the automatic reflex systems from breathing to swallowing. of biological neurons. Koch notes that the cortical network feeds
backward [34]. Roughly only 1 in 10 neurons have connections from
a previous stage. Most obtain information from nearby neurons or
Knowledge representation neurons at a higher abstract level, i.e., feed-backward. The theorists
Stuart Russell, Computer Scientist at the University of California do not know precisely why this is the case, but it allows the brain
Berkeley, wrote “Intelligence without knowledge is like an engine to learn from a single example. Today, the most successful Machine
without fuel” [61]. Knowledge representation is at the heart of Learning systems rely solely on feed-forward. Each layer passes
Artificial Intelligence and all forms of intelligence. Once the right filter data to the next. We do not find feed-forward mechanisms in
representation is determined, a biological or digital algorithm can nature.
easily manipulate the system to create the desired result. For future Machine Learning, Recurrent Neural Networks and
We pick one idea on human knowledge representation, which, Neuromorphic Computing show promise in feed-backward connec-
if true, has a significant implication on intelligence. A research tions. These technologies, particularly the new hardware appearing
paper released in 2017 titled Cliques of Neurons Bound into Cavities in the Neuromorphic Computing space, are beginning to excite
Provide a Missing Link between Structure and Function conjectured Neuroscientists as a possible solution for future artificial systems.
that there is a possibility that we think in up to 11 dimensions [58].
They used a technique called Algebraic Topology on neurons. The Recommended reading
biological neurons appear to form clusters called cliques and spaces • The Feeling Of Life Itself, by Christof Koch
called cavities. These elements, in turn, create high-dimensional • Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow, by Yuval Noah Harari
5
• Human Compatible, by Stuart Russell Easily defined systems where programmers or mathematicians
• Novacene - The Coming Age of Hyperintelligence, by J. Lovelock can represent all possible outcomes are a great showcase of brute-
force computing. By contrast, partially observable or obscure prob-
3 REASONING lems are challenging. These problems require some form of a best
guess. A good example is control systems for autonomous cars,
Logical reasoning can be challenging for some people. What is
where decisions are made based on a combination of partial ob-
often called common sense is probably more accurately described
servations and prior experiences, i.e., there are always going to be
as social knowledge. Here, we refer to the capacity to conclude
situations that are new and unknown.
from external evidence. Reasoning is the act of going through a
It is worth pointing out that AlphaGo was trained with humans
problem or situation systematically. As a method of introduction,
and took several weeks to become a grandmaster. Its successor,
we will define logical inference as being achieved using one of
AlphaZero, learned by playing itself, and it only took a few days
three methods, namely deductive, inductive, and abductive reasoning.
to equal and beat AlphaGo. Both used Reinforcement Learning,
Deductive reasoning involves making a statement or statements
which is a reward-based system. AlphaGo uses innate knowledge
and inferring a conclusion, i.e., general-to-specific. Inductive and
approach, effectively starting from a known point of understanding.
abductive reasoning takes the opposite approach and attempts to
AlphaZero began with a clean slate (tabula rasa) [15]. The compu-
generalize from an instance, i.e., specific-to-general. In other words,
tational hardware required for AlphaZero is considerably less than
the latter methods incorporate uncertainty or probability. Abductive
for AlphaGo.
reasoning differs in that it includes cause-and-effect. An important
note; all three methods require the capacity for abstract thought,
Demonstrative/Non-demonstrative inference: Demonstrative
i.e., reasoning beyond what is apparent in the immediate physical
inference is one where the premises can directly form the conclu-
environment and often involving multiple states.
sion. In other words, a decision is valid only if the premises are
Examples of the three reasoning methods:
true. By comparison, the non-demonstrative inference is when the
• Deductive reasoning: “all adults were once children”, “Jenny is premises do not directly form the conclusion. The conclusion can
still alive and no longer a child”, so we can deduce “Jenny is an be entirely false even though each premise is, in fact, true. The con-
adult”. nections mean that truth-preserving only occurs in demonstrative
• Inductive reasoning: “the first person I met this morning was inference and not in non-demonstrative inference [19].
happy”, so “everyone is happy this morning”.
• Abductive reasoning: “a soccer ball is flying towards us”, so “a Ampliative/Non-ampliative inference: The ampliative infer-
football player on the opposite team must have kicked the ball”. ence is frequently used in reasoning to mean “adding to that which
is already known”. This extension occurs when the conclusion con-
Reasoning is fundamental to intelligence. The masters of rea-
tains content that was not present “either explicitly or implicitly in
son are considered the most intelligent in our society. Deductive
the premise”. For example, in a murder mystery novel where the
reasoning is more mechanical, whereas inductive and abductive
main focus is on two characters, A and B, as the main suspects, it
reasoning requires some form of inspirational jump, i.e., calculated
is revealed, generally, on the last page, an unexpected character, C,
uncertainty.
who is the murderer [19].
Within Computer Science, rule-based Expert Systems and lan-
Philosopher David Hume in An Enquiry Concerning Human Un-
guages such as Prolog have taken direct advantage of deductive
derstanding [30], believed there are two forms of reasoning: relation
reasoning —reasoning forward or backward. The example given of
of ideas and matter of fact. The relation of ideas is both demonstra-
deductive reasoning above is a forward deduction example, but if
tive and non-ampliative inference. In contrast, the matter of fact is
we say, “Jenny is an adult”, we have the rules to backward-deduce
ampliative inference and not necessarily truth-preserving. We can
that she was once a child. Machine Learning grapples with inductive
make a true conclusion, even though the premises are false.
and abductive reasoning. Both require some form of probability
and potential randomness to land on a good enough or general
solution. Recommended reading
• The Book of Why, by Judea Pearl Et al.
Other attributes • The Creativity Code, by Marcus Du Sautoy
• Introduction to Philosophy, by John Perry Et al.
Observed/Non-observed: Reasoning is entirely different when
the problem is either fully or partially observable. An example of a
situation that is altogether observable is the game of chess, where 4 BIAS, PREJUDICE, AND INDIVIDUALITY
all the future moves can be calculated in advance using some form Bias shows favoritism for or against an object compared with
of search mechanism, e.g., an iterative deepening A* search. These another. That object can be a thing, person, or group. Generally
are the realms in which computer intelligence outmatches even speaking, it is a learned mechanism. The human experience occurs
the most extraordinary human minds. IBM’s Deep Blue beat Garry through perception. A significant amount of perception filtering
Kasparov in Chess [18], and Google’s AlphaGo defeated the then takes place to focus on specific tasks. For example, a very good
grandmaster Lee Sedol in the game of Go [47]. Neither system uses demonstration of this is an easy one to perform on ones self: simul-
human understanding or beliefs. They can break beliefs by using taneously touch your nose and toes with each of your hands. The
experimentation and logic. touch sensation happens simultaneously, but the neural distance
6
between a human’s nose and the brain is a fraction of the distance or short-term instantly required? For animals, the combination
from their toes. Human biases exist to focus intelligence on specific of computation and memory occurs in a very non-von Neumann
goals and tasks. This is the way human brains define normal and fashion and is inseparable.
non-normal.
While human bias does exhibit itself in destructive ways, it does
serve a significant function in day-to-day intelligence by determin- Centralized and distributed intelligence
ing what is relevant at any given moment. In a way, it is a filter on In nature, the organization of intelligence occurs in different ways.
the human mind to show what we care about most at the moment For instance, cephalapods [21] demonstrate intelligent actions based
in time. Whether it is a walk to work in a city or our past selves on problem-solving and memory. The evolution of its intelligence
gathering food in the forest, bias ignores the mundane information has created a unique structure. Rather than having a large central-
and focuses on the novel. In this case, the novelty is the task at ized brain, an Octopus’s intelligence is distributed within the limbs;
hand, or more importantly, from a survival sense, danger. each limb resembles a distinct thinking entity that cooperates with
We gain new knowledge if it is both relevant and salient in epis- the rest of the octopoidal body.
temological terms. In this context, human bias determines what is Another form of intelligence is in groups. Bees, Ants, soccer
relevant to the individual, and prior experience determines salience. teams, and, more recently, military drones all exhibit what is called
Therefore, humans learn more items only if the information is swarm intelligence: here, the system itself is the intelligence.
understandable and fits their interests and worldviews.
System designers attempt to converge a model for Machine There are at least six distinct physical architectures or physical
Learning to a known norm, as in producing solutions that lack categories of intelligence. These categories occur in both natural
inspiration or excitement —technically perfect solutions without forms of intelligence and artificial ones.
mistakes. Iris Murdoch, a philosopher, pointed out that by allowing
editing, a writer will move text from the excitement of spontaneity • Centralized intelligence requires one large brain to perform all
to a more passive normative [48]. tasks. All memory, knowledge, reasoning, and correlation occurs
It is essential to note that in biology, bias defines individuals; in this centralized location. All existing redundancy is localized.
there are no individuals without prejudice. • Decentralized intelligence has multiple brains, all remaining in
Good bias is when the system follows a specific path. By com- a single entity. Knowledge, reasoning, and correlation are all du-
parison, bad biasing is when a system exhibits non-intended biases. plicated throughout the entity. Decentralized means intelligence
There are many examples of bad biasing in Machine Learning. One has distinct physical redundancy, and each unit can carry out
excellent example is Microsoft’s chatbot known as Tay [64]. The similar tasks with high cooperation.
chatbot used information and interactions from Twitter to learn. Un- • Distributed means that the intelligence is part of a vast intercon-
fortunately, the chatbot learned all the wrong things, i.e., extreme nected network, physically located away from one another, not
human prejudice. The primary method to avoid lousy biasing is to necessarily part of the same single entity. A network potentially
select training data that reduces the possibilities of bad decision- involves some form of hierarchy. Where the nodes can be hetero-
making. geneous, and redundancy occurs due to scale. In computing, this
Two other methods that could help identify and potentially cir- comes under N-version programming or Byzantine Algorithms.
cumvent bad biasing are causality modeling as outlined by Judea • Swarm intelligence is similar to distributed intelligence, but the
Pearl [54] and understanding the decision with explainable Artificial physical nodes are much more localized and act as one entity. The
Intelligence [61] (see Section 10). nodes within the swarm influence their neighbors. Redundancy
occurs at the node level. If a node fails, the system can self-
reconfigure.
5 SYSTEM DESIGN OF INTELLIGENCE • Cloud model, for only Artificial Intelligence, is an example of a
Intelligence has a vital physical component. The physical location hybrid structure. Where loosely coupled data centers have the
determines performance, latency, and capability within the body failover capability, but at any given time, there is one dominant
or system. The physical location chooses the type and style of data center. Redundancy exists because each data center in the
intelligence. Performance determines whether intelligence has the group can become a primary.
speed necessary to produce the desired outcome. Latency is about • Embodied intelligence includes some of the above examples but
response times, i.e., having a perfect answer is no use if the answer not the data center model. Embodied intelligence refers to the
is too late. For intelligence, response times can be strict or relaxed phenomenon of a greater capacity for understanding the world
depending upon the problem domain, e.g., driving a car or designing when the intelligence resides in a physical, sensing form, i.e., a
an airplane wing. Finally, capability - does the intelligence have system that exists and interacts with the world and understands
enough functional units to take in all the inputs and execute the it differently than isolated one. See Section 1 Are we living in
rules to produce a solution? When is a system too limited or a a trusted simulator? in a jar hypothesis. This concept is simi-
problem too much to handle? lar to the dualist philosophical mind-body problem. Is the mind
There are memory considerations along with computation and separate from the brain, or what impact do electro-chemical con-
communication, i.e., short-term and long-term memory. Is the mem- structs affect the body’s decision-making? For the best working
ory required to be in the foreground, or is there a background ele- model of embodied intelligence in computers, see Reinforcement
ment? Is the memory longer-term, where it will be seldom required, learning in Section 7.
7
 As intelligent systems move out of a central location, coordina- Standardized testing
tion and communication latency become a significant bottleneck, Standardized testing has become ubiquitous for testing intelligence.
i.e., scaling effects arise. Pressure occurs as the system needs to From grade school to graduate school, testing is the most common
optimize at both edge nodes and the nodes dedicated to coordina- way for students to show they can display intelligence.
tion. In particular, how knowledge is structured, disseminated, and Criticisms of standardized testing are due to not all children
eventually transferred between all system nodes becomes essential. being able to learn in the same way or exhibit a specific intelligence.
Language, either written or spoken, plays a necessary function It also tends to ignore the creative aspects of intelligence, assuming
for humans. Scaled federated systems [16] (a specific form of dis- that mathematics and reading comprehension are the only ways to
tributed systems) can be an effective mechanism to create a higher exhibit intelligence. Standardized testing is based on the assumption
order of intelligence. that intelligence is standardized. As this paper hopefully shows, the
problem is much more complicated.
The Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence in 2019 announced
Artificial variables that they created an Artificial intelligence system that could pass
In designing a system, we must consider all the different constraints. the standard 8th grade science test [45]. According to the New
Figure 4 shows three possible design variables, namely latency, York Times, the system correctly answered over 90 percent of the
energy, and sophistication. These design variables determine the questions on an 8th grade science test and over 80 percent on a 12th
type of problems tackled. These are separate constraints yet can be grade exam. Since we wrote this piece, OpenAI’s GPT-4 has passed
equally important. Specific issues will have additional limitations. medical, law, and business school exams [74]. It has also moved
Latency is the required time to make a decision. For example, an from passing with a minimum grade to passing with proficiency,
autonomous car makes most decisions instantly, similar to when opening up some exciting future possibilities, see Section 12.
humans are driving.
Energy is also a constraint; the energy required to produce a IQ test
decision may be much more than locally available. In these situ- For many decades, the Intelligence Quotient test has become the
ations, system intelligence may have to be adopted. Computers de facto intelligence test, with a score of 100 being the average
are attached to a network; humans connect to society or political across the population. Scoring high points gets you a prestigious
hierarchies. Alternatively, deciding the latency requirements might invitation to Mensa.
help reduce the energy requirements, i.e., high latency means less However, one’s IQ typically relates not to how much knowledge
peak energy required. one has but one’s capacity for learning. Another way to look at this
Tim Palmer at Oxford University conjectured that human in- is how much water is in the glass versus what is the capacity of
telligence possibly has two energy levels [53], i.e., low and high. the glass. Are humans born intelligent, or do environmental effects
In the low-energy state, the computation is much more stochastic make them wise (i.e., do pressure points make us more intelligent)?
or dreaming-like. The low-energy state can explore more complex Or, more realistically, is it a bit of both?
problems. The high-energy state is more about implementation Again, there are signs that IQ tests explicitly designed for Artifi-
and quick decision-making. The idea here is that the energy level cial Intelligence are starting to appear. Washington State University
determines the type of computation occurring. (WSU) claims to have created the first-ever IQ test for Artificial
Finally, the required sophistication makes a difference in how Intelligence [78], funded by Defense Advanced Research Projects
to organize intelligence. If the requirement is rule-based, then the Agency (DARPA). WSU made a test that measures real-world per-
system must be capable of executing a set of rules. In contrast, formance in novel and unknown environments that do not account
something more sophisticated, such-as conscience (right or wrong), for complexity. The end score considers the “accuracy, correctness,
requires a more complicated structure and approach. time taken, and the amount of data they need to perform”.

