TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

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By the end of this chapter, I should be able to:
Understand the importance and key methods of movement of materials
into and out of cells.
Investigate the different ways in which materials move into, through and
out of cells.
Know how the root hair is adapted for absorption of water and mineral
salts.
Understand the processes of transpiration and translocation.
Conduct experiments on and understand the factors that affect
transpiration.

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 Introduction
Transport refers to the movement of materials from one part of the
organism to another.
Food for thought
While moving in the grass early in the morning, your feet or shoes get wet even
though it did not rain the night before. Where do you think the water that wets
your feet comes from?

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 Movement of materials in and out of cells
Activity :
understanding the importance of movement of materials in and out of
cells.
Procedure:
Set up the apparatus as shown below and leave them to stand for
10minutes
Note the appearance of the visking bag and carryout a test for reducing
sugars on contents of the beaker just before the visking tube is lowered
into the beaker.
Obtain the volume of the contents of the visking bag. Repeat the procedure
above after 10minutes. Record your observations in the table below.
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 Results
Set up of the experiment Table of results
At the start After 10minutes

Appearance of the
visking bag

State of reducing
sugars in beaker
contents

Volume of visking
bag contents

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Qns:
1. With reasons, identify the processes responsible for the observations
made above.
2. Which structures in your body do you think can be similar to the
visking tube?
3. Suggest what would happen to the body of the living organisms if
the processes identified above are stopped in one way or another.

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 Soln
At the start After 10minutes

Appearance of the Shrunk Thicker/ more swollen

visking bag

State of reducing sugars Reducing sugars absent Reducing sugars present

in beaker contents

Volume of visking bag 5cm3 More than 5cm3

contents
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Ctd
1. Movement of water into the ➢ Absorption of end products of
visking tube from the beaker digestion stops
was by OSMOSIS. Movement ➢Re-absorption of materials across
of glucose molecules out of the kidney tubules is slowed down and
visking tube to the beaker was most of them are lost in urine hence
by DIFFUSION. their shortage in the body.
2. Lining of the ileum, kidney ➢Exchange of gases is hampered with
tubules, Alveolus walls leading to accumulation of carbon
dioxide in the body and shortage of
3. . oxygen in tissues leading to anemia.
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 Processes through which Materials Move In
and Out of Cells
1). DIFFUSION NB: Diffusion only takes
This is the movement substances from a place where there is a
region where their concentration is high to a difference in concentration
region where their concentration is low. of a substance.

Diffusion is possible for small molecules of

gases and liquids because they are in
constant random motion, unlike in solids
where molecules are closely packed
together and have no freedom of movement.
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ACTIVITY: Investigating the process of
diffusion
Materials:
Tea bag, warm water, stop clock,
beaker, notebook, pen, clear glass

Procedure (work in groups)

1. Pour warm water into a clean
glass beaker to half fill the beaker
2. Obtain a new tea bag and dip it
into a beaker containing warm
water as shown in the figure
below. Immediately start the
timer.

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 Ctd
3. Leave the set up to stand for 5
minutes and describe what you 4. Discuss and explain your
observe in the set up in the table observations.
below: 5. Through a whole class discussion,
explain the meaning of the term
Color of 2minutes 5minutes diffusion.
water after after Questions:
before adding a adding a a) Why was warm water used instead
adding a tea bag tea bag of cold water in the experiment?
tea bag
b) Why was a glass beaker used in this
investigation?

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 Soln
Before After 2 After 5 4. The tea molecules moved up by
minutes minutes diffusion from the tea bag into the
warm water spreading by diffusion
Colorless Light brown Deep brown to turn the entire water brown.
tea color tea color
The intensity of the brown color
increased with time allowed for
diffusion to occur.

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 Ctd
5. Diffusion is the process by which
molecules/ ions move from a region a) To increase the rate of
of their high concentration (for diffusion by increasing the
example tea molecules in the tea bag) kinetic energy of tea molecules
to regions of their low concentration making them spread faster.
(for example the warm water). The
molecules spread until an equilibrium
is established between the two regions b) It is transparent to allow easy
and clear observations.

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Movement of molecules by diffusion
The molecules move between
regions until equilibrium (Balance) is
established and the molecules are
uniformly distributed in the two
regions as shown above

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 Factors affecting the rate of diffusion
The movement of molecules by TASK
diffusion is influenced by a number of
factors e.g. a) Explain how each of the above
factors affects the rate of
1) Temperature diffusion.
2) Concentration gradient b) Explain the difference in the
3) Distance over which diffusion rate of diffusion when you
occurs dissolve sugar in cold water
4) Surface area over which diffusion and in hot water.
occurs c) Why does sugar dissolve faster
5) Size of diffusing materials in water than in a sugar
solution?
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Factors which affect the process of diffusion

(i) Temperature

Increase in temperature increase the rate of diffusion. This is because increase

in temperature increases the kinetic energy of the diffusing molecules making
them to move faster.

(ii) Size of diffusing molecules

The smaller the molecules, the faster the rate of diffusion. The larger the
diffusing particles, the slower the rate of diffusion. For example, molecules of
glucose (monosaccharide) diffuse faster than those of starch (polysaccharide).
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(iii) Distance over which diffusion occurs

The shorter the distance between two regions over which diffusion has to occur, the
faster the rate of diffusion.

