F24AeroII, Class Note #01

No. Topics, Part I Textbook Section

0 Review
1 Pursuing Higher Speed 7.1
2 Flight Speed and Mach Number: An Example
3 Compressibility of Fluid 7.3
4 The Sonic Speed 8.3
5 Moving Disturbance 9.1

0. Review of Aerodynamics I (Low-Speed Flows) and Looking Ahead…

Aerospace vehicles & flight missions (Flight Mechanics & Control, Aerodynamics, Solid Mechanics, Propulsion)
Design and Analysis
Objective of aerodynamics and the basic problem (including ground coordinate system and body C.S.)
WHAT/WHY/HOW of aerodynamics:
WHAT: (vehicle as a solid boundary) Physical objectThe Concept of continuum
Fluid element and flow field.
WHY: the science of aerodynamics (Physical variables, governing equations, see Appendix A below).
HOW: apply the analytical knowledge, design aerospace vehicles.
Aerodynamic Models:
Bernoulli Equation (Chapter 3, Anderson)
Low-Speed Thin-Airfoil Theory (Chapters 3 and 4)
Lifting-Line Theory (Chapter 5)

Aerodynamic Models to be covered in this course:

A: Q1D FSAC (Chapter 10)
Shock-Expansion Theory (Chapters 8 and 9)
Linearized Supersonic Flow Theory (Chapters 11 and 12)
Subsonic Similarity Laws (Chapter 11)
B: Compressible Couette Flow (Chapter 16)
Low-Speed Boundary Theory (Blasius Solution and others, Chapter 18)
Turbulent BL Solutions (many, Chapter 19)
Turbulence Models (many, Chapter 19)

Comments:
(1) Presentation of core technical content: (i) verbal reasoning; (ii) formula—equations, derivations,
computations.
(2) Degree of difficulty: high (seems abstract; easily get confused).

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(3) Warning: materials covered in weeks 3 & 4 are critical.
(4) Suggestion: AERODYNAMIC MODELS are the key.
(5) Philosophy: WHAT/WHY/HOW, and we shall cover:
(6) The object of interest and (i) its motion in fluids, or (ii) fluids going through,
(7) Applying fundamental governing equations for fluid motion in specific cases.
(8) Design the objects that meet certain requirements.

1. Pursuing Higher Speed (Section 7.1, Anderson)

(1) Capability: Being able to fly (Wright brothers).
(2) Transportation: Flight as a mean of transportation (Being faster, while safely, is important).
(3) Efficiency.
(4) Environmental Issues.

Review: Weight vs. Lift and Thrust vs. Drag

(1) For a constant CD, D is proportional to the square of the flight speed.
(2) CD experiences large increase while the speed approaches the sonic speed (sound barrier).
(3) Simply increasing the engine thrust might not be enough.

An Example: Quasi-One-Dimensional Flow (Section 3.3, Anderson)

We are mainly interested in the changes of flow in the main flow direction, x. The cross-sectional area is

changing: A=A(x). We may neglect the changes in the cross-sections, i.e., = = 0.

All flow variables are assumed to be functions of x only.

We deal with steady, incompressible, inviscid Q1D flows here. Two unknowns, V(x), p(x), & two equations.
Continuity Eq.: 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. Momentum Eq.: 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (Bernoulli Eq.)

A(x) V(x) p(x) Device

↘ ↗ ↘ Nozzle

↗ ↘ ↗ Diffuser

A typical problem—Given: ρ, A1, V1, p1; Given: A2; Find: V2, p2;

Solution: 𝑉 = 𝑉 ; 𝑝 = 𝑝 + 𝜌(𝑉 − 𝑉 )=𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 (1 − )

Diffuser with given ρ, A1, V1, p1: as A2 goes very large, V2→0; p2→p0; Kinetic energy → Internal energy
Nozzle with given ρ, A1, V1, p1: as A2 goes very small, V2→∞; p2→-∞; Kinetic energy ← Internal energy
One may argue: p2 can only go as low as 0. As p2→0, can density stay as a constant?

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Volta Conference (1935): see Section 7.1, Anderson
Discussion: airplane at 800 km/h (Air speed record in 1934: 700km/h, see Appendix B below)
Myth: sound barrier; Swept wing design (A. Busemann)
Importance of variable-density aerodynamics; Transonic and supersonic wind tunnels
High speed High kinetic energy  Heating Temperature increase
The field of compressible flow theory (subsonic, transonic, supersonic, and hypersonic)

We may follow the thinking of the leading scientists and engineers and ask:
Question 0101: Why do we need to consider changes in density when flight speed is high?
Question 0102: What does “high” speed mean quantitatively?
Question 0103: What exactly causes density to change?

Boeing 747-400 (http://www.airliners.net/open.file/0064022/M/)

Powerplant: Four of 252.4kN PW-4056 turbofans. Long range cruising speed: 907km/h.

Example: Messerschmitt Me 262 – German Luftwaffe (the world's first operational jet-powered fighter
aircraft.) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_262)

Type Jet Fighter (1st) Introduction Apr. 1944

No. Built 1,430 Crew 1
Length 10.6m Span 12.6m
Height 3.5m Wing Area 21.7m2
Weight (empty) 3,795kg Weight (loaded) 6,473kg
MTOW 7,130kg Powerplant 2xJunkers Jumbo 004 B-1 turbojet
Thrust 2x 8.8kN T/W 0.28
V (max) 900km/h Range 1,050km

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Example: Lockheed Martin F35 Lightning II
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_Martin_F-35_Lightning_II)

Type 5th-Generation 1st Flight: Dec. 2006

Stealth Fighter Introduction: 2015
No. Built 13 Crew 1
Length 15.7m Span 10.7m
Height 4.3m Wing Area 42.7m2
Weight (empty) 13,300kg Weight (loaded) 22,470kg
MTOW 31,800kg Powerplant 1xPW F135 turbofan
Thrust 125/191kN T/W 0.87-1.07
V (max) 2065km/h (M1.67) Range 2,220km

Bell X-1

Shadowgraph of a .22 caliber bullet with M~3 (http://www.fluidmech.net/)