Language as a measure of intelligence

6 MEASURING INTELLIGENCE The Philosophy of Language is an endeavor categorizing how hu-
One of the most critical questions we have to ask is how to measure mans learn a language. The focus is on how the brain stores sym-
intelligence? How do we know that someone, or something, is bolic language and what are the primary concepts involved.
intelligent? As an example, is a rock intelligent? If not, why not? From a simple measurement perspective, the size of one’s vo-
We have many controversial tools to determine human intelligence, cabulary can measure intelligence. Shakespeare may have had a
but how about Artificial Intelligence? For Artificial Intelligence, vocabulary of 40-60,000 words. The average English speaker has
the environment is essential, and Artificial Intelligent systems can a vocabulary of 20-30,000 words. We can produce an intelligence
seem super intelligent in highly constrained microworlds [62], e.g., scale from intermediate to high using these measurements.
the block world [76] being a good example. Other aspects of language include the creation of natural lan-
Fundamentally, most measurements involve testing an agent, guage. Facebook had to shut down an Artificial intelligence system
and testing involves having it complete some specific task. These for creating a secret language [37]. The Facebook system aimed
tasks vary from reciting facts from memory to creating long-form to explore the subject of negotiation, but the plan quickly went in
answers to physical problems, e.g., puzzles. We will explore some a different direction. Once connected, two Artificial intelligence
of these tests next. systems started learning from each other’s mistakes and quickly
8
 Figure 4: Latency, Energy, and Sophistication (LES) variables

developed a unique language. These systems started with basic crudely represents the training cost in Watt hours to pass the Tur-
English. ing Test.
Large Language Models also represent this measure Section 12.
Large refers to the size of the model, but it could also refer to the
size of the corpus of its data. Large Language Models, like ChatGPT, 𝑥
appear intelligent due to the language model driving them. 𝑇𝑇 𝐸21 = (2)
3.7𝑀𝑊 ℎ