(iv) Surface area over which diffusion occurs

The larger the surface area over which diffusion is to take place, the faster the rate of
diffusion.

(v) Concentration gradient

Concentration gradient is the difference in concentration between the two regions

where diffusion is to take place. The higher the concentration gradient between two
regions, the faster is the rate of diffusion.
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 Sample question
1.

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 This is the movement of water molecules from a
OSMOSIS region of their high concentration to a region of
their low concentration across a semi permeable
membrane.

Or
It is the movement solvent molecules from a
solution of low solute concentration to a solution
of high solute concentration across a semi
permeable membrane.

A semi/partially/selectively permeable membrane

is one which allows the passage of some
molecules and prevents other molecules from
passing through it.
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 Illustration

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 Definition of terms
i) Hypotonic solution: is one with a lower concentration than another
solution with which it is in contact.
ii) Hypertonic solution: is one with a higher concentration than the
other solution with which it is in contact.
iii) Isotonic solution: is one with the same concentration as the other
solution with which it is in contact.

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 EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE OSMOSIS IN A
LIVING TISSUE
Apparatus : Fresh Irish potatoes, knife, Petri dishes, sugar or salt, water

Procedure
a) 2 fresh Irish potatoes are peeled and cut transversely to obtain 3 equal halves, A, B and C.
They are trimmed so that the opposite transverse sides are flat.
b) A cavity is created on one side of each of the three halves of the Irish potatoes.
c) In A, sugar crystals are placed in the cavity, while the cavity of B is left empty as a
control.
d) C is boiled to kill the tissue and sugar crystals are put in the cavity.
e) All the potato cups are placed in water in Petri dishes. The experiment is let to run for
2hours.

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 Observation
SET UP
✓Solution forms in cavity of A, volume of
water in the petri dish reduces.
✓Cavity of B remains empty, no solution
forms, and level of water in petri dish
remains constant
✓No solution forms in cavity of C and level of
water in petri dish remains constant

Conclusion
Osmosis takes place in living tissues and does
not take place in dead tissues. Boiling the Irish
potato kills the tissue, destroying the semi
permeable membrane

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 Sample question

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 ACTIVITY (in groups)
AIM: To demonstrate effect of osmotic flow of water on
plant tissue
Materials :
Cork borer 5mm diameter, Test tubes, Water (C), 10% sucrose solution (A),
Measuring cylinder, Irish potato, Razor blade, 5% Sucrose solution(B)

Procedure
i) Peel the Irish potato and using a cork borer, obtain three cylinders by boring
through the long ends of the potato
ii) Trim the cylinders to a length of 4cm each

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 Ctd
iii) Add 10cm3 of solution A into a boiling tube and label it A
iv) Repeat procedure (iii) using solution B and C
v) Add one cylinder in each of the boiling tubes

vi) Leave the setups for 30 minutes

vii) Remove cylinders, feel the texture of the cylinders, measure the length of
each cylinder.
viii) Record your results in the table below

Initial length=4cm

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 ACTIVE TRANSPORT
This is the movement of substances from a region where their
concentration is low to where it is high using energy from a cell.

During active transport, molecules move against a concentration

gradient.

The energy used is derived from ATP formed during respiration.

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Illustration of the process of Active Transport

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Applications and differences between Diffusion, Osmosis and Active
Transport
Diffusion Osmosis Active Transport

Materials moved Both molecules and Only solvent Both molecules and
ions molecules (water) ions

Direction of Along a concentration Along a concentration Against a

movement of gradient gradient concentration gradient
molecules
Energy Requirement Passive process Passive process Active process

Requirement for ➢ Existence of a • Semi- permeable ✓ Transport proteins

movement of concentration membrane ✓ Carrier protein
materials gradient • Concentration ✓ Energy
➢ Semi –permeable gradient of solvent
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 Diffusion Osmosis Active Transport
Application Plants: Plants: Plants:
✓ Absorption of mineral ✓ Absorption of water ✓ Further absorption of
salts by plant roots molecules from the mineral salts from the
✓ Exchange of gases by soil by roots soil by plant roots
mesophyll cells ✓ Imbibition of water by
germinating seeds.
✓ Opening and closing of Animals:
Animals: stomata and flowers of ➢ Exchange of ions
➢ Exchange of gases at some species during transmission of
the alveolus ✓ Support in woody nerve impulses
➢ Absorption of end plants ➢ Selective reabsorption
products of digestion of materials across
across the walls of the kidney tubules
ileum Animals: ➢ Absorption of end
➢ Selective reabsorption ➢ Reabsorption of water products of digestion
of materials in kidney across kidney tubules in the ileum
tubules ➢ Movement of water ➢ Removal of toxic
into unicellular protists wastes from kidney
tissues into the
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Quiz:
1. Why is Osmosis considered a Soln
form of diffusion? 1. Because it involves movement of
2. If the land on which maize molecules of molecules along the
crops are growing is flooded concentration gradient
by sea water, suggest the effect
sea water could have on the
plants. 2. Drying of plants due to their plant
roots losing water by osmosis to
the concentrated soil.

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Absorption of Water and Mineral salts in Plants
QN: Which structures are
necessary for absorption water and
minerals by the plant?

Tip: Mineral salts are soluble in

water, they dissolve in water and
are transported together with water
depending on the concentration
gradient.

