STEAM GENERATORS

Steam Generators

• A steam generator (SG) is a complex combination of economiser, boiler,

superheater, reheater, and air preheater
– In addition, it has several auxiliaries, such as, stokers, pulverisers, burners,
fans, emission control equipment, stack, and ash-handling equipment
• A boiler is the one where saturated liquid is converted into saturated steam
• Boilers may be classified as either a utility or an industrial steam
generators
– Utility steam generators are used by electric utilities for generating electricity
• The steam capacities range from 125 to 1250 kg/s giving a power output
between 125 and 1300 MW
Steam Generators

§ Fossil-fuelled SG can be broadly classified as

ú Fire-tube boilers
ú Water-tube boilers

ú Natural-circulation boilers
ú Controlled-circulation boilers
ú Once-through flow

ú Subcritical pressure
ú Supercritical pressure
ú Ultra-supercritical pressure
Steam Generators – Fire Tube Boilers

§ Fire-tube boilers are not generally used in power utilities

ú Upper limits of pressure and steam capacity are 18 bar and 6.2 kg/s
respectively
§ Package type boilers
Steam Generators – Water Tube Boilers

§ Modern high-pressure SG requires more superheating and reheating

surface and less boiler surface than older units
ú Possible for a large number (up to seven or eight) feedwater heaters (FH)
resulting in a smaller economiser
ú The latent heat of vaporisation decreases rapidly with pressure
ú Thus, a modern high-pressure SG requires more superheating and
reheating surface and less boiler surface than older units
Steam Generators – Water Tube Boilers
 Steam Generators – Water Tube Boilers

§ Modern SG use water-cooled furnace walls, called water walls

ú Lead to the integration of furnace, economiser, boiler, superheater, reheater,
and air preheater into a single unit
ú Water cooling is also used for superheater and economiser compartment
walls and various other components, such as screens, dividing walls, etc
Steam Generators – Water Tube Boilers

Boiler drum
Steam Generators – Water Tube Boilers

§ Natural circulation boiler

ú Heat transfer to the water tubes around the walls is mostly by radiation from
the fuel flame and less by convection from flue gases
Steam pressures of approximately 180 bar
§ Forced circulation boilers, i.e., La Mont boilers, use a special pump for
water circulation
ú They offer a certain amount of freedom in the arrangement of evaporator
tubes and boiler drum
Steam Generators – Water Tube Boilers

ú Such boilers can be adapted to limitations in height and space

ú Suitable for steam pressures up to 200 bar
§ Both the above types operate at subcritical pressures (<221.2 bar) and
rely on drum and recirculation, either natural or forced, and are called
drum type boilers
§ Once-through boilers or drum-less boilers do not need recirculation –
the water enters the bottom of the tubes and is completely transformed
to steam by the time it reaches the top
Steam Generators – Water Tube Boilers

§ The essential difference between subcritical once-through and

recirculating drum type boilers is that all water entering the boiler
tubes is evaporated in a number of parallel single-pass tubes
§ In contrast to the recirculating drum boiler, there is no facility for
removing dissolved salts by periodic blowdown
ú All particulate matter and dissolved salts which enter with the feedwater and
do not pass out with the steam flow will accumulate in the boiler tubes and
may lead to corrosion, flow instabilities or overheating
ú Control is therefore exercised by maintaining stringent limits on the ingress
of impurities in feedwater
Steam Generators – Water Tube Boilers

§ Feedwater quality is maintained by the inclusion of full-flow

condensate polishing plant in which the total boiler feed is
demineralised and filtered in deep bed ion-exchange units
§ In supercritical boilers there is no separation point between the
water and steam phases, and impurities entering with the
feedwater pass through with the steam
ú Boiler corrosion resulting from concentration of impurities should not be a
major risk but there is still a risk of deposition in turbines and reheaters
ú The high solubility of copper in supercritical fluid presents a particular
problem
Supercritical Power Plants

§ Supercritical Power plants operate at temperatures resulting in

higher efficiencies – up to 46 percent for supercritical plants – and
lower emissions than traditional (subcritical) coal-fired plants
ú A survey of more than 150 supercritical power plants operating in the US
showed significant advantages, up to 3%, compared to typical subcritical
units
ú A supercritical power plant uses a boiler/turbine system that operates at
580° C (1075 F); subcritical plants operate at 455° C (850° F)
§ The term ultra-supercritical (USC) applies to boilers that operate using
pressures over 300 bar (4400psi)
Supercritical Power Plants

§ These advanced boilers take advantage of further increases in

thermodynamic efficiency and two-stage reheating to reach a
thermodynamic efficiency of 48%
Supercritical Power Plants
Supercritical Power Plants

§ The efficiency of coal-fired power generation is primarily dependent on

when the steam generated from the boiler and the combustion of coal is
at a more elevated temperature and pressure
ú However, the strength of the boiler decreases when used at high
temperatures and pressure for long periods of time
ú In an effort to solve this problem, Hitachi has reviewed the design by
focusing on strength and heat transmission, and developed high-strength
steel
Supercritical Power Plants

ú Hitachi has also established ultra-supercritical pressure power

generation technology, which is able to withstand high temperatures
in the (600 degrees) class and high pressure (25MPa, about 250
times greater than atmospheric pressure)
This approach is resulting in the reduction of CO2 emissions by 7% in
ultra-supercritical pressure power generation, compared with current sub-
critical pressure power generation
ú Coal-fired power generation in Japan is operated with a total
efficiency rate of 40% or more, the highest rate in the world
ú Steam conditions up to 30 MPa/600°C/620°C are achieved using
steels with 12% chromium content
Supercritical Power Plants

ú Up to 31.5 MPa/620°C/620°C is achieved using Austenite, which is a

proven, but expensive, material
ú Nickel-based alloys, e.g. Inconel, would permit 35 MPa/700°C/720°C,
yielding efficiencies up to 48%
§ Benefits of advanced supercritical power plants include:
ú Reduced fuel costs due to improved plant efficiency
ú Significant reduction in CO2 emissions
ú Excellent availability, comparable with that of an existing sub-critical plant
ú Plant costs comparable with sub-critical technology and less than other
clean coal technologies
 Supercritical Power Plants

ú Much reduced NOx, SOx and

particulate emissions
ú Compatible with biomass co-firing
ú Can be fully integrated with
appropriate CO2 capture technology
§ Current designs of supercritical
plants have installation costs that
are only 2% higher than those of
subcritical plants
Supercritical Power Plants