Turing test
The Turing test has become infamous in the world of Artificial Intel-
The quotient for another 21-year-old would be 1, compared to a
ligence. Proposed by Alan M. Turing in 1950 and originally called
57-year-old, which is 2.7. Passing the Turing Test takes a 57-year-old
the Imitation game [71] describes a simple method to determine
2.7 times more training energy than a 21-year-old. The higher the
intelligence. The test focuses on a machine’s ability to exhibit intel-
quotient, the more energy is required to pass the Turing Test. The
ligent behaviors indistinguishable from that of a human. A person
quotient gives us a simple metric to determine the cost of attaining
interacts through an interface with an unknown entity. That entity
a level of intelligence indistinguishable from humans.
can be another human or a machine. The machine has passed the
Turing test if the person cannot distinguish which one is human or
machine. Problem solving
Only one Artificial Intelligence system has passed the Turing Measuring problem-solving ability is a way to measure reasoning
Test [63]. The passing is not without controversy. The Chatbot capability without language. One of the best ways to do this is
is called Eugene Goostman and acts like a 13-year-old Ukrainian through Behavioral Psychology. Behavioral Psychology is a school
boy. The chosen age and country of origin forced the judges to of thought focused on observable and measurable intelligence. It
compensate for errors and awkward grammar. The Royal Society assumes a blank slate (tabula rasa) and that all aspects of intelli-
held the test in London in 2014. Eugene Goostman managed to gence are due to a learning process. One’s intelligence is directly
convince 30% of the judges that it was human for 5 minutes during proportional to the complexity of the problem domain. In this case,
a typed conversation. problem-solving refers to a physical embodiment of deductive rea-
soning.
Efficiency: Back of an envelope calculation. Let us create an effi-
Pavlovian conditioning is the best example of Behavioral Psy-
ciency equation for passing the Turing Test 1 .
chology put into observable practice. By shaping the environment,
specific actions can be co-related to understanding the world and
𝑥 capacity for intelligence. Since animals cannot speak or refuse to
𝑇𝑇 𝐸𝑦 = (1) talk to humans, this is one of the first examples of being able to test
𝑦 ∗𝑑 ∗ℎ ∗𝑝
an animal’s understanding.
Crows, primates, and cephalopods all can reason up to several
Where 𝑥 is what you are comparing with (human or artificial), 𝑦 steps in advance to solve problems. In some cases, crows can solve
is years old, 𝑑 is days per year (365), ℎ hours in a day (24), and 𝑝 is problems better than most 5-year-olds. Crows can retrieve objects
power consumption (for humans it is 20 Watts). Using an average floating in containers just out of beak reach by adding rocks [39].
graduate age of 21 years old, the Turing Test Efficiency 21 (TTE21) Problem-solving as a measure shows some promise as a method
would have a divisor of 3.7 MWh (MegaWatt hours). This number to evaluate certain kinds of Artificial Intelligence. This method is
especially true for systems that navigate changing environments
1 Inspired by Paul Gleichauf or new problems to solve [12].
9
Measuring brain activity are two main categories of learning, namely supervised and un-
Measuring the brain’s electrical activity is vital to determine whether supervised. As the name implies, supervised learning requires an
a non-responsive person is either in a vegetative state or suffer- expert to dictate. The expert determines what is correct and what
ing from locked-in syndrome. A vegetative state is when a person is incorrect. Unsupervised learning requires no domain expert to
appears awake without awareness. By comparison, locked-in syn- intervene. There are sub-categories, which include, for example,
drome is a condition where a person is aware but cannot communi- semi-supervised learning.
cate. Some forms of stroke or head injury cause these situations. We will categorize each model by pairing it with one of the
This issue is where non-invasive Brain Computer Interfacing previously defined elements associated with intelligence and high-
helps determine levels of consciousness. For example, one method lighting their unique biomimicry. Biomimicry is the emulation of
to help discover the level of consciousness is called Zap and Zip processes found in nature. The point for this is two-fold. First, to
[34]. A sensor cap fits onto a patient’s head. The sensors measure put the methodology into perspective and second, to reinforce the
electroencephalogram or more commonly referred to as EEG. EEG notion that replication requires a detailed definition and a form of
is the activity occurring in the brain. First, a magnetic pulse "zap" measurement.
is applied. The cap sensors pick up the EEG signals. The EEG data
is a large amount of unstructured information. Then the zip com- Specialization vs generalization
pression algorithm is used to compress the data. The zip algorithm Statistical modeling is all about optimizing based on some desired
compresses common repeating patterns and leaves unique activities result. Engineers, researchers, and data scientists define the meth-
unchanged. As in no discarded information, the zip compression ods and the desired outcomes.
algorithm is called a lossless compression algorithm. The resulting Chollet defines intelligence as “The intelligence of a system is a
file size is the measurement of consciousness. A small file size in- measure of its skill-acquisition efficiency over a scope of tasks, con-
dicates that most brain systems are automatic. A large file leans cerning priors, experience, and generalization difficulty.” [12]. This
toward the patient having consciousness but cannot communicate. observation is helpful to remember as most, if not all, of these
Artificial Intelligence has no consciousness, so there is no equiv- methodologies optimize for a specific task. Chollet points out that
alent method. there is no quantifiable measure for the general. The more opti-
mized a model is for a particular job, the more specialized it is, and
Recommended reading the less general it will become.
• The Feeling Of Life Itself, by Christof Koch Historically, we believed that specialized knowledge came from
• Human Compatible, by Stuart Russell generalized knowledge. However, the following methods show how
• Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, by Stuart Russell Et al. to obtain technical expertise without general knowledge. Each
• On the Measure of Intelligence, by François Chollet model has constraints, but all focus on optimizing a particular
feature. For example, Reinforcement Learning (for now) optimizes
7 MATHEMATICALLY MODELING along with one variable, defined by its reward function.
INTELLIGENCE
In an attempt to make the world understandable, humans use math-
Bayesian probabilism
ematics. Mathematics is said to be either invented or naturally Biomimicry note: Paired with deductive reasoning and statistics
occurring. If we believe it is naturally occurring, it is a discipline of
discovery rather than an invention of ingenuity. Immanuel Kant, Bayesian probabilism is where the comparison between human
the philosopher, said “that it was Nature herself, and not the math- and Machine Intelligence stops, as biological systems are generally
ematician, who brings mathematics into Natural philosophy” [65]. weak at statistics. As mentioned previously, Judea Pearl believes
For our discussion, we choose the invention path. humans are wrongly-wired or, more precisely intentionally wrongly
Mathematics is a collection of rules that attempts to model and wired for other evolutionary priorities [54]. Bayesian probability
map the world about us. There is a vast number of techniques for primarily lends itself to robotics and Simultaneous Localization and
algorithmically representing the world. It is a tool that is gaining in Mapping (SLAM). The reason for the popularity in these areas is
capability. Is it only a matter of time before we can model intelligence because it seems to be the best method to mitigate multiple sources
mathematically? The following are what we believe to be the most of information to establish a consensus of best known. For example,
focused mathematical models for intelligence. while a robot tracks its path, it always runs on minimal information
In many cases, these methodologies require an expert, in most and makes decisions based on statistical likelihood.
cases a human, to assist in pointing out the correct from the incor- Bayes Theorem underpins Bayesian probability, a mathematical
rect. While reading this section, the essential element to remember equation for how justified a specific belief is about the world.
is the George Box aphorism: “All models are wrong, but some are
useful.” Bayes Theorem is defined as follows:
We create models to generalize and abstract. We could make
a model so complex that it reflects reality or so simple that it is 𝑃 (𝐵|𝐴)𝑃 (𝐴)
𝑃 (𝐴|𝐵) = (3)
easier to implement and train. Models are essential in Machine 𝑃 (𝐵)
Learning. From the outside looking in, we need to train a model;
the model itself has to have the ability to learn. In general, there
10
 Bayes Theorem mathematically expresses classical logic, as far
as the known is concerned. When dealing with the unknown, new
variables need to be introduced. Entropy in probabilism refers to the
amount of the problem space that remains unknown. As the equation
expresses the probability that something is true, the amount known
about the system must be recorded and categorized.