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 Adaptations of the root hair for its function
✓They are numerous to increase the
surface area over which absorption Exercise
of mineral salts and water can take 1. What is the importance of root hairs to
place. plants?
✓They are highly flexible thus can 2. The region of the root above the piliferous
grow between soil particles avoiding layer is covered with a layer of water
obstacles proof material
✓They are thin walled to reduce the i) Explain why the root hairs are not coated
distance over which materials diffuse in this way.
✓They contain solutes which create a ii) The piliferous layer represents the
concentration gradient along which exchange surface of a root. What
water molecules move. properties does this layer share with other
exchange surfaces, e.g. lungs of a
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Soln:
1. Increasing surface area for absorption of water and mineral salts
from the soil.
2. i) to keep them porous to allow passage of materials
ii) numerous or many in number, porous, thin walled

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Transport of water and Mineral Salts in Plants

•` `=

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 Ctd
Water absorbed by root hairs moves from cell to cell by Osmosis across the cortex of the roots and
then into the endodermis to the Xylem vessels in roots and stem.
It then moves through the Xylem of the stem up to the leaves by action of forces which include;
capillarity, cohesion-adhesion forces, transpiration pull and root pressure.

Capillarity This is the ability of water to move up the fine tube. It is usually caused by the surface
tension but because the capillary tube is narrow, the water rise is limited.

Cohesion forces This is a force of attraction between the molecules of the same substance.
Cohesion between water molecules allows water in a continuous column without breaking.

Adhesion This is the force of attraction between molecules of water and xylem. It enables water
molecules to move up the walls of the xylem.
Transpiration pull This is the pulling force generated by the evaporation of water from the leaves.

Root pressure This is a pressure that pushes water up the xylem of the root to the shoot. It results
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from the water accumulated in the xylem of the root.
 Sample question
1.

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 Translocation

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Ctd
Translocation is the process by which soluble products of
photosynthesis are carried in plants.
Through out the plant, sugars and amino acids are trans located in the
PHLOEM from the leaves to the GROWING PARTS of the plant or
STORAGE ORGANS.
Food substances may move downwards or upwards.

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 Structures involved in translocation

(i) Leaves. These are the source of the food materials.

(ii) Transport channels. These are the phloem vessels.

(iii) Sinks. These are storage organs (stems, roots and some leaves) and points of
utilization for the food materials for example actively growing points like
shoot apex.

(iv) The xylem vessels. The food materials are transported as dissolved solutes in
water supplied by the xylem vessels.

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 Importance or significance of translocation in plants
✓Provides actively growing points such as the shoot apex with food materials
that are respired to provide energy for their growth.

✓Manufactured food materials are stored within storage organs for use during
adverse/harsh conditions.

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 EVIDENCE TO SHOW THAT FOOD MADE IN LEAVES IS
TRANSLOCATED BY THE PHLOEM
RING EXPERIMENT
Removal of a complete ring of phloem Explanation: removal of the ring
from around the stem causes swelling results into removal of phloem which
of the part of the stem above the ring is located just beneath the bark such
with no increase in size of the stem that flow of organic food materials is
below the ring. disrupted, causing the swelling as food
Illustration accumulates.
Conclusion: since phloem and not
xylem were removed, translocation of
manufactured food occurs in the
phloem.

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 TRANSPIRATION
This is the process by which plants lose water in form of water vapor to the atmosphere.

TYPES OF TRANSPIRATION

(i) Stomatal transpiration.

This is the evaporation of water through stomata found in the epidermis of leaves.

(ii) Cuticular transpiration

The loss of water by evaporation through the cuticle of the leaf or stem epidermis

(iii) Lenticular transpiration

Water is lost by evaporation through small slits called lenticels which are found in the
stems of woody trees.
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 THE PROCESS OF TRANSPIRATION

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Water loss by transpiration occurs in following stages ;

✓Water from the roots is brought up to the leaf mesophyll cells through the xylem
vessels.

✓The heat from the surrounding makes water molecules to evaporate from the
moist mesophyll cells into the intercellular spaces of spongy mesophyll cells.

✓The water vapour then diffuses from the intercellular spaces, through the
stomata then into the atmosphere.

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 Factors affecting the rate of transpiration
Environmental factors

(i) Temperature

Increase in temperature increases the rate of transpiration. This is because, an

increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of water molecules hence
increasing the rate of evaporation of water from the leaf mesophyll cells.

An increase in temperature also reduces the amount of water vapour around the
leaf surface and the stomata. This results into rapid evaporation of water from the
leaf.
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(ii) Light intensity

An increase in light intensity increases the rate of transpiration. This is because exposure
of a plant to much light results into opening of many stomata which provide a large
surface area for water loss by transpiration.

iii) Relative humidity: Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. As
humidity increases, the rate of transpiration decreases. This is because the environment
becomes saturated with the water vapor.

iv) Availability of water: With water available, a continuous stream of water is present,
continuously delivering water to leaf air spaces from which it’s lost to the atmosphere.
However when little water is available, little can be lost during transpiration.
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(v) Wind velocity

In still air (low wind speed) rate of transpiration reduces. This is because water
vapour accumulates onto the surface of the leaf and onto the stomata, this
reduces the rate of evaporation of water from the leaf.

