1.

The Scientific Method

 The scientific method is the process scientists use to conduct experiments and make
discoveries. It involves the following steps:
o Observation: Notice something in the world around you.
o Question: Ask a question about what you observe.
o Hypothesis: Make an educated guess (prediction) to answer the question.
o Experiment: Test the hypothesis by conducting an experiment.
o Data Collection: Gather and analyze the results.
o Conclusion: Based on the data, decide whether your hypothesis was correct.
o Replication: Repeating experiments to confirm results.

This method ensures that scientific knowledge is based on evidence, not opinions or guesses.

2. Branches of Science

Science is divided into several main branches, each with its own focus:

A. Physics

Physics is the study of matter, energy, and the forces that act upon them. Here are some key
concepts:

 Newton’s Laws of Motion:

1. First Law (Inertia): An object in motion stays in motion unless acted upon by an
external force.
2. Second Law: Force = Mass × Acceleration (F = ma). This means heavier objects
require more force to move.
3. Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
 Energy:

o Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion.

o Potential Energy: Stored energy due to position (e.g., a rock on a hill).
 Gravity: A force that pulls objects toward each other. It’s why objects fall and planets
orbit the sun.
 Electricity and Magnetism: Electricity is the flow of electric charge, while magnetism is
a force that acts on moving electric charges.

B. Chemistry

Chemistry focuses on the properties, composition, and reactions of substances.

 Atoms: The smallest unit of matter. Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
o Protons: Positively charged particles.
 o Neutrons: Neutral particles (no charge).
o Electrons: Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus.
 Elements and the Periodic Table:
o Elements are pure substances consisting of one type of atom. They are arranged in
the periodic table based on their atomic number (number of protons).
 Chemical Reactions: When substances interact and form new substances. For example,
combining hydrogen and oxygen forms water (H₂O).
 States of Matter: Solids, liquids, gases, and plasma, each with different arrangements of
particles.

C. Biology

Biology is the study of living organisms and their interactions with the environment.

 Cell Theory:
o All living things are made of cells.
o Cells are the basic unit of life.
o All cells come from pre-existing cells.
 Genetics:
o DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) carries genetic information that determines traits.
o Genes are sections of DNA that encode instructions for building proteins.
o Mendelian Genetics: Describes how traits are inherited (dominant vs. recessive
alleles).
 Photosynthesis: Plants convert sunlight into chemical energy (glucose), releasing oxygen
in the process.
o Equation: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + sunlight → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂.
 Evolution:
o The process by which species change over time through natural selection.
o Charles Darwin: Proposed that organisms better adapted to their environment are
more likely to survive and reproduce.

D. Earth Science

Earth science studies the Earth and its processes, including geology, meteorology, and
oceanography.

 Rock Cycle: Describes how rocks change from one type to another (igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic).
 Plate Tectonics: The Earth's crust is divided into plates that move. Their movement
causes earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and the formation of mountains.
 Water Cycle: Describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the
surface of the Earth.
o Evaporation → Condensation → Precipitation → Runoff.
 Weather and Climate:
o Weather refers to short-term atmospheric conditions (e.g., temperature,
precipitation).
 oClimate refers to long-term patterns of weather in a region.
 Natural Disasters: Earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis, hurricanes, and tornadoes are
examples of natural processes that can cause significant changes to the Earth's surface.

E. Astronomy

Astronomy is the study of the universe beyond Earth.

 The Solar System:

o Consists of the Sun, planets, moons, and other celestial bodies like asteroids and
comets.
o Earth is the third planet from the Sun.
 Stars: Massive, luminous spheres of gas that produce light through nuclear fusion.
o The Sun is an average-sized star.
 Galaxies: Large collections of stars, dust, and gas bound together by gravity. Our solar
system is part of the Milky Way Galaxy.
 The Big Bang Theory: The leading explanation for the origin of the universe, stating it
began as a singularity around 13.8 billion years ago and has been expanding ever since.

3. Key Concepts Across Sciences

A. Energy

 Energy exists in different forms (e.g., mechanical, chemical, thermal, nuclear), and it can
be transformed from one form to another but is never lost (conservation of energy).
 Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
transferred or converted.

B. Matter

 Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.

 Law of Conservation of Mass: In a closed system, the mass of substances remains
constant, regardless of the processes acting inside.

C. Forces

 Forces cause objects to move or change motion (e.g., gravity, friction, electromagnetism).

D. Systems

 Many scientific processes are systems with interacting parts. Examples include
ecosystems (biology), the solar system (astronomy), and the water cycle (earth science).
4. Scientific Thinking and Inquiry

 Critical Thinking: Analyzing and evaluating evidence to draw logical conclusions.

 Data Interpretation: Scientists gather data through experiments or observations and
interpret it to support or reject hypotheses.
 Ethics in Science: Ethical issues arise in scientific work, such as cloning, genetic
modification, and environmental conservation. Scientific discoveries can have significant
impacts, and ethical considerations guide responsible research.

5. Applications of Science

 Technology: Scientific knowledge has led to innovations such as smartphones, medical

devices, space exploration, and renewable energy solutions.
 Medicine: Understanding biology and chemistry allows doctors to develop treatments,
vaccines, and medical technology (like MRIs and CRISPR gene editing).
 Environmental Science: Knowledge of ecosystems, climate change, and renewable
energy helps us address global challenges like deforestation, pollution, and species
extinction.