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 2. Flight Speed and Mach Number: An Example
Before we reveal the answers to the questioned listed under the section on the Volta Conference, we first
take a look at an example we have studied before.
Question: An aircraft flies at a constant speed V in the air. Take the air as the standard sea-level atmosphere.
Convert the problem to a coordinate system fixed on the aircraft (why do we want to convert to such a
coordinate system?). Find the Mach number of the incoming free stream at various values of V.
Solution: Standard sea-level air has the following thermodynamic property:
Temperature: T=288K; Pressure: p=1.0125x105Pa (density ρ=1.225kg/m3); Adiabatic coefficient: γ=1.4;
Gas constant for air: R=287.14
We may find the sonic speed (to be explained and derived later) to be,
𝑐= 𝛾𝑅𝑇 = 340𝑚/𝑠
Case 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
V (km/h) 10 100 500 1000 1,224 2,500 6,000 12,000
V (m/s) 2.78 27.8 139 278 340 694 1,667 3,333
M=V/c 0.008 0.08 0.41 0.82 1 2.04 4.9 9.8

Comments:
For cases 1 and 2, we can use the low-speed theory covered in Aerodynamics I to solve for the lift
coefficient of the airplane (or to be exact, airfoil sections and the wing). Case 3 is already a stretch for us
regarding the low-speed aerodynamic models. Cases 4 to 8 are definitely beyond our present knowledge.
The Mach numbers are presented in the table above. But we have not dealt with it in a rigorous way. It
is just simply stated that the Mach number of 0.3 is a dividing point for low- and high-speed flows. Naturally,
we need to find out what the sonic speed really is, and why shall we compare flow speed with the sonic
speed, before we can understand compressible flows.
We shall come back to solving for the high-speed flows around an airfoil (or a wing) in Chapters 11 and
12. You may find out that the materials we cover from now on until these chapters are mostly for the so-called
quasi-one-dimensional (Q1D) flows. These simple flows, along with some 2-D cases, would actually provide
us with almost all the essence of inviscid compressible flows, which we shall appreciate when the time comes
for us to review the entire course.

3. Compressibility of Fluids (Section 7.3, Anderson)

Compressibility is a physical property of any fluid. What we need is a quantitative measure of how easy/difficult
it is to compress/expand a fluid. From common sense, we can say that water (liquid) is not easy to compress
and air (gas) is easy to compress. We define the compressibility of the fluid as,
𝜏≡− (1)

where v is the specific volume, and p the pressure. Thus, from definition, τ is the relative change in specific
volume per unit change in pressure. Or, for 1 Pa increase in pressure, how much change (decrease) in the
volume occupied by 1kg mass of fluid has occurred. For positive dp (compression), dv is negative, so we have

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the minus sign in the definition to make τ a positive parameter. We may replace the expression with the density,
as it is far more common to use density in aerodynamics rather than specific volume,
𝜏≡ (1a)

Of course, τ is a physical parameter of the fluid. We may measure it under various conditions/processes.
Generally, the value of τ depends on the precise process of the compression, not just the starting and ending
thermodynamic states. We can further define the isothermal compressibility and the isentropic compressibility
respectively as,

𝜏 ≡ 𝜏 ≡ (1b)

which are more precise in thermodynamic sense. (Here, we have dealt with the compressibility of a fluid in a
static way. What happens to it when the fluid is in motion, which is the case we really care about in
aerodynamics?)

4. The Sonic Speed (Disturbance Generated by A Plane Source. Section 8.3, Anderson)

Fig. 1. Left: a fire. Center: a beep of disturbance. Right: a beep sending out disturbance waves.

An explosion: chemical energy is released as heat into the air, which gains internal energy.
A ‘beep’: a very small explosion which releases a tiny amount of energy into the air.
Molecular point of view: outwards from the center of the beep, energy is transferred to the air (say, originally
standard sea-level, and stationary). One may reasonably argue: the process happens layer-by-layer (spherical),
reaching larger and larger radius. If the process happens at a finite speed, we may view it as a spherical wave.

Let’s look at an example: for stationary air everywhere with constant thermodynamic state of p, ρ, T,
suppose there is a disturbance at point A where a tiny solid ball suddenly explodes. From a physics point of
view, the solid at A will have interaction (pushing the air outward) with the air molecules around it.

solid ball: spherically 1D d/d(theta)=0, d/d(phi)=0, d/dr !=0

solid straight line: cylindrically 1D d/d(theta)=0, d/dz=0, d/dr !=0
solid plane: 1D in Cartesian coordinates d/dy=0, d/dz=0, d/dx !=0

MolecularMacroscopic, wave is a sphere/cylinder/plane.

Collision ForceMomentum transfer, fluid in rest gaining macroscopic speed.
Kinetic and thermal energy transferFluid gaining kinetic and thermal energy.

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 Fig. 2. A plane disturbance of infinitesimal strength.

From a fluid mechanics point of view, there are pressure waves propagating from point A. The air is been
pushed, its pressure would increase, albeit by a very small amount. Similar changes happen to ρ and T.
From fluid mechanics theory, we can find out the speed at which the wave travels!
Considering the symmetry of the case, the pressure wave is of spherical shape, which would make the
solution process a little bit more complex than the case shown below and it is left as a homework assignment.
We shall proceed instead to an easier case next.
Consider fluid in a duct with constant area A: V=0, p, ρ, T. A very small wave passes through. The wave
speed is at a constant c (For now, let us just assume this speed is a constant).
After the wave passes, parameters changed to p+dp, ρ+dρ, T+dT, c-dV. Let the viewer travels with the
wave, i.e., in a different frame of reference (F.O.R). Now, we have three unknowns: dV, dp, dρ.