Under windy conditions, rate of transpiration increases. This is because the wind
blows away water molecules from the leaf surface. This creates a steep diffusion
gradient for water molecules to move from the leaf into the atmosphere.

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 Non environmental factors
i) Distribution of stomata
The rate of transpiration is low when more stomata are on the lower side and is higher
when more stomata are on the upper side of the leaf.
ii) Number of stomata
The greater the number of stomata, the higher the rate of transpiration because more
water vapour is lost through the stomata.
iii) Surface area for transpiration
Plants with wide/broad leaves have a larger surface for transpiration thus they
experience a higher rate of transpiration. But that with small leaves e.g. desert plants
have a small surface area hence low rate of transpiration.
iv) Thickness of the plant cuticle
The rate of transpiration decreases with increase in thickness of the cuticle. For that
reason, plants found in deserts have extremely thick cuticle than those in tropical
regions.
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1
Sample question

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 Importance of transpiration to plants
✓Heat is lost along with the water vapour hence cooling the plant.

✓Transpiration contributes to uptake and distribution of water and mineral

salts throughout the plant within the xylem vessels.

✓ Results in the absorption of water and its movement up the plant to aid processes
like photosynthesis

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 DISADVANTAGES / DANGERS OF
TRANSPIRATION
a) Excessive water loss from the plant may lead to wilting, drying and
even death of the plant.
b) Results into shading of leaves thus reducing surface area for
photosynthesis

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 AN EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT WATER IS
LOST DURING TRANSPIRATION
Apparatus Procedure
Potted plant, a) Tie polythene around the tin of the potted
plant. Using a string to avoid evaporation of
Polythene bag, water from the soil surface.
String, b) Tie transparent polythene around the leafy
Cobalt (ii) chloride paper or shoot of the plant.
anhydrous copper (ii) sulphate. c) Set up another similar control experiment
but with leaves removed and dry plant.
d) Leave the experiment to settle for 3 hours in
bright sunlight.
e) Remove the polythene around the leafy
shoot and test the drops of liquid inside the
polythene using anhydrous copper (ii)
sulphate / cobalt (ii) chloride paper.
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Diagram
Observation
Colorless droplets form inside the
polythene which turn anhydrous
copper (ii) sulphate from white to blue
or blue cobalt (ii) chloride paper to
pink.
No vapor is observed from experiment
with no leaves / dry plant.
Conclusion
Water is given off during Transpiration

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 MEASURE THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION
using a POTOMETER
This is done using an instrument called a potometer. The potometer works
on assumption that water lost from the leaves during transpiration equals
water absorbed by the plant. Therefore the potometer:
✓Directly measures the rate of water uptake/ absorption of the shoot and
✓Indirectly measures rate of water loss / evaporation of water/
transpiration from the leaves.

ASSIGNMENT
READ AND MAKE NOTES ABOUT THIS METHOD

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 PROCEDURE
i) A leafy shoot of a plant is cut under water to prevent air bubbles from
entering as these would block the xylem vessels.
ii) The leafy shoot is fixed into the air-tight seal (cork) and then fitted into
the mouth of the potometer vessel full of water.
iii) Vaseline is smeared at the interface of the shoot and the cock to prevent
entry of air into the apparatus.
iv) A meniscus is set inside the capillary tube and its cm level with the ruler
is noted and recorded. V1
v) At a given mark V1, reached by the meniscus, a stop clock is started and
after a given time t, the new position of the meniscus, V2, is noted and
recorded.

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ctd

vi) In any given set of environmental conditions, about 3 experiments

can be performed, resetting the meniscus after each experiment by
opening the tap and then closing it.
vii) Average rate is then calculated and taken as the rate of transpiration
in that environment.

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Precautions taken when using a potometer in order
to ensure that accurate results are obtained
✓A leafy shoot should be used to ensure significant water loss.
✓The shoot must be cut under water to prevent air from entering and
blocking the xylem vessels.
✓The whole apparatus must be full of water.
✓There should be no air bubbles in the capillary tube.
✓The meniscus should not be allowed to go past the ruler calibrations.

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 Exercise
1. Transpiration is a necessary cost in plants. Explain the statement.
2. Various processes of movement of materials in and out of cells are needed
to fulfill the mineral requirements of a plant. Discus each process in detail
and highlight their unique role in enhancing life processes.
3. A laboratory assistant accidentally poured common salt on grass and he
observed that over time, the grass dries up. Explain this observation in
relation to osmosis.
4. In terrestrial environments, some plants shed off their leaves during the dry
season. Explain the significance of this behavior to plants.
5. A student assembled a simple potometer. The time taken by a bubble to
move along the capillary tube was determined under different conditions.
The readings of time were taken 3 times under each of the considered
conditions, and the average time was recorded in the table below;
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 .
Condition of potometer Average time taken for bubbles to
move 10cm

Windy air 50

Under shade 69

Air saturated with water 80

Bright light 54

Leaves of twig enclosed in a plastic 95

bag

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Qns:
a) What conclusion can you draw from those results about the factors
which affect evaporation of water from leaves?
b) Why were 3 readings necessary for each condition?
c) Suggest reasons why the evaporation rates vary as indicated by the
results above.
d) Why are the results from the potometer not considered to accurately
represent the rate of transpiration under the conditions investigated?