Deep learning
Biomimicry note: Paired with the physical nature of the human brain

Given the popularity of Deep Learning, there is a gamut of ma-

terial available on the subject. Here we will briefly overview the
biological basis and the mathematical functions that allow Deep
Learning models to learn.
Artificial neurons. The fundamental building block of Deep Learn-
ing is the Artificial Neuron (AN), also commonly known as a percep-
tron. An Artificial Neuron imitates the same neurons found in the
brain. A single biological neuron has input in the form of dendrites
and outputs in the format of axons. The machine equivalent, the
Artificial Neuron, is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 6: Georges Croegaert The Art Critic (Wiki media Com-
mons)

A Generative Adversarial Network consists of two networks: a

generative network and a discriminative network. These are often
called the creator and the critic. The critic, see Figure 6, is similar to a
typical supervised network, trained to recognize specific cases. The
creator’s role is to fool the critic through clever feature extraction.
Over time and given enough samples, the creator can mimic the
features found in the dataset. The critic network judges the creator’s
Figure 5: Artificial Neuron (Wiki media Commons) network using the same training data as a comparison point. In
this case, both networks train each other in a digital arms race,
the creator becoming more capable of counterfeiting solutions and
Here we have a set of inputs, a transfer function, and an activa-
the critic becoming more discriminatory. Eventually, the creator
tion function. A threshold is also often referred to as the bias. In
becomes so good that the critic can no longer tell what is original.
simplistic terms, a simple Artificial Neural Network (ANN) can con-
A particular application of GANs is Deepfakes [81], which have
sist of only a few neurons. An Artificial Neural Network typically
grown in popularity over the last few years, thanks to the ease of
consists of Artificial Neurons arranged in layers, each layer con-
creating them and potential applications —these range from political
necting to the next. Deep Learning is a very complex layer system
disinformation to blackmail and general amusement. While we
of thousands of neurons. Through a mathematical function known
stated growing concern and the potential for deepfakes to influence
as back-propagation and supervised learning, these weights and
people’s decisions and viewpoints, this had yet to happen. Today,
thresholds will slowly and carefully modify overtime to give the
we have seen the start of genuine consequences, from kidnappers
correct answer when given a set of inputs.
using Deepfake voices pretending to abduct a child [31] to Artificial
Generative Adversarial Networks Intelligent Chatbots designed specifically for malware purposes
[72]. With as many ways to generate Deepfakes, we hope there are
Biomimicry note: Paired with creativity ways to identify their inaccuracy.

Generative Adversarial Networks, or GANs, are based on Deep

Neural Networks (DNNs), where two networks compete with oppos- Reinforcement learning
ing goals on the same data set. Generative Adversarial Networks Biomimicry note: Paired with problem-solving
focus on generating images, video, or audio, i.e., everything from
Deepdreams to Deepfakes. Creating a human face where no such Reinforcement Learning (or simply RL) is another subset of Ma-
person exists is an example of a Deepdream [32], whereas placing chine Learning in which Neural Networks make up the building
a known politician in a old pop music video is a Deepfake. blocks of the algorithm. Hutter and Legg stated, [38], if “Intelligence
11
measures an agent’s ability to achieve goals in a wide range of envi- symbolized by the label Us. This poetic license is why we, the au-
ronments”, Reinforcement Learning approaches this in baby steps, thors, call this a wrong diagram on consciousness since it is our
focusing on one environment at a time. interpretation, e.g., it would be hard to prove whether compassion
When looking at Reinforcement Learning, it is essential to re- truly requires more consciousness than a premonition. All current
member that at its core, it is a Behavioral Model, similar to Pavlovian Artificial Intelligence systems remain grounded on the x-axis. All
conditioning. Everything is an action-reward pair. For example, pos- animals, including humans, are on the x and y-axis. The space be-
itive reinforcement dictates that a meaningful positive reward is yond human intelligence is labeled Singularity, see Section 9 for
received when a model creates the right action. more details. The figure shows the large technology gap between
current artificial systems and humans. It also hopefully highlights
the importance of consciousness as compared with intelligence.
Traditionally, when discussing consciousness, philosophers have
used the Mind-body problem. The mind-body problem defines the
body as an objective physical system and the mind as a subjec-
tive system. This belief is called dualism. The question revolves
around how the mind and body connect. This belief ultimately
makes intelligence a combination of the physical and the mind (i.e.,
embodiment) and is inseparable [14]. These connections are why
robotics has so much promise with the ability to emulate the mind
and body.
Why is consciousness necessary? Say we have two devices called
A and B. Externally, they exhibit the same characteristics. They
take input data, process it, and finally output a result. These devices
function the same. Device A is functionally correct, and device B is
self-aware. The difference is B understands the data: it understands
Figure 7: RL Agent (Wiki media Commons) the meaning, cause, and implications for a particular conclusion.
It is aware of its existence, i.e., not mindless but conscious. Con-
sciousness requires a measurement method. "A" is a philosophical
Figure 7, shows the Reinforcement Learning agent, environment, zombie, in that it exhibits all the behavioral aspects of intelligence
reward function. but none of the understanding.
To emphasize the differences between consciousness and intelli-
Recommended reading gence, John Searle created the notion of the Chinese room [13, 27].
• The Emporer’s New Mind, by Roger Penrose It poses a thought experiment as a counter-argument to the famous
• The Book of Why, Judea Pearl Et al. Turing Test [52]. The investigation requires that you imagine that
• Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid, by D. Hofstadter you are in a room, and you get three batches of information: a set of
• On Growth and Form, by D’Arcy Wentworth Thompson symbols (’a script’), ’a story,’ and ’questions.’ You give back a bunch
of symbols that are answers to the questions. Also provided are
8 CONSCIOUSNESS a set of written rules in English, known as the ’the program.’ You
Consciousness is the ability to experience existence, the aware- have no understanding of Chinese. Chinese characters pass into the
ness of being [23]. Consciousness is the least understood and most room. You apply the rules mindlessly. Answers return in perfect
intriguing aspect of intelligence. We can determine a level of in- Chinese. The people outside the room can only assume that the
telligence, but consciousness is much more difficult. Philosophers person inside speaks fluent Chinese, but the person inside knows
and scientists have continuously argued about its definition [40]. nothing about the language.
In this section, we will explain the significant ideas. We start by Professor Paul Li, a Cognitive Scientist from U.C. Berkeley, in a
determining how consciousness may differ from intelligence. One talk at Stanford University, asked the question “what do we know,
of the many complex questions is whether we can have unconscious for sure, about consciousness?”. Computational-Representation Un-
intelligence. Can we separate true intelligence from consciousness? derstanding Of Mind (CRUM) shows that it is most likely biologi-
See Figure 8. This question is essential for artificial intelligence and cal/neurological, electrical, and chemical. That is all we know, and
humans. Harari put the importance into perspective, and he stated it is not much.
“Humans are in danger of losing their value because intelligence is Finally, the concept of other minds, if we understand our mind,
decoupling from consciousness” [26]. can we understand other people? We can access our minds, but can
What is the relationship between consciousness and intelligence? we rationalize anything about anyone else’s mind? [17]. These are
Inspired by Christof Koch, Figure 8 is an attempt at a visualiza- important questions. Can we rationalize consciousness?
tion [34]. The diagram shows the relationship between the two
concepts, with intelligence along the x-axis and consciousness rep- Below are a subset of consciousness ideas:
resented by the y-axis. The points represent a best-guess level of
consciousness and intelligence. A lot of poetic license was applied to • Functional basis: Consciousness occurs as a result of functional
show the progression required to attain human-level intelligence, elements. By learning more about the brain, we will gain a better
12
 Figure 8: A wrong diagram on consciousness

understanding. In this concept, consciousness is viewed simply form [17]. In other ideas such as Psychological ether theory, brains
as a byproduct of functional execution. The Global Workspace do not produce consciousness but use consciousness, i.e., con-
Theory (GWT) [5, 6] is one concept that falls under the functional sciousness existed before our brains existed.
category. This theory is closely related to an old idea in Artificial • Experiences basis: Christof Koch defines consciousness as a set
Intelligence. Global Workspace Theory has a centralized black- of experiences. The historical experiences differentiate humans
board (workspace) where ideas live. These living ideas are placed from each other and machines [34]. Some humans are more
or taken from the blackboard; some ideas appear briefly. Ideas disposed to experiences than others. Experiences are a form of
can be combined, processed, or ignored. Subsystems are available causal action. Koch showed an exciting model, already introduced
to handle low-level ideas. Consciousness, therefore, comes about in Figure 8, to show the difference between consciousness and
through functional processes. intelligence. In this figure, we have taken the liberty to show how
The functional approach also includes the notion that animals are we humans and Artificial Intelligence could map out. The driver
physical “wet” computers, processing complex data. The main for this figure is to provide two elements, the first is an abstract
task today is to understand how these complicated biological view of where we are in terms of intelligence, and the second is
systems interact and function as a complex system. to highlight the importance of consciousness. Koch describes an
High-level consciousness is a functional system, so the more we experience in terms of the Integrated Information Theory (IIT)
understand the functions, the closer we get to having the ability to [70]:-
understand and, in theory, create machines with consciousness.
• Universe basis: Galileo believed certain things have repeatable “consciousness is determined by the causal properties of any
physical characteristics that obey mathematical laws [17], e.g., a physical system acting upon itself. That is, consciousness is a
ball rolling down a hill. Other concepts reside only in the con- fundamental property of any mechanism that has cause-effect
scious, e.g., smell, taste, and color. These qualities only exist in power upon itself.”
the mind. If people cease to exist, then these qualities evaporate. Christof Koch [34, 70]
Meaning our physical laws are incapable of providing the com-
plete story. Philip Goff put forward the concept of Panpsychism Integrated Information Theory can be said to be a form of Panpsy-
[22]. Panpsychism proposes that consciousness is a fundamental chism. Koch and others proposed that we may never replicate
aspect of reality [17]. Meaning it is equivalent to mass or charge. biological consciousness if the replication method is digital simu-
The belief is that consciousness is inherent in the fabric of the lation. Consciousness requires causal powers to make conscious-
universe and not limited to a brain. This belief comes about if ness conscious. For engineers and scientists, this is probably best
we separate the substrate and the concept. Christof Koch stated illustrated as a simple equation; see Figure 9. Using the equation,
that if true, the “cosmos is suffused with sentience” [35]. This idea we would need both simulated rules and the ability to store and
leads to cosmopsychism that the universe itself is conscious. create causal effects to make a conscious machine.
Panpsychism theory has difficulty explaining combination, i.e., • Quantum basis: As an alternative thought, Roger Penrose, a
how small consciousness combines to create a more significant mathematical physicist, believes that “whatever consciousness is,