Continuity Eq.: 𝑚̇/A= ρc=(ρ+dρ)(c-dV)  dV=c dρ/ρ

Momentum Eq.: pA-(p+dp)A=𝑚̇[(c-dV)-c]  dp=ρcdV  c2=dp/dρ
The process can be considered as adiabatic: process rapid; temperature variation small. The process
can also be considered as reversible: variations in p and T are vanishingly small. Thus, the process can be
considered isentropic, and we have,

𝑐= (2)

So, somehow, the change in density caused by change in pressure is quantified by a velocity measure
(m/s). We can see from this, at least vaguely, that flow speed is related to the compressibility of a fluid. The
compressibility becomes significant when the flow reaches high enough speed. The isentropic compressibility
can be expressed as,

𝜏 ≡ = 𝑐= (2a)

Definition: Speed of sound (sonic speed) is the propagation speed of small perturbations in a medium.
For a perfect gas such as air, the isentropic relation gives,
𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑝 𝛾𝑝
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. => =𝛾 => = => 𝑐 = 𝛾𝑅𝑇
𝜌 𝑝 𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝜌
𝜏 = = = (2b)

Comments on the Sound Speed

(1) With Eq. 2, we can see that the speed of pressure waves caused by a small disturbance depends only

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on the temperature for a specific perfect gas.
(2) The sound speed, even with the word speed in its name, is actually a thermodynamic parameter; it does
not depend on the flow velocity! It is not natural at all to compare the sonic speed and the flow velocity.
(3) Flow speed can be of an arbitrary value in an arbitrary coordinate system. Talking about an arbitrary
relative value of flow speed is nonsense. Comparing the flow speed to the sound speed should be in the sense
that the flow speed is relative to the source of the disturbance. A high flow speed should mean that the flow
speed is large relative to the source of disturbance (such as a solid wall, which forces the flow to change
direction).
(4) For Air at 15oC: c is about 340m/s=1,224 km/h (Note: see the Standard Atmosphere Model below); For
liquids: a typical value of c is about 1500m/s=5,400 km/h. For incompressible flows, c is infinity, meaning any
perturbation would be felt throughout the flow field immediately.
(5) For a general flow field, we may view the thermodynamic parameters as fields of space-time. Thus, Eq.
2 can also be viewed as a field, i.e., c is a thermodynamic field.

5. Moving Disturbance (Fig. 9.4, pg. 605, Anderson)

The case where the disturbance source is stationary and the air is also stationary has been discussed.
We now turn our attention to the case where the disturbance source (a straight line) is moving at a constant
speed in stationary air (you may consider: what are the real cases that correspond to this?). As shown in the
figure below and Fig. 9.4, Anderson, we may plot the source and the waves it generated at several
instantaneous times.

Case A: the disturbance source is moving while generating a wave at time intervals of 1 sec.
∆t=1s, c=300m/s, V=200m/s. For t=0, 1, 2, 3, and 4s.

Happens @ Circle @ t=4s, the radius

centers @ of the circle

t=0s (0,0) 1200m

t=1s (-200m,0) 900m
t=2s (-400m,0) 600m
t=3s (-600m,0) 300m
t=4s (-800m,0) 0m

Fig. 3. A line disturbance moving (slowly) in stationary fluids.

Observations: (1) A wave would contain all the later-generated waves. (2) The disturbance source is contained
inside all the waves. (3) As enough time passes by, any faraway place would feel the disturbance.

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Case B: conditions the same as in Case A, except that V=600m/s

Happens Circle @ t=4s, the radius

@ centers @ of the circle

t=0s (0,0) 1200m

t=1s (-600m,0) 900m
t=2s (-1200m,0) 600m
t=3s (-1800m,0) 300m
t=4s (-2400m,0) 0m

Fig. 4. A line disturbance moving (fast) in stationary fluids.

Observations: (1) Waves can cross each other (not all). (2) The disturbance source is ‘leading’ all the waves.
(3) There are always places ahead of the source that do not feel the disturbance. (4) All the waves are
contained in a0 wedge/cone (for 2D/3D, respectively).

The results show that the pictures differ qualitatively for cases with V being less than, equal to, or larger
than c, respectively. The patterns of the wave family would certainly be different from each other. When V is
less than c, a larger wave (larger radius, generated less recently) contains a smaller wave (smaller radius,
generated more recently). When V is the same as c, a larger wave contains a smaller wave, but they share a
common point, which is also the point the source currently resides. When V is the larger than c, a larger wave
may not contain a smaller wave and the source is always to the left of all waves. Also, there exists a wedge
(cone for the case with a point source) with its tip at the source and contains all the waves. More precisely, the
wedge is tangent to all the waves, which certainly seems more interesting. The wedge/cone seems to be
special thing. And it has a name: the Mach cone (or Mach wedge). Of course, the shape of the wedge/cone
can be represented entirely by its half-angle which satisfies:
𝒄 𝟏 𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝁 = 𝑽 = 𝑽/𝒄 ≡ 𝑴 (3)

We call this angle μ the Mach angle. For it to be meaningful, M=V/c must be no less than 1.

Regions of Influence and Dependence

The region where the disturbance at point A can be felt (Region of influence for point A);
The region of all points with each of which generated disturbance can be felt at point A (Region of
dependence for point A)

Realms of Fluid Motion: Revisit

(1) Acoustic: V is extremely small comparing with c; but variations in p, ρ, T are significant
(2) Incompressible: V is not small, variations in p, T are significant, variations in ρ is insignificant
(3) Compressible: V is not small, variations in p, ρ, T are significant

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Mach Number: M=V/c
M < 1: flow is subsonic; M > 1: flow is supersonic; M < 1 and > 1 co-exist: transonic.
What’s the meaning and significance of M? M represents the ratio of macro kinetic energy to internal energy;
so when M is small, V has small influence on the thermodynamic state of the fluid. M also represents the
compressibility of the fluid in motion. M is a very important parameter for compressible flows

Essence of Compressible Flow

(1) If we take any flow field as an interaction between a uniform flow and obstacle (such as a solid body),
the result is the combination of all disturbances acting on top of the original undisturbed flow.
(2) Disturbance, which is caused by molecular collisions, is represented by the pressure waves.
(3) “Compressible” means changes in density. Compressibility is a physical attribute of fluids. All fluids are
compressible. There must be a measure of how easy/difficult to compress a fluid. The measure must be a
function of the physical properties of the fluid itself and its current thermodynamic state.
(4) They are several mechanisms that lead to changes in density. But the essence is that the pressure waves
lead to significant changes in density. This is what we care about in aerodynamics.

Examples of Compressible Flow

(1) High speed flow is not an ordinary event!
(2) High speed flight of: Airplanes/Rockets/Spacecrafts
(3) Flow through: Gas turbine/Steam turbine/Other applications
(4) Blast wave…
(5) Mostly engineering applications related to power/propulsion
(6) Aerodynamics is the most important fundamental subject of aerospace engineering

Fig. 5. Experimental observations of subsonic and supersonic flows.