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 Test yourself
1. Six similar cylinders of fresh potato (A to F) each weighing 10 grams, were
immersed in salt solutions of different concentrations for 2 hours. They
were removed and reweighed. The change in mass of each cylinder was
recorded in a bar graph as shown below.

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Qns:
a) Identify the physiological process responsible for the observed
changes.
b) Which cylinder has been immersed in the salt solution with;
i) the highest salt concentration?
ii) the lowest salt concentration?
iii) a concentration closest to that of the potato cells?
c) Explain the changes in the cells of potato cylinder D.
d) Mention other processes by which materials move in and out of
cells.

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Ctd
2. a group of students investigated leaves from different plants, thyme
and mint, in order to find out which leaf surface had more stomata. The
thyme plant had fewer leaves compared to the mint plant.
Average weight loss %
Plants Mint Thyme
Petroleum jelly on both leaf surfaces 14 13
Petroleum jelly on lower leaf surface 44 30
only
Petroleum jelly on upper leaf surface 41 20
only
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Qns:
a) From which surface did the mint leaf lose the most water? Explain
your answer.
b) Explain the difference in the results for the two plants.
c) Based on the experimental results, which plant would be adapted to
hotter and drier conditions? Giver a reason for your answer.
3. Describe how the adaptation of plant root is similar to the adaptation
of the lining of the small intestine in humans for the absorption of
nutrients.

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 Soln
1. a) Osmosis
b) i) C ii) E iii) F
c) Cells shrink; D was placed in a solution more concentrated than cell sap;
water molecules moved from cells to surrounding solution by Osmosis
d) Active transport, Diffusion

2. a) Upper surface; once exposed had the highest average weight loss.
b) The average weight loss is more in Mint than in Thyme; Thyme had
fewer leaves; presenting a smaller surface area for water loss; less water was
lost during transpiration.
c) Thyme; has reduced surface area for water loss

3. Numerous to provide a larger surface area for absorption

Thin walled to reduce the distance over which materials move
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TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS

@ PETER L OKION 778001502 /

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 The principle of Surface Area to Volume
Ratio
THINK:
On a rainy day, it is usually very cold, so young ones e.g. babies feel
colder than the adults. Why is this so?

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 Activity: determining the Surface Area to
Volume ratio
You are provided with the following cubes, use them to fill the
table below and answer the questions that follow;

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 Table of results
Cube size Surface Area (cm²) Volume (cm³) Surface Area to
(SA= 6S²) (v = S³) Volume ratio

1cm

2cm

3cm
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Qns:
a) Which cube has the largest surface area to volume ratio?
b) Which cube has the lowest surface area to volume ratio?
c) Discus and explain the biological significance of the ratios
calculated to the organisms.

NOTE: Surface area to volume increases with decrease in the body of

organisms. Therefore, large sized organisms have a smaller surface area
to volume ratio than small sized ones.

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Answer to c)
Organisms with a large surface area to volume ratio e.g. single celled
Amoeba do not need a transport system as diffusion alone is enough to
supply and remove materials to and from their bodies.

Answer to THINK:
BABIES, like all small sized organisms, have small bodies and mass.
As individuals grow to become adults, they increase in size, hence their
volume increases more rapidly than surface area. Therefore, babies with
a larger surface area to volume ratio lose more heat to the surrounding
than the adults.

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 Exercise
1. Why do organisms need to continuously exchange materials
with their environment?
2. Why are cells in multicellular organisms :
a) microscopic?
b) numerous?

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Soln
1. Organisms need to take in materials required for life processes in
their bodies to take place and also remove unwanted materials out of
their bodies.
2. a) to provide a large surface area to volume ratio so as to be more
efficient at exchanging materials within the organisms.

b) to increase the surface area over which exchange of materials can

occur

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 Transport systems in mammals
THE NECESSITY FOR TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
Unicellular organisms e.g. Amoeba, directly exchange oxygen and carbon
dioxide with their environment across the entire body surface.
In unicellular organisms, the surface area to volume ratio is high, enabling
them to exchange materials by simple diffusion as seen in the figure below.

While in multicellular organisms, the body organs lie deep into the body
away from the external environment. Due to their smaller surface area to
volume ratio they cannot easily exchange materials with their environment
by simple diffusion.
They need a mechanism that brings such materials close to organs so that
they can be taken up by diffusion. This mechanism is a transport system
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 Exchange of materials in a unicellular
organism by simple diffusion

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 Quiz
1. While seated outside in the compound, you are always surrounded
by air rich in Oxygen. Can oxygen in the air directly enter your body
through the skin? Why or why not ?
2. Why do unicellular organisms e.g. amoeba directly exchange
oxygen and carbon dioxide with their environment across their
entire body surface ?

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Components of the transport system
What transport system is found in your body? The main transport
system in all mammals is the ………………………………………………………..
The system is made up of different components that perform different
functions i.e.
i) Heart/ pumping organ
ii) Blood/ transport fluid
iii) Blood vessels/ transport channels

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Functions of:
HEART
This contracts and relaxes to generate a force that pumps blood at high
pressure to the rest of the body
BLOOD
This is a liquid in nature and it freely flows to transport dissolved materials
e.g. respiratory gases and food materials to their respective destinations
BLOOD VESSELS
These provide channels through which blood passes as it transports materials
to the respective organs.