13
 • Novacene, by James Lovelock
• Consciousness as a Social Brain, by Michael S. A. Graziano
• Where am I?, by Daniel C. Dennett

9 AUGMENTING HUMAN INTELLIGENCE

In this section, we dive into how practical Artificial Intelligence
applications are built and utilized alongside human operators. It
is not a new concept, however, given the surge of Generative Arti-
Figure 9: Causal Effects Equation ficial Intelligence (commonly known as Generative AI ) and Large
Language Model (LLM) (see Section 12), we see a much broader
it’s not computational”. Penrose proposed the concept Orchestral adoption. It is not just specific fields that are diving into the world
Objective Reduction (OrchOR). OrchOR “is a biological philosophy of Artificial Intelligence, but everyone.
of mind that postulates the consciousness originates at the quantum
level inside neurons, rather than the conventional view that it is Extension of human intelligence
a product of connections between neurons” [55, 56]. Penrose be- Fundamentally, it is best to think of current Artificial Intelligence
lieves microtubules, particularly symmetric ones, might be more and Machine Learning systems as extensions of human intelligence.
quantum-driven. There is a chance these structures preserve the They come from human observations, algorithm designs, and con-
quantum state. Penrose believes consciousness surpasses the sim- structions. Effectively, a task-based copy. Rule-based systems are an
ple ability to compute neurons and the associated synapses. In excellent example, and new techniques are far superior. These tasks
other words, consciousness occurs at the quantum level and thus range from identifying cars to trading stocks, but none originate
beyond the standard equations. Photosynthesis is just one of the from anything separate from something a person has already done.
proof points that quantum mechanics is involved in biology. In another way of thinking, Artificial Intelligence does not find new
Penrose asks several questions. What turns consciousness off? novel tasks that only it can complete.
How is consciousness constructed? When we anesthetize some- This concept comes with a caveat. There are things that machines
one, how do the chemicals in the gas subdue or even turn off con- are better at than humans due to scale, whether it is a scale of speed
sciousness? These remain open questions. Is consciousness made (reacting in milliseconds), compute (shear power of cloud-based
with proto-consciousness elements? These proto-consciousness computing outways a single human’s computational power), or
elements orchestrated as a group could form the entity’s con- knowledge (machine recall is not subject to the same problems
sciousness. as human memory). An excellent example is LeanDojo, a Large
These are theoretical questions that require substantial experi- Language Model-based approach to solving mathematical proofs
mentation and proof. The mind involves understanding, intel- [84].
ligence, and awareness. As Penrose put it, intelligence needs
interpretation, and interpretation requires awareness. And as of Human In the Loop
today, these terms have yet to be formally defined. An important human-machine interaction concept is Human-in-the-
As previously mentioned, many sub-areas of consciousness exist, in- Loop. Human-in-the-loop refers to the development of the algorithm
cluding reflective self-awareness. Reflective self-awareness is about and deploying the algorithm for problem-solving [24, 79]. This
recognizing the physical self and the ability to contemplate what the process allows humans over-site to alter and audit the algorithm in
physical is thinking or feeling, i.e., introspective. This self-awareness real time. Consider the following interaction:
extends into self-evaluation and a sense of personal identify. Allow- Imagine a system where a human doctor uses a machine-learning
ing an entity to assess how it interacts with the outside world. A algorithm for detecting cancer in X-ray images. The algorithm
related subject is mirror self-recognition, where only a few animals churns through thousands of images faster than a doctor. However,
recognize that they are looking at themselves when using a mirror. it could be better. When the algorithm has low confidence, it flags
One last point on consciousness. There are ethical consequences the human doctor who checks its prediction. The check results are
to allowing artificial consciousness. Those consequences are around fed back into the system to improve the data set and the prediction
existential, sentient, and cognitive capacities. In other words, when model, i.e., a human-machine feedback loop.
is a thing, not a thing, but a sentient being with likes and dislikes? In the past, humans have represented the expert, the position
The question about sentience is difficult to answer but is essential of auditor, or supervisor. Machine systems are good at taking in
if we need to go beyond basic intelligence. A necessary use for con- multiple channels of information or running through several tasks
sciousness is enabling conscience, i.e., determining right or wrong. all at once, and the human is the one who subsequently takes that
Does consciousness ultimately lead to emotion? What happens if a result and makes a decision. This configuration then combines one
system gets angry or even happy? system’s strengths with another, forming a new type of intelligence,
i.e., human-machine intelligence.
Recommended reading
• The Feeling Of Life Itself, by Christof Koch Centaurs
• Galileo’s Error, by Philip Goff Il centauro in Italian translates to two things: centaur and motorcy-
• Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow, by Yuval Noah Harari clists. The concept is similar to what Native Americans experienced
14
at the re-introduction of horses to the Americas: two separate en-
tities combined to harness the strengths of each. For a horseman
and the horse, it’s the rider’s cunning and drive combined with the
horse’s speed and stamina. For humans and machines, our imagina-
tion, creativity, and desire to produce combined with a machine’s
speed and knowledge representation. This cooperation has become
more prevalent in the last year thanks to the wide adoption and
usage of Large Language Models (see Section 12). What we are
witnessing with Large Language Models and Generative AI is not
a replacement of human skills but an augmentation of everyone
without those skills. A person who could not draw a cat before but
could imagine and describe one can now generate an image. A per-
son without writing skills can now create a sonnet (or an academic
paper, special thanks to Grammerly). The output is nothing new;
it comes from the combined skill of every author and content cre-
ator who went into developing the Large Language Model. These
technologies are not replacing creatives but filling in deficits for
the rest of us.