(Pictures taken from Van Dyke, An Album of Fluid Motion, 1972.)

Standard Atmosphere (Review)

(1) The atmosphere is where the aircraft navigates. Of course, we need to know its properties.
(2) The atmosphere has seasonal changes.
(3) The atmosphere can be different under various weather conditions.

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(4) For aeronautical engineers, the most important parameter here is the altitude. Common sense tells us
the higher the altitude, the cooler the air is and the lower the air pressure is.
(5) People have devised a term called the standard atmosphere, which gives the air properties for altitude
from zero (sea-level) up to the outer edge. It is based on empirical data and is season-averaged.
(6) Now, we usually use the U.S. Standard Atmosphere (1976) as our source for getting the air properties.
Please refer to “US_Standard_Air1976.m” and “US_Standard_Air1976_test.m” for getting the air properties.
Below is a plot of the pressure, density, and temperature of the standard air at altitudes between 0 and up to
80km. You will need to use these Matlab files in your future study, so learn how they work.
4 U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976
x 10
9
p/p0
8 rho/rho
0
T/T
7 0

6
Altitude, m

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

Fig. 6, Standard atmosphere properties

Short Review
(1) Pursuing higher speed
(2) Density change (compressible) is significant with high-speed flight
(3) “High-speed” is relative to “sonic speed,” which is the propagation speed of small disturbances (pressure
wave)Mach number & Mach Cone“Regions of Dependence” and “Regions of Influence”
(4) Density change caused by pressure change is the main concern (essence of compressible flows)

Key Words: High speed; Compressible; Pressure Wave

Looking Ahead……
(1) Focus on steady, inviscid high-speed flows
(2) 1D2D3D; InternalExternal;
(3) Aerodynamic Models (Q1D Isentropic Model, Normal Shock Model, Shock-Expansion Model)

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 Appendix A: Review of the Fundamental Governing Equations

Fig. A1. A portrait of the great Leonhard Euler,1707-1783 (pic. taken from Wikipedia).
Euler is accredited with applying the Newton mechanics to fluid flows and building the so-called Euler
equations. His approach (the Eulerian Approach) of constructing an arbitrary control volume that is fixed in
space in the chosen coordinate system, contrary to a more direct/natural approach where a fluid element or a
group of fluid elements are followed and tracked all the time, was a work of genius. He should be regarded as
the greatest founder of fluid mechanics/aerodynamics as well as the most important scientist in the field of
analytical mechanics. Note: to many learners of fluid mechanics, failing to switch to the Eulerian Approach
frame of mind is the main cause of a lot of confusion and misunderstandings. It is highly recommended that a
student should have a quite thorough grasp of the Eulerian Approach before learning the Lagrangian Approach.

To develop the theory of fluid flow, we must have:

 A specific object of interest that is based on a physical matter, which enables us to……
 Define a set of physical variables (that have respective values and units)
 All fundamental physical laws must be observed, leading to……
 A set of governing equations that determines the behavior of each physical variable (The power of the
theory is simply: we may establish A=B, when B is known, A becomes a known value.)
Fluid Mechanics/Aerodynamics:
 Concept: ContinuumFluid element and flow field
 Definitions: Kinetic: velocity vector; thermodynamic: pressure, density…
 Fundamental Laws: Conservation of mass/momentum/energy
 Governing Equations: 5 equations with 5 unknowns
 Aerodynamic models: Simplifications/Specific theory

Object of Interest—“The Concept”

 Mechanics: particle and rigid body
 Body of mass with deformation

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 Can we take the multi-body approach? It turns out that we should take fluid as a continuum and concern
with the macroscopic properties of fluid
 Example: define the density field. We will not use the approach of analyzing a “fluid particle”, but rather
a small sum of fluid particles – “fluid element”
 The important forces are applying on surfaces, not on specific particles. This is the main difference
between the study of classic mechanics and continuum mechanics
Summary:
1. The smallest mass of interest is called a fluid element, which is infinitesimally smalla point in space
2. The physical properties of a fluid element are macroscopic properties of many fluid molecules
3. Any portion of fluid consists of continuously distributed fluid elements

Definition of Parameters (Anderson 1.4)

 Mass— Volume/Density
 Motion— Position/Velocity/Acceleration (Neglecting random thermal motion)
 Force— Pressure/Shear and Normal Stresses (classic thermodynamic view revisited,
macroscopically stationary, internally uniform, one quantity for all the mass in consideration)
 Energy (Internal, Non-kinetic)—Temperature

Thinking Process:
Interaction between fluid elementsForcesMotionNewton’s Second Law

Classic Mechanics/Particle Aerodynamics/Continuum

Formula Explaination Formula Explaination
F=ma Mass m is clearly defined ?& m=0 at a point P
dm=ρ*d(Vol) ρ(P) is clearly defined
fixing d(Vol) is not wise
a=dV/dt a & V are clearly defined a=dV/dt
Need dt.
Considering t1, t2, … is not wise
V=dl/dt same as above V=dl/dt
Fl Simple: F is independent of l lsolidlfluid boundary X
Complex: F depends on l ?lf?Ff complex
Normally, F is via an Ff.b.? Fs F is mainly internal,
external mechanism its mechanism unknown

We know the mechanism of F itself, ……

we want to find l as the result of F
We need dt to talk about l and V
We need d(Vol) to talk about mass

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 The power of differentiation!
We define aerodynamic variables at physical points. BUT, we can not just look at points
1. ACTUALLY, we must look at differentiation (infinitesimal)
2. Of course, we will also do the opposite operation—integrate
3. Finally, we will have things in differential form that are easy to use

Derivation of Governing Equations for Inviscid Flows

Control Volume
 Can we apply the physical laws directly to a fluid particle in a Eulerian approach? (The answer is no.)
 Instead, we use a control volume to which the physical laws are applied.
 A control volume (CV) is a volume enclosed by a closed surface, which can be of arbitrary shape (See
Fig. A2 below).
 Usually, the CV has fixed (does not change with time) location in space
 Fluid particles fill the CV
 We consider changes of physical variables inside the CV and exchanges made through the surface of
the CV (we call it the control surface, CS)
 On the CS, fluid particles either flow into or flow out of the CV
 As time goes by, the fluid particles inside the CV are changing constantly
 For example: we can get the total mass at time t inside a CV as,

𝑚(𝑡) = 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) 𝑑∀
∀

Continuity Equation
a. Control Volume and Control Surface
An arbitrary control volume is shown in Fig. A2. The volume is enclosed by a closed surface, S, which is
called the control surface. In the Eulerian approach, we let it have a fixed location in space. As time goes by,
fluid comes in/out of the CS.