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 THE MAMMALIAN HEART

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 Description
Its function is to pump blood around the body. The whole heart is surrounded
by a tissue called pericardium which has two layers. The pericardial fluid
between the layers of pericardium reduce friction between them during the
pumping action of the heart. The heart is made of a unique muscle tissue called
cardiac muscle which has ability to contract on its own and does not fatigue

It’s divided in to four chambers. The two upper chambers are called atria /
auricles and the two lower chambers are each called ventricles. The heart is
divided in to the left and right sections by a muscular septum whose function
is to prevent mixing of oxygenated blood on the left with deoxygenated
blood on the right Flow of blood in the heart is maintained in a single
direction i.e. from the auricle to ventricle and then out to blood vessels by
valves. There are two sets of valves
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ctd
i. Semilunar valves which prevent backflow to the ventricles
ii. Atrio-ventricular valves which prevent backflow to the atria.

The atrio-ventricular valves on the right are called tricuspid valves

while those on the left are called bicuspid valves
The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from lungs through the
pulmonary vein and pump it to the left ventricle.
The right atrium receives de-oxygenated blood from the rest of the
body through the vena cava and pumps it to the right ventricle.

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ctd
The ventricle walls are more muscular (have thicker walls) than those
or the auricles because the auricle pump blood to shorter distance i.e.
to the ventricle while the ventricles pump blood longer distances i.e. to
body and lungs.
The walls of the left ventricle that pump blood to the rest of the body
through the aorta which is a longer distance away from the heart are
thicker than those of the right ventricle which pump blood to lungs
through the pulmonary artery which is a shorter distance away from the
heart

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Quiz
1. Why do the valves between the ventricles and atria
open towards the ventricles?
2. Why is oxygen less blood restricted to the right side
of the heart while oxygen rich blood is restricted to
the left side?
3. What prevents the heart from expanding until it
bursts, in case it is filled with blood?

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soln
1. To allow the blood to flow from atria to ventricles and close upon
increase in pressure in ventricles preventing the backflow of blood
to atria.
2. Prevent them from mixing up which will reduce the efficiency of
oxygen delivery to respiring tissues.
3. Surrounded by a tissue called pericardium membrane that prevents
bursting of the heart upon expansion

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 Circulation of blood in the human body
The blood in the body moves through restricted channels – the veins
and arteries by the pumping action of the heart. The human circulatory
system is a double circulatory system. It Has two separate circulations
and blood passes through the heart twice:
The Pulmonary circulation is between the heart and the LUNGS.
The systemic circulation is between the heart and other organs

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 Illustration

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 Sample question
1.

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 Group project
AIM: To explain how blood flows in the human body.
What to do:
In groups, using the materials available in your environment, design a
model showing the blood flow in the human body.
Share your model to the rest of the class after 2 weeks.

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 Exercise
1. Why do large multicellular animals need transport systems?
2. Explain why the blood in systemic circulation is always at a higher
pressure than that in pulmonary circulation.
3. What would happen to a living organism if the flow of blood to the lungs
via the pulmonary vein is interrupted permanently?
4. How is having a double circulation in mammals advantageous?
5. Describe the route taken by a red blood cell that has just picked oxygen at
the lungs, until it reaches the liver where it gives it up.
6. What will happen to the amount of oxygen in the red blood cell as it
passes through the:
a) lungs
b) capillaries of the liver
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 soln
1. Large sized multicellular animals have a smaller surface area to volume ratio and
their organs are further away from the surface thus the supply of materials and
removal of wastes cannot be satisfied by simple diffusion
2. Systemic circulation pumps blood to greater distance, high pressure will ensure
faster delivery of materials to body organs
3. No oxygenation of blood will occur, body tissues will lack oxygen causing their
reduced functioning and carbon dioxide will accumulate which will lower the
pH of the blood and tissues, reducing metabolism in the body.
4. Blood is pumped at a higher pressure, ensuring efficient delivery of materials to
tissues.
5. Consider blood circulation from the lungs to the liver
6. A) increases as more oxygen is picked
b) decreases as oxygen is removed from blood to support metabolism in the liver
cells
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 Structure of blood vessels
Blood is carried throughout the body in tube like structures called Blood
vessels.
The blood vessels are categorized into 3 types i.e. veins, arteries and
capillaries
Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They divide and eventually form
very tiny vessels called capillaries
The capillaries gradually join up with one another to form large vessels called
veins.
Veins carry blood towards the heart.
Qn: how are these three categories different from each other?
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 Blood
Blood is the fluid which flows in blood vessels. Blood is made up of
different substances and cells that enable it to carry out its functions.
These include: …………………………………(thrombocytes),
…………………………….(leucocytes), ………………….(erythrocytes)
And ……………………………..