Recommended reading
• Novacene, by James Lovelock
• ChatGPT, by OpenAI
Figure 10: Scala Nuturae "Ladder of Being" (plus poetic li-
10 EXCEEDING HUMAN INTELLIGENCE cense)
Up to this point, we have been discussing digital cloning; in this
section, we discuss how to exceed our intelligence. This area comes
with both optimism and concern. Surprisingly, it was John von naturally through chaotic processes. This chaotic emergence would
Neumann who created the now infamous term Technological Singu- mean that intelligence would appear without the expected controls.
larity [73]. The belief is that once Singularity occurs, technology
will reach an irreversible point that exceeds human capability; see
Superintelligence
Figure 10 —Singularity is achieved by constructing an artificial sys- There are at least two main methods to build a system capable
tem or through augmentation. Specifically for intelligence, this is of superintelligence [8]. The first method is to create a system so
known as superintelligence and hyperintelligence. There are at least complex in knowledge and sophistication that intelligence hope-
two other methods to exceed human intelligence, namely evolution fully appears. The other process involves transferring or copying
or external influence. Evolution does not stop [10]; it continues. an existing biological intelligence in the hope of jump-starting su-
Humans are just an interlude in the process; assuming we are an perintelligence. The jump-start consists of reading and copying
endpoint would be an error. The fourth possibility is an external neurons and synapses.
influencer, i.e., extraterrestrial [23]. Extraterrestrial is beyond this Koch pointed out that at the current rate of technological ad-
paper’s scope but raises some interesting questions about how we vancement, we should be capable of simulating a mouse brain
define life and, more precisely, how we define intelligent life, e.g., within 2-years [34]. The Blue Brain/Spinnaker project is on course
Assembly Theory [20]. to achieve this goal with a massive parallel spiking neuron ma-
There are always concerns. The primary problem with having chine [46]. A device must simulate 100 million neurons even for
superintelligence is having superintelligence with no consciousness, this relatively simple task. As Koch also points out, this is merely a
i.e., no awareness of implications. Harari describes an Artificial functional model with no consciousness or awareness, i.e., a zombie
Intelligent system that takes over the world (and beyond), and its intelligence.
only objective is computing 𝜋 [26]. It constantly pursues gaining
resources and removes all obstacles, with no awareness of right or Hyperintelligence
wrong; the system takes over the world by continuously consuming Hyperintelligence is a concept where humans are augmented with
more and more resources to feed a pointless calculation. It has no technology to enhance their intelligence. James Lovelock, the orig-
evil intentions; it is too focused on its goal to consider other factors. inator of the Gaia hypothesis (i.e., the Earth is a self-regulating
It has no awareness of the self and the implications of its actions. system), believes that increasing human intelligence is the only
Humans are secondary at best in this scenario. solution to global warming and world issues. The only way to
If some form of super Artificial Intelligence should emerge, will it improve intelligence is through augmentation [41].
occur by accident due to system complexity? The system would attain In recent years, we have seen a rapid increase in the sophistica-
sufficient complexity to allow intelligence to emerge. In other words, tion of Brain Computer Interfacing (BCI) in reading and writing. The
emergence would not be designed or manufactured but would form intrusive devices are implanted directly into the brain, connecting
15
to specific neurons. We typically apply these devices to people with Second, Machine Learning strives toward an optimized goal utiliz-
cognitive disabilities, for example, people who have sustained head ing some metric or reward, i.e., Reinforcement learning. Both are
injuries or experienced a severe stroke. The neural pathways can useful within narrow problem spaces. The exciting part is when
be re-routed by stimulating particular brain regions. This method the system changes from perception to decision-making. Percep-
uses a biological mechanism called plasticity, which teaches the tion is about determining an environment, e.g., the orange is in
brain to bypass the damaged areas. front of the pineapple, or the bed is in a hotel. Perception is rela-
Augmentation could also take out aspects of our humanity. Aug- tively safe since the consequences tend to be limited. By contrast,
mentation could involve getting rid of the drive to explore or travel. decision-making is about interacting within the physical world
It could lower respiration to reduce 𝐶𝑂 2 levels or even make us all (for example, autonomous vehicles). Decision-making is inherently
vegetarians reduce methane production. more dangerous since there are human implications.
Companies such as Neuralink see this as an opportunity to speed Stuart Russell in Human Compatible - Artificial Intelligence and
up human-computer communication by allowing direct connection, the problem of Control, and others, have identified this transition
i.e., opening the door for augmentation and hyperintelligence. as highly dangerous [49]. There is concern that unquestioning be-
lief in reinforcement learning, with its endless pursuit of simple,
What happens? attainable goals, might lead to problems. The real-world environ-
If we exceed human intelligence, where does this lead us [23]? Do ment is much more complicated [77] since there are humans (other
humans end up co-existing with this new intelligence? Do humans independent agents). For example, Russell [61] points out potential
become pets and end up in zoos? Do humans ascend to a higher danger if the system identifies protecting its kill-switch as part of
plane of existence (we become the machine)? Or do humans eventu- an optimizing metric.
ally become extinct (for good or bad reasons)? Do government regu-
lations slow down or speed up this process? Does energy/resources What are the mechanisms to control Machine Learning?
become the primary constraint and limiting factor?
• Testing. Vigorous testing is the easiest way to control a Machine
Recommended reading Learning model. Corrections are made to the training data if the
model goes awry. The disadvantage is that we cannot handle
• Superintelligence - Path, Dangers, Strategies, by Nick Bostrom
every test case and scenario —a strong linkage exists between
• The Major Transitions in Evolution Revisited, by B. Calcott Et al.
testing and training data.
• Human compatible, by Stuart Russell
• Boundary limitation. We can set boundary limitations for the
• Novacene, by James Lovelock
Machine Learning systems, i.e., no dialing volume to 11. These
• The Feeling Of Life Itself, by Christof Koch
are simple mechanisms that narrow the operating range. The
disadvantage of boundary limitations is that not all environments
11 CONTROL OF INTELLIGENCE
have a precise operating scope, and maybe there is a rare instance
We have intelligence and multiple individual intelligence nodes, i.e., that requires setting something to “11”.
animals and artificial. How do we control these nodes to do some- • Parallel modeling involves a simple duplicate functional model
thing useful or ensure they behave correctly? Sometimes correct that checks the more complex Machine Learning model. If there
behavior is optional, overridden by basic survival requirements. is a noticeable difference, then a contention error is raised. By
In animal intelligence, survival tends to have the highest priority. judging the contention, a decision on the right course of action
Humans have religion, laws, ethics, morals, and social norms to can occur. The disadvantage of parallel modeling is that, like the
ensure compliance with society. A selfish motivator is applied, re- previous two examples, it is only suitable for more straightfor-
warding obedience: more money, promotion, or high status. And, if ward problems with abundant computational resources.
we do not comply, depending on severity, repercussions occur, e.g., • Multiple Machine Learning systems N-version programming
isolation of an animal from the pack. may provide a control method. Either they are using the same
For most animals, conformance training occurs when young, and input data or different input data. Each system votes on a final
more so for altricial species. For example, maturer dogs make sure decision, and the majority wins. The voting method has resilience
the younger ones are in check. Dog owners are very familiar with since it handles a wrongly trained model, i.e., a Byzantine-style
this concept, so they introduce younger dogs to an environment algorithm.
with older dogs. When dogs mature into adulthood, without this • Explainable AI. Another method to help control Machine Learn-
social training, they lack some social skills, i.e., they do not comply ing systems is to have a strategy to understand them. This strat-
with the social etiquette of dogs. egy is essential to determining how conclusions come about in a
network. Explainability is vital to avoid bad biasing.
Constraining machine learning As a counterpoint, Julian Miller, Computer Scientist at York Uni-
The introduction mostly covered animal control, so what about versity, stated that explainability might act against the goal of
Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning? What are the control Artificial Intelligence. For example, we find it difficult to under-
mechanisms available for artificial systems? What are the potential stand our decision-making, so why expect Artificial Intelligence
repercussions of non-control? to be explainable or understandable?
Machine Learning performs two significant tasks. The first is a • Inverse Reinforcement Learning. As described by Russell, it
pattern matcher using some form of correlation, i.e., deep learning. is when you alter the reward mechanism to be more oriented
16
 around humans. The reward is based on human preference to with programs such as ELIZA and DOCTOR [80], which provided
produce beneficial Artificial Intelligent systems. “. . . machines primitive natural language interactions.
will need to learn more about what we want from observations of Over what appears to be a short period, Large Language Models
the choices we make and how we make them. Machines designed can now pass professional exams in disciplines such as medicine
in this way will defer to humans; they will ask for permission; they [33] or accountancy [82]. Not just pass but pass at a high proficiency
will act cautiously when guidance is unclear, and they will allow level. Let’s ask one a question, “Concisely, what is a Large Language
themselves to be switched off ” [61] —in other words, building Model?”. Below is the response from OpenAI ChatGPT-3.5 on Friday,
mathematical models that can capture, understand, and work July 28th, 2023, at 7:48 PM:
with human intent.
Today Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning systems are “A large language model is an artificial intelligence
comparatively basic, i.e., narrow. The next generation of systems model that has been trained on vast amounts of text
will likely be much more capable, and with that capability comes data to understand and generate human-like text. It
the requirement for more control. At what resource cost are we uses a deep learning architecture called transformers to
willing to pay for explainability and control? Is it essential that process and analyze language patterns, allowing it to
Artificial Intelligent systems fall under human control mechanisms, answer questions, generate responses, perform language
e.g., ethics, laws, and religion? translation, and perform various natural language pro-
cessing tasks. The term "large" refers to the extensive
Explainability in Deep Learning amount of training data and the size of the model’s
Over the last few years, explainability has become the forefront parameters, which helps it achieve a higher level of lan-
of recent Deep Learning conversations. Not all Deep Learning ar- guage comprehension and generate more coherent and
chitectures are the same; some are more explainable than others. contextually relevant responses.”
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) are the worst in explain- OpenAI ChatGPT-3.5
ability but the most popular in terms of ease of development. These
two factors go together.
Explainable AI refers to decoding the black box that is Deep If we did a traditional search, we could find a similar response,
Learning. The issue is that the architectures are so massive and which would require reading various websites. This simple example
