LIVING THINGS  The specific, fixed position on a

Module 3: Non-Mendelian chromosome where a particular gene or

Non-Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance genetic marker is located.
Here is a list of key terms related to heredity and 10. Chromosome
genetics:  A thread-like structure composed of DNA
1. Allele and proteins that contains genetic
information. Humans have 46
chromosomes, arranged in 23 pairs.
11. Autosome
 Any chromosome that is not a sex
chromosome. Humans have 22 pairs of
autosomes.
12. Sex Chromosome
 A variant form of a gene. Alleles can be
 Chromosomes that determine the sex of an
dominant or recessive and are located at
individual. In humans, the two sex
the same position (locus) on homologous
chromosomes are X and Y.
chromosomes.
13. Mutation
2. Gene
 A change in the DNA sequence that can
 A segment of DNA that contains the
lead to a different phenotype. Mutations
instructions for building a specific protein
can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful.
or set of proteins, which contribute to a
14. Crossing Over
trait.
 The exchange of genetic material between
3. Genotype
homologous chromosomes during meiosis,
 The genetic makeup of an organism; the
leading to genetic diversity in gametes.
combination of alleles for a specific gene.
15. Mendelian Inheritance
4. Phenotype
 The patterns of inheritance that are
 The observable characteristics or traits of
characteristic of organisms that reproduce
an organism, such as eye color, height, or
sexually, based on Gregor Mendel's laws of
blood type, which result from the
segregation and independent assortment.
interaction of its genotype with the
16. Non-Mendelian Inheritance
environment.
 Any pattern of inheritance in which traits
5. Dominant Allele
do not segregate according to Mendel's
 An allele that expresses its trait even in the
laws, such as incomplete dominance,
presence of a different (recessive) allele.
codominance, multiple alleles, and
Represented by a capital letter (e.g., A).
polygenic inheritance.
6. Recessive Allele
17. Codominance
 An allele that only expresses its trait when
 A pattern of inheritance where both alleles
two copies are present (homozygous).
in a heterozygous organism are fully
Represented by a lowercase letter (e.g., a).
expressed, resulting in a phenotype that
7. Homozygous
displays both traits.
 Having two identical alleles for a particular
18. Incomplete Dominance
gene (e.g., AA or aa).
 A pattern of inheritance where the
8. Heterozygous
phenotype of a heterozygote is
 Having two different alleles for a particular
intermediate between the phenotypes of
gene (e.g., Aa).
the two homozygotes.
9. Locus (plural: Loci)
19. Polygenic Trait
 A trait that is controlled by multiple genes,
often resulting in a continuous range of
phenotypes (e.g., skin color, height).
20. Epistasis
 A form of gene interaction where one gene
affects the expression of another gene at a
different locus.
21. Pleiotropy
  A single gene influences multiple,  A mechanism of evolution due to random
seemingly unrelated phenotypic traits. changes in allele frequencies within a
22. Genomic Imprinting population, more pronounced in small
 A genetic phenomenon by which certain populations.
genes are expressed in a parent-of-origin- 29. Gene Flow
specific manner.  The transfer of genetic material from one
23. Linkage population to another, increasing genetic
 The tendency of genes that are located diversity.
close to each other on the same 30. Natural Selection
chromosome to be inherited together.  The process by which organisms with
24. Pedigree favorable traits are more likely to survive
 A chart that shows the genetic relationships and reproduce, leading to a change in allele
within a family over several generations frequencies over time.
and is used to analyze patterns of
inheritance. A Mendelian pattern of inheritance refers to
25. Punnett Square reproducing organisms sexually. We know that in
 A diagram used to predict the genetic Mendel’s principles of heredity each parent gives
outcome of a cross or breeding experiment. one of two possible alleles for a trait. However,
26. Hybrid Non-Mendelian inheritance is any pattern of
 An organism that is the offspring of inheritance wherein traits do not segregate
genetically different parents; often used to following Mendel’s law. These laws describe the
describe the offspring of two different inheritance of traits linked to single genes on
species or varieties. chromosomes in the nucleus.
27. Carrier
 An individual who has one copy of a Incomplete dominance. Snapdragon flower is an
recessive allele that does not exhibit the example of this pattern of inheritance in which
recessive trait but can pass it on to both alleles are present resulting in an
offspring. intermediate phenotype.
28. Genetic Drift
A cross between a homozygous red-flowered plant A cross between a black and white chicken
(FRFR) and a homozygous white-flower plant (FWFW) will produce chicken with both black and
will produce offspring with pink flowers (FRFW) as white feathers. The alleles for black
shown in the F1 generation. feathers in some varieties of chicken is
codominant with the allele for white
feathers.