Other components of blood that may be periodically added include; blood

proteins like globulin, hormones and antibodies

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 Blood components
Components function

Red Blood Cells Transports oxygen and carbon dioxide

White Blood Cells Defend the body against disease

Platelets Clotting of blood to prevent excess loss of blood

Globulin Makes antibodies for body immunity

Fibrinogen For blood clotting

Albumin Makes blood thick and viscous

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 Adaptation of Red Blood Cells to carry out their
function
✓They are biconcave in shape so as to avail a large surface area to volume ratio for
absorption of oxygen.
✓ They have hemoglobin molecules that bind oxygen and transport it from the lungs
to the tissues.
✓They have a thin membrane which reduces the diffusion distance for the
respiratory gases in and out of the cells.
✓Have no nucleus which provides enough space for packaging of haemoglobin
✓Have no mitochondria to prevent them from using the oxygen they are carrying.
✓They are numerous to increase surface area for transportation of oxygen
✓ They have flexible membranes which make them able to squeeze through
capillary networks.
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NB:
The concentration of red blood cells increases as one slowly
climbs up a mountain because the concentration of oxygen in
the air reduces with increase in height above sea level.
So the body acclimatizes by producing more red blood cells
to increase the available total surface area to bind and carry
oxygen to the tissues regardless the reducing oxygen
concentration.

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 HEART DISEASES
These are also called cardiovascular diseases.
A heart disease is any condition that affects the structure and
functioning of the heart. They are non-communicable diseases

Examples include: stroke, coronary heart disease, high blood pressure

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 Table of causes and prevention of heart diseases
Disease Causes Prevention

Stroke Blood clot Avoid smoking cigarettes

Head injury Having regular exercises
Burst of blood clot Having a balanced diet

Coronary heart disease Tobacco smoking

High emotional stress

High blood pressure Excessive salt consumption Regular aerobic exercises

High fat diet Moderate intake of salt, fats and
Lack of exercise alcohol
Obesity
Stress
Tobacco smoking
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High alcohol consumption
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 Blood groups
Do you know your blood group?
There are different blood groups and the group you have is determined by the
type of antigen present on the surface of your Red Blood cells.
KEY WORDS
1. An antigen: is a chemical substance recognized as foreign in the body.
2. An antibody: is a protective protein produced by the immune system in
response to the presence of a foreign substance called an antigen.
NB: there are 4 major blood groups, based on whether you have or not have
the two specific antigens, that is anti-A and anti-B. these are summarized in
the table below:

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 Table of blood groups
Blood group Antigen present Antibody
produced
A A b

B B a

AB A and B NONE

O NONE a and b
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Note:
1. Antigens are represented by capital letters while antibodies are
represented by small letters
2. There is another antigen called rhesus factor or anti-D (Rh+ or Rh-)

ASSIGNMENT:
Read and make notes on Rhesus factor, how it affects blood transfusion
and its implications on pregnancies.

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 BLOOD TRANSFUSION
Have you ever donated blood? OR have you ever received blood?
During blood transfusion, the one who receives blood is called the
………………………….. While the one who gives blood to the patient is called
the ……………………………
NB: DOCTORS always match the blood of the donor with that of the recipient
to make sure that they are compatible. This is because, if incompatible blood
is mixed, agglutination occurs (red blood cells stick together and blood
clots)
Therefore, for blood transfusion to be safe and effective, it is important for the
donor and the recipient to have blood groups that are compatible. Thus, a
recipient with a given blood group can only receive blood from donors of
specific blood groups.
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 Benefits/ importance of blood transfusion
✓Replaces blood which is lost during hemorrhages
✓Provides platelets which may be needed by patients on
chemotherapy
✓Provides platelets to prevent post-operation bleeding
✓Plasma provides clotting factors that allow hemophiliacs to live a
normal life
✓Plasma contains immunoglobulins/ antibodies, these give passive
immunity to individuals at risk of certain infections
✓Red blood cells provide oxygen to the body
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 Risks of blood transfusion
✓Accidental administration of ABO incompatible blood
✓Hemolytic reaction: when transfused, the red blood cells of the
recipient are destroyed
✓Transfusion associated acute lung injury due to presence of anti-
granulocyte antibodies in the donor’s plasma.
✓Sepsis- bacterial contamination of the transfused products.
✓Allergic reactions due to presence of allergens in the donor’s blood
✓Transfusion of infectious diseases e.g. malaria, AIDS, syphilis
✓Pyrogens (fever-producing substances) in the transfused products
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 Exercise
1. What is the difference between blood donor and recipient?
2. How are antigens different from antibodies?
3. Why is blood transfusion necessary?
4. During blood transfusion, giving safe blood is always emphasized
a) what do you understand by safe blood?
b) why should only safe blood be transfused?
5. A woman of child-bearing age requires a blood transfusion before she has
had any children. Her blood is group B and Rh- and she is married to a man
who is Rh+.
a) what does Rh-/+ stand for in this case?
b) What blood group(s) can she safely receive blood from?
c) Why should the Rhesus factor be such an important issue in this case?
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 The role of blood in the defense of the Human body
QN: which components of blood are important for the defense of the body?
1. Action of white blood cells on the foreign particles
In this process the white blood cells form pseudopodia, surround the pathogen
and engulf it by Phagocytosis.
After engulfing the foreign particle, a food vacuole is formed, digestive
enzymes are introduced into the vacuole such that the enzymes break down the
particle and useful materials are released into cytoplasm of white blood cell
while the wastes are excreted out of the cell.