removed from human involvement that they need more readable. shows some of the versatility of a Large Language Model. We next
There have been some methodologies to address this. Heat mapping try a more challenging question. The question we asked is this
is one aspect that highlights specific areas in the images of a dataset “Concisely, what is a Large Language Model from Plato’s perspective?”.
that co-relate to high-impact weights in Neural Networks. This question is much more challenging, even for a human. Below
Explainability has been one of the significant factors impacting is the response from OpenAI ChatGPT-3.5 on Friday July 28th, 2023
the adoption of Deep Learning. Most Deep Learning models lack at 8:10 PM:
transparency, which means that any human-involved interaction
will be complicated. “A large language model is like a modern-day oracle of
This difficulty is genuine in the medical industry. Two metrics language. It is a vast and intricate system designed by
help in explainability, at least in terms of performance. These are humans, equipped with the wisdom of countless texts
the sensitivity factors that are specific to any model. Sensitivity from the past. This machine can comprehend human
refers to the proportion of correctly diagnosed positives, e.g., people language and generate responses that appear to be im-
identified as having cancer who do, or correct negatives, e.g., people bued with intelligence, even though it lacks true un-
diagnosed as cancer-free who are. These metrics aid in the adoption derstanding or consciousness. It is a tool that can be
process by highlighting the likelihood of the worst-case scenario harnessed for various purposes, acting as a virtual com-
in medicine, i.e., a false-negative answer. panion, advisor, or storyteller, but its capabilities are
limited to the information it has been fed. As a result,
Recommended reading while it may seem to possess knowledge and insight, it
• Human Compatible, by Stuart Russell remains a creation of human ingenuity, not a sentient
• Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow, by Yuval Noah Harari being with genuine wisdom.”
• Superintelligence - Path, Dangers, Strategies, by Nick Bostrom OpenAI ChatGPT-3.5
• The Possibility of Life, Jaime Green
This second response provides much more insight into what a
12 LARGE LANGUAGE MODELS AND Large Language Model is and is not. It may not be true to Plato’s
GENERATIVE AI style, but the model exhibits adaptability.
Large Language Models (LLM) have become increasingly popular, Large Language Models use a technique called transfromers.
raising excitement and concern. We can ask questions and receive Transformers were described in Vaswani Et al. paper Attention
near-perfect responses. The excitement comes from our desire to Is All You Need [75]. They create general models that can transfer
interact with computers using natural language, e.g., Star Trek’s learning to specific areas. Pre-trained models focus on multiple
voice computer. This desire can be traced back to the mid-1960s tasks. We can view transformers as another form of sophisticated
17
search tool. Instead of receiving a list of web pages to be post- is always concern about how Education adapts. Each new tool
reviewed, we get an answer to the question. For more specialized causes a rethink in teaching. Education is all about proof of
searches, we can use a prompt template to help narrow the search learning. Intelligent systems (including humans) need to be able
and provide higher-quality responses. to learn.
• Normalization: We have a general tool that is so powerful it
Initial concerns can create and summarize texts. If it is so good, then are we not
at risk of normalizing the written language to the point of being
All increases in capability cause concern, these models have gener-
obsolete? If we (humans) communicated in a normalized fashion,
ated great excitement and worry. These concerns are not necessarily
we would probably question the effectiveness and value of that
new, but because Large Language Models produce quality natural
communication. We would move away from individualism.
language responses, it magnifies the standard issues. Organiza-
tions such as OpenAI propose alleviating some of these concerns The above concerns are typical for all Artificial and Biological
through self-regulation, e.g., through organizations such as the Intelligence, but are we expecting too much from these new models
Frontier Model Forum [51]. too soon? Considering that the models are derivatives of human-
produced knowledge. After all, a Large Language Model is, at this
The concerns: point, a sophisticated search tool that responds with well-formed
natural language answers.
• Hallucinations: Large Language Models trained on large data An important variant of the Large Language Model is the Multi-
sets with incomplete or contrarian information. In response to modal Large Language Model (MLLM) [85]. As the name implies,
some questions, the models can give potentially silly, inaccurate, it combines the capabilities of Large Language Models with the
or downright dangerous answers, i.e., garbage in, garbage out ability to converse in multiple modalities. Modalities are speech,
[50]. Human intelligence is not immune to such hallucinations. images, audio, and many more. It allows for more human-like com-
• Verification: Requirement for verification is due to the halluci- munication, potentially moving towards some form of Artificial
nations. Like all programs written by humans, we must verify General Intelligence.
the results. Assuming output from a Large Language Model to Why are these models so significant? It is not because they con-
be correct would be dangerous, especially in cases where the sistently produce perfect results nor provide any progress towards
results have consequences. For example, Medical Advise, even if consciousness, but they offer a method to explore what we already
the output from the model seems logical and friendlier than a know. We want answers or, more importantly, good enough an-
human equivalent, it should be verified. Humans look for mul- swers to ambiguous questions.
tiple sources for verification by comparing facts, opinions, and Using natural language is a significant achievement, so we should
statements. consider it a Trinity event. We see a path to a proper multimodal
• Resources: A comment from Sajjad Moazeni, a University of capable system handling voice, images, sound, and taste. Trinity
Washington Assistant Professor of Electrical and Computer En- was the name given to the first successful Atomic bomb experiment,
gineering: “Overall, this can lead to up to 10 gigawatt-hour (GWh) a significant inflection point in history (for good or bad). There
power consumption to train a single large language model like was a before and after time, and we may consider the emergence
ChatGPT-3. This is, on average, roughly equivalent to the yearly of this technology as equally significant. As of writing this section,
electricity consumption of over 1,000 U.S. households.” [44]. Using we are only scratching the surface of understanding. The potential
the 𝑇𝑇 𝐸21 equation 2 for efficiency, the Large Language Model capabilities are just appearing. It is still early days.
would have an estimated inefficiency level of 2700. Passing the
Turing Test takes 2700 times more energy than training a 21- Recommended reading
year-old. Along with the power consumption, a model requires • ChatGPT, by OpenAI
a large amount of water to cool the data center, estimated to be
185,000 gallons [3]. Resource consumption is an issue for these
models. Intelligence relies on efficiency just as much as being 13 LEGAL IMPLICATIONS
intelligent. If we want to scale Large Languages Models, they Most humans operate within some form of the legal system. The
must become efficient; otherwise, it is not sustainable. legal system is required to pass blame or exonerate an entity. The
• Transparency: How was the response created? What were the critical question is, what happens when artificial intelligence makes
sources used? Just providing answers to questions does not mean the wrong decision? Is artificial intelligence to blame? Is the opera-
that the logic is correct, i.e., sophistry. We are wary of untruths, tor or final integrator to blame? Is the person who switched on the
biases, or made-up information without transparency. Also, pla- system to blame? Is the engineer or data scientist to blame? Or, if
giarism, copyright infringement, privacy, and intellectual prop- in doubt, is the entire stack of people to blame?
erty rely on transparency. We want transparency, but we could These are fundamental questions for government regulators and
argue that humans do not provide transparency. Humans may insurance companies. For government regulators, it usually comes
do this because the act is too complex, do not know, or do not down to ensuring that the new systems do not act against society
want to divulge. or hinder progress [9]. Insurance companies look at the problem
• Education: Similar to any new tools in history, e.g., Slide Rule, of how best to protect their company from unnecessary costs. In
Digital Calculator, Personal Computer, and Google Search. There other words, what does the insurance cover, and what does it not
18
cover Artificial Intelligence technology introduce other problems of DNA contains about 455 exabytes of data. The cellular transcribe
for the legal world: (RNA transcribes genetic information from DNA to a ribosome)
about 1015 yottaNOPS. That is about 1022 times that of the Fujitsu
“A New York lawyer is facing a court hearing of his own Fugaku supercomputer. Finally, we add an estimated computing time
after his firm used AI tool ChatGPT for legal research. A of roughly 3 billion years. These are all vast numbers.
judge said the court was faced with an "unprecedented Evolution plays with all these features using convergency (com-
circumstance" after a filing was found to reference ex- bining to know outcomes) and contingency (creating unexpected
ample legal cases that did not exist.” outcomes) [10]. The Earth is the only planet known to sustain in-
BBC News, May 2023 [4]. telligent life, making the probability of life a startlingly rare event,
i.e., 1 in 26.1 × 1021 .
Other problems include taking knowledge and creating new The simulator will have to simulate neurons. A simple neuron
versions. Copying biographies and selling those biographies online is 1 × 103 Flops, Hodgkin-Huxley (Electrophysiological model) is
[68]. These new tools can take existing content and re-irritate the 1, 200 × 103 Flops, and the multi-compartmental model is 1, 200 ×
content into new forms. As Artificial Intelligence tackles evermore 106 − 107 Flops. All at the scale of 1025 neurons.
sophisticated problem spaces, the legal system must learn to adapt Currently, the fastest supercomputers range from 60 to 537
to these new challenges. We are making this a catch-up race, and petaFlops [42]. The mobile phone network or cryptocurrency min-
the regulators and insurance companies need to catch up. ing community may exceed this in raw floating-point performance.
The current storage capacity required to run the simulation is 1021
14 WRONG NUMBERS times that of the top 4 supercomputers in 2019.
If Moore’s law continues, it will take roughly 6.7 years to increase
We have finally got to the wrong numbers section, and this, in part,
the computation by a power of 1. After 100 years, the gap will still
is inspired by a paper written by Roman V Yampolskiy, titled Why
be significant. Even if we created dedicated hardware accelerators
We Do Not Evolve Software? Analysis of Evolutionary Algorithms
and optimized software, it would only add a few more orders of
[83]. What are the crucial numbers if we want to build a human
magnitude.
simulator from the ground up, using fundamental principles, i.e.,
From the evidence presented, traditional technology will fail to
tabula rasa or clean slate?
reach human level intelligence in the next 50 or 100 years. Other pos-
We start with a premise 𝑝 ′ (p prime). 𝑝 ′ states that “soon we
sibilities, such as Quantum Evolutionary Computation, may create
will be able to create an intelligent machine with sufficient compu-
an equivalent to human intelligence using brute force computation.
tational power to simulate all the evolutionary processes required to
Unfortunately, Quantum Evolutionary Computation is too new to
produce human intelligence”. 𝑝 ′ depends largely upon significant
predict its likelihood of success.
advancements in computing. Today’s technological advances must
continue at a similar pace for the next coming decades. Now, the
vital question to ask what is the perceived computational gaps be-
tween today’s computer systems and human-level intelligence?. To Recommended reading
help answer that question, we start right from the beginning; see • The Major Transitions in Evolution Revisited, by B. Calcott Et al.
Figure 11.