Another example that shows how the co-

dominance pattern of inheritance is determined by
genes is in the blood typing in humans. An antigen is a
A cross between two heterozygotes of F1 protein- bound to a sugar molecule found on the
generation, however, will result in an F2 generation surface of our red blood cells. A pair of alleles (IA and
with a phenotype of 25% red flowers, 50% pink IB) which controls one group of antigens, help in
flowers, and 25% white flowers (phenotypic ratio determining the blood types of an individual.
of 1:2(blended traits):1). Table 1. Summary of phenotypes and genotypes of the
blood typing in humans.
Codominance is a heterozygote condition wherein
both traits are present simultaneously, rather than
one fully determining the phenotype. A speckled
chicken is a good example of dominance.
In the heterozygote condition, both IA and IB alleles are the gene
expressed in the red blood cells that will have the
XC XC Color-blind female
antigens A and B. Three alleles exist in the ABO system:
XY Normal male
A, B, and O. This result in four blood types: A, B, O, and
C
the blended AB. X Y Color-blind male

Codominance in Human Blood Types Figure from Hypertrichosis pinnae auris is a Y-linked trait controlled
Creative Commons by a Y chromosome and characterized by hairy ear in
which are expressed in males alone. This human
condition can be inherited from a father who has the
disorder, to his sons who, in turn, will pass it on to their
sons.

Sex-Limited Trait
Sex-limited traits are those traits limited to only one
sex. Lactation is a good example of a sex-limited trait
Multiple Alleles: (ABO Blood Types) that is exclusively exhibited among females. However,
A single gene that has more than two alleles is called cattle carry genes for lactation on both males and
multiple alleles. The ABO blood groups in humans as an females.
example of a gene that has multiple alleles is the one Lactating gene (L) is a dominant gene over the non-
that controls the inheritance. There are four blood lactating recessive gene (l). In female cattle carrying one
group systems A, B, AB, and O. dominant gene (XXLl), or two dominant genes (XXLL)
Sex-Linked Genes lactation will be shown. Nevertheless, neither male
Sex-linked genes are genes found either on X or Y cattle having dominant genes nor in male cattle that
chromosomes which are inherited differences among have recessive genes will lactate.
male and a female. Sex-linked traits determined by an Sex-Influenced Traits
X-linked gene when an X chromosome takes control. On Sex-influenced traits are autosomal traits that are
the other hand, the so- called Y-linked genes are those expressed in both sexes but more frequently in one
located on the Y chromosome. than in the other sex. One classic example of this is
pattern baldness which is expressed in females but is
more often manifested in males.
The gene has two alleles, “bald” (B) and “non-bald” (b),
and these genes are highly influenced by the hormones
individually. We know that all humans have
A woman suffering from Hemophilia testosterone, but males have higher level of
Figure from Creative Commons
testosterone than females do. This shows that,
⮚ Hemophilia, an example of an X-linked trait is a rare although baldness alleles (XYBB, XYBb, or XXBB) behave
genetic disorder in which a person lacks enough blood- like a dominant allele in males, they are recessive in
clotting proteins caused by a change in one of the females (XXBb, XXb).
genes.
Since this phenomenon is sited on the X chromosome,
females identified to have affected two X chromosomes
cause the disorder. But if there is only one
chromosome affected, the female individual is referred
to as “carrier” of the disorder.
Color-blindness is another condition of the X-linked
trait. These traits will be manifested in females who
have two genes of color-blindness. Meanwhile, in
males, there is only one gene of the disorder needed to
express the phenomenon.
Table 3. Genotypes and phenotypes in humans
Genotype Phenotype
XX Normal female
X XC Normal female, carrier of