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 2.
Some white blood cells destroy foreign particles by
releasing antibodies, which destroy the particles. White
blood cells, which produce antibodies

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 Blood clotting
is the process by which blood stops oozing out of a cut or
wound by formation of a clot.
It is important because of the following reasons.
1. It prevents excessive loss of blood from the body.
2. it is a step towards healing of cuts and wounds.
3. The blood clot creates a barrier to prevent entry of bacteria
and other pathogens in the body

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 The Process of Blood Clotting:
When blood is exposed to air as a result of a cut or wound, the
platelets in the blood at the damaged tissue stimulate the release of a
chemical called thromboplastin (thrombokinase).
In the presence of calcium ions and vitamin K, thromboplastin
stimulates the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin enzyme.
Thrombin then catalyzes the conversion of soluble blood protein
fibrinogen to the insoluble form fibrin.
Fibrin forms fibers, which form a mesh and trap blood cells and
proteins.
This mesh dries to form a scab, which is called the blood clot.
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 IMMUNITY
Immunity is the ability of an organism to resist and fight infection.
Types of immunity
Inborn or innate immunity
This is the type of resistance to diseases that one is born with.
Acquired immunity
This is the type of immunity developed by the body during the life of an
individual.
It is divided into;
i. Acquired passive immunity
ii. Acquired active immunity:
ASSIGNMENT: Read and make notes about the 2 types of acquired immunity
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Explain how the body’s immunity may be weakened by
disease or pathogens?
Some pathogens such as the HIV which attack white blood cells, weaken the
body’s immunity.
The receptor site of HIV is on special white blood cells called CD4 cells. Thus,
the virus attacks the white blood cells and destroy them, reducing their
count in the body.
This weakens the body’s immune response making the body susceptible to
attack by other secondary infections, called opportunistic infections or
diseases like tuberculosis

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 CAPILLARY EXCHANGE, FORMATION OF TISSUE
FLUID AND LYMPH
Pressure of blood from arteries through arterioles and then capillaries forces
small molecules like glucose, amino acids, vitamins, hormones and the fluid part
of blood to leave the capillaries and enter the intercellular spaces, leaving behind
large molecules like proteins in plasma and cells.
Once the fluid is in the intercellular spaces of tissues, it is called tissue fluid.
Tissue fluid bathes body cells. Body cells obtain their requirements e.g. glucose,
amino acids oxygen, etc. from the tissue fluid and they add excretory materials
into the fluid.
Some of the fluid returns in to the capillaries and the other is drained in to a
system of narrow vessels called lymph vessels. The fluid in these vessels is
called lymph.
Note; lymph is formed from tissue fluid.
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THE DIAGRAM BELOW ILLUSTRATES EXCHANGE OF
MATERIALS BETWEEN BLOOD, TISSUE FLUID AND
LYMPH

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 THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
This is part of the vascular system. It forms the second type of circulation.
Most of the tissue fluid as explained above goes back into the blood capillaries
and the remainder enters the lymphatic system and becomes lymph.
➢ Lymph is transported through lymph vessels.
➢ Lymph vessels are similar to veins but they have more valves than the veins.
➢The movement of the lymph fluid through the lymph vessels is due to the
contractions of the surrounding skeletal muscles. As they contract and relax,
they squeeze the lymph vessels to gain the force by which lymph moves. The
walls of the lymphatic vessels have pores, which allow the entry of fatty acids,
glycerol, wastes, bacteria and other small molecules

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CTD
✓Before reaching the blood, lymph passes through the lymph
nodes where pathogens like bacteria are removed. The lymph
joins the blood circulation via the thoracic ducts, which joins
to the vena cava leading to the heart.
✓The lacteals of the ileum are also connected to the left
thoracic duct

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 Functions of the lymphatic system
1. transports fatty acids and glycerol from the ileum to the heart
where they join the blood system.
2. carries excretory substances from tissues to the blood stream.
3. produces white blood cells, which carry out defense in the body.
4. filters out bacteria before they reach the blood stream.
5. Transports hormones from glands to other body parts.
6. Temporary storage of fatty acids and glycerol before they join
general blood circulation.
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 ELEPHANTIASIS
This is the gross enlargement of an organ whose lymphatic vessels have been
infested with filarial worms, Wuchereria bancrofti.
Filarial worms are nematodes that cause elephantiasis and are spread by
mosquitoes especially the culex mosquito

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 TEST YOURSELF
1. a) Determine the surface area to volume ratio of a cube of sides 2cm
representing a mouse.
b) how would the surface area to volume ratio of an elephant compare to
that of a mouse.
c) how do living organisms benefit from having
i) a small surface area to volume ratio
ii) a large surface area to volume ratio
2. a) draw a well labeled diagram of the circulatory system of a mammal.
b) identify the components of the transport system labeled in (a) above
3. How does each of the following suit to the heart to its function(s)
i) septum between heart chambers
ii) valves between atria and ventricles
iii) thicker wall of the left ventricle
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 ctd
4. The diagram below illustrates the transfer of materials between capillaries and
tissue fluid.

Describe what happens at:

i) Point A ii) point B
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 Ctd
5. A person’s blood group can be identified by mixing his or he blood with serum
containing antibodies onto a test panel like the one below.
a) Complete the table using a(√) if agglutination occurs, and an (X) if
agglutination does not occur.
Blood group Test panel (serum)
Anti-A antibody Anti- B antibody Control (no
antibody)
A
AB
B
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O
CTD
b) Why is the control test needed?
c)What will happen if a patient of blood group O is given a
transfusion of blood type AB.

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.
.
END
BIOLOGY IS LIFE
SLIDES PREPARED BY TR.
PETER L OKION
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