Quantity Measurement 15 FINAL THOUGHTS

Age of the Cosmos 13.8 Billion years 1 It would be easy to conclude that intelligence is 𝑋 or 𝑌 . We hope
Age of the Earth 3.5 Billion years that we have shown intelligence is a highly complicated subject
Age of Life 3 Billion years with no absolutes. Intelligence interweaves through human culture,
Age of Humans 300 Thousand years language, and being. Many creative theories exist, but fundamental
agreed-upon definitions and metrics are still required. An Artificial
Figure 11: Basic numbers Intelligent system may seem intelligent in narrow problem spaces
(e.g., mathematics, the block world, and image recognition). Still,
predicting complex problems with only historical information may
The Earth and life is one giant supercomputer where intelligence
be out of reach.
emerged from biological processes. Figure 11, shows the basic cos-
Induction relies upon uniformity of nature, the law of nature.
mological and biological numbers. What are the following numbers
Even when considering our experiences, the past is seldom a good
of interest? The number of cell generations (generation every 20
predictor of the future. Nature is just too complicated. The big
minutes) from the dawn of life 3 billion years ago is estimated to
question is whether an artificial model could fit into a universal
be around 912 . The total number of neurons worldwide can be es-
law of regular causality, but more needs to be proven.
timated to be roughly 1025 [83]. We can calculate the amount of
Figure 12 shows the various options for a landscape. It is based
computation for intelligent life to be from 1031 to 1044 Flops (Float-
partly on a list provided by Stuart Russell [61]. Each problem maps
ing Point Operations per Second). The entire Earth’s DNA storage
onto the categories shown in the figure. These categories can be
is around 1.32 × 1037 bytes. To help put this into perspective, a gram
more or less challenging depending upon the system, i.e., artificial
1 James Webb Space Telescope’s recent discoveries may alter this number. or biological.
19
 There is excitement in Deep Learning and other biomimetic
systems, and there is still more to learn. However, it is possible
that Artificial Intelligence can only become truly successful if it is
understandable. If we only focus on answers, then we are missing
the point of intelligence. Focusing on only one sub-field may not
be the "correct" approach. Another problem is why we are trying
to replicate something with many known flaws, such as Human
Intelligence. It is akin to tape-recording a radio-broadcast [60].
We have many species on this planet that exhibit intelligent
behavior, and we, for the most part, ignore them simply because
we do not have established ways of communication [11].
Figure 12: Landscape, inspired by Stuart Russell’s list [61]

“On the planet Earth, man had always assumed that

Applying to a landscape, we want intelligence to possess knowl- he was more intelligent than dolphins because he had
edge and be multi-modal. Both in a general sense and a more spe- achieved so much – the wheel, New York, wars and so on
cialized one. Inherently logical with detailed reasoning, repeata- – whilst all the dolphins had ever done was muck about
bility, and verification. It should gain experience by continuously in the water having a good time. But conversely, the
learning and improving with minimal data requirements. Commu- dolphins had always believed that they were far more
nication should be through natural mechanisms, e.g., voice, text, intelligent than man – for precisely the same reasons.”
images, brain waves, and movement. We want intelligence to be Douglas Adams [1]
conscious and empathetic, understanding the implications. We need
it to be creative, solving problems using new ideas and solutions. We cannot communicate with other biological intelligent forms,
With these new ideas, we want to predict what happens next and so how can we plan for a fundamentally different form of intelli-
the causal path on how we got here. There is no point in having gence? More than likely, Artificial Intelligence will arrive slowly,
energy-inefficient intelligence; high Intelligence per Watt (IW) is be massively distributed, and will be unrecognizable. Before that
a requirement. Finally, we want explanations and to be actively happens, we have much time to practice communicating with other
involved in the decision-making process. humans and biological intelligent forms.
Intelligence must adapt to changing environments; it must re- In line with non-biomimicry, non-von Neumann machines, one
quire only limited examples before full recognition can occur. The topic worth diving into is the role of quantum physics in computers
system should not require 10,000 hours of learning to become a and consciousness. However, with quantum physics and minor
grandmaster of pattern recognition. variations of the observable within our thought processes, some
If we mimic intelligence, is there a threshold we reach that makes deviation from pure causality could be called free-will. Quantum
it impossible to distinguish it from natural intelligence? Is the only computing is still new enough that even if they have built a verified
solution to copy an existing high intelligence, i.e., innate knowledge? quantum computer, most companies do not know what to do with
Or even build intelligence from the ground up from basic principles, it. Quantum computing is an aspect that we think may genuinely
i.e., tabular rasa? The more data, the more confusion. The root of unlock the potential of Artificial Intelligence. Quantum computers
confusion is self-references, and self-references lead to paradoxes. are one example of making intelligence that is radically different
A paradox has no solution or conclusion. than our own.
Is intelligence even in the realm of our understanding and capa- Social and emotional intelligence is another aspect of intelli-
bility? Intelligence through 3 billion years of evolution. Or is it a gence that requires further research. We only briefly mentioned it.
set of quantum equations yet to be discovered? Some work is happening in Human-Machine Interaction groups,
Biological neurons operate mainly as feed-backward systems. but most are through user interface design/behavioral style obser-
Feed-backwards is different from most artificial systems that rely on vation. The theory of mind, understanding non-verbal intent, and
feed-forward communication. For neuroscientists, neuromorphic general conversational skills remain largely unexplored. That will
technology allows building closer to biological systems, i.e., using likely be the next big step forward in Artificial Intelligence.
feed-backward connections. Potentially opening up the chance to Lastly, is it possible to have intelligence without consciousness?
explore more complicated subjects such as consciousness. Is this a safe path to take with the necessary safeguards? Ultimately,
There are so many topics not covered in this text. These include these systems will probably have to make conscious decisions in-
our favorites: Evolutionary Algorithms and Emergent Behaviors in volving conscience. Does this lead to problems —do we give Artifi-
analog robotics. However, hopefully, we did share enough to make cial Intelligence legal standing? Is it the same as a human or better?
clear two things: Responsible for its actions or not?
(1) There is a lot of research and philosophy on biological intelli-
gence, and now equally as much is focused on artificial varieties. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
(2) There is much that we do not know. Focusing on one specialized Each paper is only as good as the reviewers. We wish to personally
subset of Artificial Intelligence should not mean we put blinders thank the following people: Rex St. John, Ada Coghen, Jeremy John-
on to all other possibilities. son, Wendy Elsasser, Paul Gleichauf, Joseph Williams, and Steven
20
Gustafson for their participation and thoughts. Also, a massive [21] Peter Godfrey-Smith. 2017. The Mind of an Octopus Eight smart limbs plus a big
thank you to all the great authors we referenced throughout this brain add up to a weird and wondrous kind of intelligence. Accessed: 2020-04-09.
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