Control
Volume, V

Control Surface, S

Figure A2: Sketch of an arbitrary control volume.

For example, you get tap water when you open the valve and water flows out. If we want to analyze the
water flow inside the water pipe, we can build a control volume like this,

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 water

Very close to the pipe wall

Figure A3: A control volume inside a pipe

As time goes by, water flows into the CV from the left, and flows out of the CV at the right. On the side
walls, we know there would be no water coming in/out.
b. A Segment of the Control Surface
Go back to Fig. A2, Let us take out a small piece of the CS. The area of this small piece is dS. We use
point A to represent dS. Point A has coordinates of (x1, y1, z1). We define an outer normal direction of dS as n,
which is a unit vector that is normal to dS and points away from the CV. Then we use a convention to define a
vector dS as shown below,
𝒅𝑺⃗ = 𝒅𝑺𝒏⃗

n
Vn

θ
V (x1,y1,z1,t)
point A
(x1,y1,z1)
dS Vt

Figure A4: A small piece of the control surface with a velocity vector
As shown in Fig. A4, on dS, we can define a local velocity vector, V, of the fluid there. Now, we are
interested in the amount of mass flow out/in of the CV through dS. Geometry dictates that,
𝑉 = 𝑉⃗ • 𝑛⃗ = 𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
The parallel component, Vt, does not bring mass in/out of the CV through dS. It just flows by dS. The
mass that flows in/out of the CV through dS from time t to t+Δt is,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝛥𝑀 = −𝜌(𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 , 𝑡)(𝑑𝑆)(𝑉 𝛥𝑡)
where the minus sign is due to the convention that the mass flows into the CV is marked as positive and that
flows out is regarded as negative. The mass flow through dS per unit time is,
𝛥𝑀
𝑑𝑚̇ = = −𝜌(𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 , 𝑡)𝑉 (𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 , 𝑡)𝑑𝑆 = −𝜌𝑉⃗ • 𝑛⃗𝑑𝑆 = −𝜌𝑉⃗ • 𝑑𝑆⃗
𝛥𝑡
where we use lower case m(dot) for mass flow rate (kg/s)
c. Mass Flow through the Entire Control Surface
The total mass flow rate through the entire CS is just the summation of all the little pieces of dS,
𝑚̇ = − ∑ 𝜌𝑉⃗ • 𝑑𝑆⃗ = − ∑ 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑆 (A1)
which is just the following integration in the limit of each dS having infinitesimal area,
𝑚̇ = 𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑑𝑆 → 0) ∑ 𝜌𝑉⃗ • 𝑑𝑆⃗ = ∯ 𝜌𝑉⃗ • 𝑑𝑆⃗ (A2)

F24AeroII—CN#01: Page 15 of 23
d. Conservation of Mass
Now go back to building the continuity equation. Conservation of mass simply states: mass cannot be
destroyed nor created. Applied to the situation shown in Fig. A2, we have,
(1) The time rate of change of the total mass inside the CV
plus (2) the mass flow rate (going out of the CV) through the CS
must equal zero.
We have calculated the latter value (Eq. A2). Now, let us calculate the first part.
e. Mass inside an Infinitesimal Fluid Element and a Control Volume
Consider first an infinitesimal fluid element around a point B at (x2, y2, z2) inside the CV, the mass of
which is,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝛥𝑀(𝐹. 𝐸. ) = −𝜌(𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 , 𝑡)𝑑∀
The total mass inside the CV is the limit of the summation of all the small elements when d(Vol)0 in
size.

𝑀(𝐶𝑉) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑑∀→ 0) 𝜌(𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 , 𝑡)𝑑∀ = 𝜌(𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 , 𝑡)𝑑∀

∀ ∀

The time rate of changes in the total mass inside the CV is,
( ) ( , , , )
= ∰∀ 𝜌(𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 , 𝑡)𝑑∀ = ∰∀ 𝑑∀ (A3)

Note that the CV does not change with time, so we can take the partial derivative of t inside the integral.

f. Continuity Equation (Integral Form)

Conservation of mass dictates that (A2)=(A3),
( , , , )
∰∀ 𝑑∀ + ∯ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)𝑉⃗(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) • 𝑑𝑆⃗ = 0 (A4)

Eq. A4 is the integral form of the continuity equation. We have not assumed anything about the shape, the size,
nor the location of the control volume. The only thing that is required is that the CS is a closed surface. Thus,
Eq. A4 is valid for all shapes and sizes of CV in the flow field as one wish to define. Note: from a strict calculus
point of view, there are requirements placed on the CS and the differential properties of the physical variables.
Among them are continuity of the variables, differentiability, etc. Please check relevant books if you are
interested in these. For now, we will just assume that Eq. A4 can be written and any additional requirements
are implicitly satisfied.
Eq. A4 can be put into a single integration via the Gauss Theorem. The Gauss Theorem says,

𝐴⃗ • 𝑑𝑆⃗ = 𝛻 • 𝐴⃗ 𝑑∀
∀

which means that, for any vector field A, its (directional) integral over a closed surface, S, equals the volume
integral of the divergence of A on the volume enclosed by S. Replace the vector with ρV (which is indeed a
vector field), we get the second term in (A4) as,

𝜌𝑉⃗ • 𝑑𝑆⃗ = 𝛻 • 𝜌𝑉⃗ 𝑑∀

∀

which leads to,

F24AeroII—CN#01: Page 16 of 23
 𝜕𝜌
𝑑∀ + 𝛻 • 𝜌𝑉⃗ 𝑑∀ = 0
∀ 𝜕𝑡 ∀

∰∀ + 𝛻 • 𝜌𝑉⃗ 𝑑∀ = 0 (A5)

g. Continuity Equation (Differential Form)

Eq. A5 is valid everywhere for any CV in the flow field. We have a case where a function’s volume integral
is zero everywhere. In order for that to be true, the function itself has to be zero everywhere in the flow field.
Thus, we get that, everywhere in the flow field,
+ 𝛻 • 𝜌𝑉⃗ = 0 (A6)

which is the differential form of the continuity equation. In Cartesian coordinate system, we have,

+ + + =0 (A7)

where, u, v, and w are the x, y, and z component of the velocity vector, respectively.
Eqs. A6 and A7 can be rewritten as,
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
+ 𝑉⃗ • 𝛻𝜌 + 𝜌𝛻 • 𝑉⃗ = 0 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +𝜌 + + =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
We shall see the power of the deferential form later on, although, it should be critically noted that the
integral form should always be regarded as the more fundamental form.

h. Two Special Cases of the Continuity Equation

Definition: A flow is said to be steady (or steady-state) when values of all physical variables (denoted as
𝜑) at all physical locations do not change with time, i.e,
𝜕𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
=0 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝜕𝑡
For steady flows, the continuity equation becomes,

𝛻 • 𝜌𝑉⃗ 𝑑∀ = 0 → 𝛻 • 𝜌𝑉⃗ = 0 → 𝑉⃗ • 𝛻𝜌 + 𝜌𝛻 • 𝑉⃗ = 0
∀
𝜕𝜌𝑢 𝜕𝜌𝑣 𝜕𝜌𝑤 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
+ + =0 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +𝜌 + + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Definition: A flow is regarded as incompressible if the density of all fluid elements does not change with
time. Incompressible does not necessarily mean ρ(x, y, z, t)=constant. We can have two elements with different
density values, which do not change with time. We shall look at this later on. For uniform incompressible fluid
flow, ρ(x, y, z, t)=constant, we get,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝛻 • 𝑉⃗𝑑∀ = 0 𝛻 • 𝑉⃗ = 0 + + =0
∀ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
which is true for steady and unsteady flows.

F24AeroII—CN#01: Page 17 of 23
 Momentum Equation
Referring to Fig. A2 again, Newton’s second law dictates that,
(1) The time rate of change in momentum for a CV
plus (2) the momentum flow rate (going out of the CV) through the CS
equal (3) the total force acting on the CV.

Control
Volume, V

Control Surface, S

Fig. A2: Sketch of an arbitrary control volume.

We will follow the same procedure we employ in getting the continuity equation. The total momentum
inside a CV is,
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝛥𝑀 = 𝜌(𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 , 𝑡)𝑑∀𝑉⃗(𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 , 𝑡)

𝑀 (𝐶𝑉) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑑∀→ 0) 𝜌(𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 , 𝑡)𝑉⃗𝑑∀ = 𝜌𝑉⃗𝑑∀

∀ ∀

The time rate of changes in the total momentum inside the CV is,
𝜕𝑀 (𝐶𝑉) 𝜕 𝜕𝜌𝑉⃗
= 𝜌𝑉⃗𝑑∀ = 𝑑∀
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 ∀ ∀ 𝜕𝑡

Note again, the CV does not change with time, so we can take the partial derivative inside the integral.
Through the CS,
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝛥𝑀 = −𝜌(𝑑𝑆)(𝑉 𝛥𝑡)
𝛥𝑀 (𝛥𝑀)𝑉⃗
= = −𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑆𝑉⃗ 𝑀 (𝐶𝑆) = − 𝜌𝑉⃗ 𝑉 𝑑𝑆 = − 𝜌𝑉⃗ 𝑉⃗ • 𝑑𝑆⃗
𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡
The forces acting on the CV can be divided into two groups. First, there are forces that act on each of
the fluid element inside CV without making direct contact. We call these “body forces”. For example, gravity is
a body force. We use F for body force per unit mass.
𝐵𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝛥𝐹⃗ = (𝜌𝑑∀)𝐹⃗

𝐵𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐶𝑉) = 𝜌𝐹⃗ 𝑑∀

∀

Secondly, there are forces acting on the CS. We have talked about the pressure and shear forces. These
forces are molecular in nature. They act on the fluid elements on the CS. The source of the forces is from
neighboring fluid elements or solid body. Here, let’s consider only the pressure forces. By neglecting the shear
forces, i.e., neglecting the influence of viscosity, we confine out study to inviscid flows. As shown below, the
pressure force acting on a small dS is always in –n direction.

F24AeroII—CN#01: Page 18 of 23
 n

p (x1,y1,z1,t)

point A
(x1,y1,z1)
dS

Figure A5: A small piece of the control surface with a pressure force
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝛥𝐹⃗ = −𝑝(𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 , 𝑡)𝑛⃗𝑑𝑆 = −𝑝(𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 , 𝑡)𝑑𝑆⃗

𝐹⃗ = − 𝑝𝑑𝑆⃗ = − 𝑝𝑑 𝑆⃗

Putting the four terms above together, we have,

⃗
∰∀ 𝑑∀ + ∯ 𝜌𝑉⃗ 𝑉⃗ • 𝑑𝑆⃗ = ∰∀ 𝜌𝐹⃗ 𝑑∀ − ∯ 𝑝𝑑 𝑆⃗ (A8)

which is the momentum equation for inviscid flows. We call it the Euler equation.
Employing the so-called Gradient Theorem,

𝑝𝑑 𝑆⃗ = (𝛻𝑝)𝑑∀
∀

Employing the Gauss Theorem,

𝜌𝑉⃗ 𝑉⃗ • 𝑑𝑆⃗ = 𝛻 • 𝜌𝑉⃗𝑉⃗ 𝑑∀

∀

𝜕𝜌𝑉⃗
𝑑∀ + 𝛻 • 𝜌𝑉⃗𝑉⃗ 𝑑∀= 𝜌𝐹⃗ 𝑑∀ − (𝛻𝑝)𝑑∀ ==>
∀ 𝜕𝑡 ∀ ∀ ∀
⃗
∰∀ + 𝛻 • 𝜌𝑉⃗𝑉⃗ 𝑑∀= ∰∀ 𝜌𝐹⃗ − 𝛻𝑝 𝑑∀ (A8a)

The differential form:

⃗
+ 𝛻 • 𝜌𝑉⃗𝑉⃗ = 𝜌𝐹⃗ − 𝛻𝑝 (A8b)
𝜕𝜌𝑢 𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜌𝑣𝑢 𝜕𝜌𝑤𝑢 𝜕𝑝
+ + + = 𝜌𝐹 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜌𝑣 𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑣 𝜕𝜌𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜌𝑤𝑣 𝜕𝑝
+ + + = 𝜌𝐹 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦

+ + + = 𝜌𝐹 − (A8c)

For steady, uniform incompressible, inviscid flow without body force,

𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝑣𝑢 𝜕𝑤𝑢 1 𝜕𝑝
+ + =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢𝑣 𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝑤𝑣 1 𝜕𝑝
+ + =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑦

+ + =− (A8d)

F24AeroII—CN#01: Page 19 of 23
 Energy Equation
The first law of thermodynamics dictates that,
(1) The time rate of change in energy for a CV
+ (2) the rate of energy (going out of the CV) through the CS
equal (3) the work rate done by body forces acting on the CV
+ (4) the work rate done by surface forces acting on the CS
We will follow the same procedure that we employed in getting the continuity and momentum equations.
The total energy inside a CV is,
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × (𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)
𝑉 𝑉
𝛥𝐸 = 𝜌(𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 , 𝑡)𝑑∀ 𝑒 + 𝐸(𝐶𝑉) = 𝜌 𝑒+ 𝑑∀
2 ∀ 2
where e is the internal energy (per unit mass).
The time rate of changes in the total energy inside the CV is,
𝜕𝐸(𝐶𝑉) 𝜕 𝑉 𝜕 𝑉
= 𝜌 𝑒+ 𝑑∀ = 𝜌 𝑒+ 𝑑∀
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 ∀ 2 ∀ 𝜕𝑡 2
Note again, the CV does not change with time, so we can take the partial derivative inside the integral. Through
the CS,
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐼𝑛 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝑛 × (𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑉 𝑉
𝛥𝐸 = −𝜌(𝑑𝑆)(𝑉 𝛥𝑡) 𝑒 + 𝐸(𝐶𝑆) = − 𝜌 𝑒+ 𝑉⃗ • 𝑑𝑆⃗
2 2
The work rate done by the body forces,
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑐 𝑒
𝐵𝑜𝑑𝑦𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

𝛥𝑊 = 𝜌𝑑∀𝐹⃗ • 𝑉⃗ 𝑊 (𝐶𝑉) = 𝜌𝐹⃗ • 𝑉⃗𝑑∀

∀

The work rate done by the pressure forces,

𝛥𝑊 = −𝑝𝑑𝑆⃗ • 𝑉⃗ 𝑊 (𝐶𝑆) = − 𝑝 𝑉⃗ • 𝑑𝑆⃗

Putting the four terms above together, we have the inviscid energy equation,

∰ 𝜌 𝑒+ 𝑑∀ + ∯ 𝜌 𝑒+ 𝑉⃗ • 𝑑𝑆⃗ = ∰ 𝜌𝐹⃗ • 𝑉⃗𝑑∀ − ∯ 𝑝𝑉⃑ • 𝑑 𝑆⃗ (A9a)

Converting the surface integrals to volume integrals,

∰ 𝜌 𝑒+ 𝑑∀ + ∰ 𝛻• 𝜌 𝑒+ 𝑉⃗ = 𝜌𝐹⃗ • 𝑉⃗ − 𝛻 • 𝑝𝑉⃗ 𝑑∀ (A9b)

The differential form is:

𝜌 𝑒+ +𝛻• 𝜌 𝑒+ 𝑉⃗ = 𝜌𝐹⃗ • 𝑉⃗ − 𝛻 • 𝑝𝑉⃗ (A9c)

F24AeroII—CN#01: Page 20 of 23
Appendix B: Air-Speed Record – Major Timeline (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_airspeed_record)

Airspeed
Date Pilot Aircraft Location
mph km/h
1903 Wilbur Wright 6.82 10.98 Wright Flyer Kitty Hawk, NC, USA

1910/07/10 L Morane 66.154 106.51 Blériot

1913/09/29 Maurice Prévost 126.61 203.85 Deperdussin Monocoque

1928/03/30 Mario de Bernardi 318.620 512.78 Macchi M.52bis

1944 Heinz Herlitzius 624 1004.00 Messerschmitt Me 262 S2* Leipheim

1947 Chuck Yeager 670.0 1078.00 Bell X-1- Rocket powered* Muroc, California, USA

From this point records are set at altitude and not sea level.

1955/10 Horace A. Hanes 822.1 1,323.0 N. American F-100C Super Sabre Palmdale, USA

1956/03/10 Peter Twiss 1,132 1,822.0 Fairey Delta 2 Chichester, UK

1958/05 Cap. WW Irwin, USAF 1,404 2,259.5 Lockheed F-104C Starfighter Edwards AF Base, USA

1961/11/22 Robert G. Robinson 1606.3 2585.1 Modified M-D F-4 Phantom II Edwards AF Base, USA

Eldon W. Joersz &

1976/07/28 2,193.2 3,529.6 Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird Beale AFB, USA
George T. Morgan

Full Timeline (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_airspeed_record)

Airspeed
Date Pilot Aircraft Location
mph km/h
1903 Wilbur Wright 6.82 10.98 Wright Flyer Kitty Hawk, NC, USA

1905 Wilbur Wright 37.85 60.91 Wright Flyer III

1906/11/12 A. Santos-Dumont 25.65 41.29 Santos-Dumont First officially recognized

1907/10/26 Henry Farman 32.73 52.70 Voisin biplane

1908 Henry Farman 40.26 64.79 Voisin biplane

1909/05/25 P Tissander 34.04 54.81 Wright

1909 Gordon Bennett

1909/08/23 Glenn Curtiss 43.367 69.82 Curtiss No. 2
Cup

1909/08/24 Louis Blériot 46.160 74.32 Blériot XI

1909/08/28 Louis Blériot 47.823 77.00 Blériot XI

1910/04/23 Hubert Latham 48.186 77.58 Antoinette

1910/07/10 L Morane 66.154 106.51 Blériot

1910/10/29 Alfred Leblanc 68.171 109.76 Blériot XI

1911/04/12 Alfred Leblanc 69.442 111.80 Blériot Blériot

1911/05/11 Edouard Nieuport 73.385 119.76 Nieuport

F24AeroII—CN#01: Page 21 of 23
1911/06/12 Alfred Leblanc 77.640 125.00 Blériot

1911/06/16 Edouard Nieuport 80.781 130.06 Nieuport

1911/06/21 Edouard Nieuport 82.693 133.14 Nieuport Nie-2 N

1912/01/13 Jules Vedrines 87.68 145.16 Deperdussin Monocoque

1912/02/22 Jules Vedrines 100.18 161.29 Deperdussin Monocoque

1912/02/29 Jules Vedrines 100.90 162.45 Deperdussin Monocoque

1912/03/01 Jules Vedrines 103.62 166.82 Deperdussin Monocoque

1912/03/02 Jules Vedrines 104.29 167.91 Deperdussin Monocoque

1912/07/13 Jules Vedrines 106.07 170.78 Deperdussin Monocoque

1912/09/09 Jules Vedrines 108.14 174.10 Deperdussin Monocoque

1913/06/17 Maurice Prévost 111.69 179.82 Deperdussin Monocoque

1913/09/27 Maurice Prévost 119.19 191.90 Deperdussin Monocoque

1913/09/29 Maurice Prévost 126.61 203.85 Deperdussin Monocoque

1914 Norman Spratt 134.5 216.50 RAF SE.4

1918/08 Roland Rohlfs 163 262.30 Curtiss Wasp Not officially recognized.

1919 Joseph Sadi-Lecointe 191.1 307.50 Nieuport-Delage 29v

1st official record post

1920/02/08 Joseph Sadi-Lecointe 171.0 275.26 Nieuport-Delage NiD 29
WWI

1920 Joseph Sadi-Lecointe 194.5 313.00 Nieuport-Delage 29v

1921/09/26 Joseph Sadi-Lecointe 205.2 330.28 Nieuport-Delage

1922/10/18 Billy Mitchell 224.28 360.93 Curtiss R-6

1923/03/29 Russell Maughan 236.587 380.74 Curtiss R-6

1923/11/02 H. J. Rowe 259.16 417.07 Curtiss R2C-1

1923/11/04 Alford J. Williams 266.59 429.02 Curtiss R2C-1

1924 Florentin Bonnet 278.5 448.20 Bernard Ferbois V2

1927 Mario de Bernardi 297.8 479.30 Macchi M.52

1928/03/30 Mario de Bernardi 318.620 512.78 Macchi M.52bis

1929/09/10 George H. Stainforth 336.3 541.40 Gloster VI Calshot, UK

1929/09/12 Augustus Orlebar 357.7 575.50 Supermarine S.6 seaplane Calshot, UK

1929 Giuseppe Motta 362.0 582.60 Macchi M.67

1931/09/13 George H. Stainforth 407.5 655.80 Supermarine S.6B seaplane Lee-on-the-Solent, UK

1933 Francesco Agello 424 682.00 Macchi M.C.72 seaplane

1934 Francesco Agello 440.6 709.00 Macchi M.C.72 seaplane

1939/04/26 Fritz Wendel 469.220 755.14 Me 209 V1 Augsburg

1944 Heinz Herlitzius 624 1004.00 Messerschmitt Me 262 S2* Leipheim

F24AeroII—CN#01: Page 22 of 23
 Rocket powered Me 163B
1944 Heini Dittmar 702 1130.00 Lagerlechfeld
V18*

1945/11/07 H. J. Wilson 606.4 975.90 Gloster Meteor F Mk4 Herne Bay, UK

1946/09/07 Edward M. Donaldson 615.78 990.79 Gloster Meteor F Mk4 Littlehampton, UK

Lockheed P-80R Shooting

1947/06/19 Col. Albert Boyd 623.74 1003.60 Muroc, California, USA
Star

1947/08/20 Cmdr. Turner Caldwell 640.663 1031.05 Douglas Skystreak Muroc, California, USA

1947/08/25 Major Marion E. Carl 650.796 1047.36 Douglas Skystreak Muroc, California, USA

1947 Chuck Yeager 670.0 1078.00 Bell X-1- Rocket powered* Muroc, California, USA

North American F-86A-3

1948 Richard L. Johnson, 670.84 1079.6 Cleveland, USA
Sabre

1952 J. Slade Nash 698.5 1,124.1 North American F-86D Sabre Salton Sea, USA

1953 William Barnes 715.7 1,151.8 North American F-86D Sabre Salton Sea, USA

1953/09/07 Neville Duke 727.6 1,171.0 Hawker Hunter F Mk3 Littlehampton, UK

1953/09/26 Mike Lithgow 735.7 1,184.0 Supermarine Swift F4 Castel Idris, Tripoli, Libya

1953/10/03 James B. Verdin, USN 752.9 1,211.5 Douglas F4D Skyray Salton Sea, USA

N. American F-100 Super

1953/10 Frank K. Everest 755.1 1,215.3 Salton Sea, USA
Sabre

From this point records are set at altitude and not sea level.

N. American F-100C Super

1955/10 Horace A. Hanes 822.1 1,323.0 Palmdale, USA
Sabre

1956/03/10 Peter Twiss 1,132 1,822.0 Fairey Delta 2 Chichester, UK

1957/12 USAF 1,207.6 1,943.5 McDonnell F-101A Voodoo Edwards AF Base, USA

1958/05 Cap. WW Irwin, USAF 1,404 2,259.5 Lockheed F-104C Starfighter Edwards AF Base, USA

1959/10/31 Col. Georgii Mosolov 1,484 2,388.0 Ye-66 (proto MiG-21) USSR

1959/12 Maj. Joseph Rogers 1,525.9 2,455.7 Convair F-106 Delta Dart Edwards AF Base, USA

1961/11/22 Robert G. Robinson 1606.3 2585.1 Modified M-D F-4 Phantom II Edwards AF Base, USA

1962/07/07 Col. Georgii Mosolov 1665.9 2681.0 Mikoyan Gurevich Ye-166 USSR

Robert L. Stephens & Daniel

1965/05/01 2,070.1 3,331.5 Lockheed YF-12A Edwards AFB, USA
Andre

Eldon W. Joersz & George T.

1976/07/28 2,193.2 3,529.6 Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird Beale AFB, USA
Morgan

*: Not an Official FAI record

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